Faculty of Engineering & Technology (Co-Edu.

)
B.Tech. 2024-25

Department of

Mechanical Engineering
3RD Semester -2024-25

MANUFACTURING PROCESS (22ME33)

Class Notes -Module-5
SPECIAL TYPES OF WELDING PROCESSES
& INSPECTION METHODS

Prepared by

PRASHANT MULGE
M.Tech. in AI & DS, Production Engg, (Ph.D)
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering & Technology (Co-Ed.)
Sharnbasva University Kalaburagi
Karntaka-India
Email: [email protected] Ph.No.: 80955 48003
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS (22ME33)-MODULE-V

CONTENTS
MODULE-5

SPECIAL TYPES OF WELDING

Resistance welding - principles, Seam welding, Butt welding, Spot welding
and projection welding. Friction welding, Explosive welding, Thermit
welding, Laser welding and Electron beam welding.

Inspection Methods: Methods used for Inspection of casting and welding.

Visual, Magnetic particle, fluorescent particle, Ultrasonic, Radiography,

Eddy current, Holography methods of Inspection.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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RESISTANCE WELDING
Resistance welding is a welding process where heat is generated at the interface of the parts
to be joined by passing an electric current through them under pressure. It is commonly used for
joining metals and relies on the principle of electrical resistance to produce localized heat. Below is
an overview of resistance welding:

SEAM WELDING:

Seam welding is a specialized type of resistance welding where a continuous weld is produced
along a joint by overlapping spot welds. It is commonly used to create leak-proof and strong joints
in metal sheets and is widely applied in industries like automotive, aerospace, and manufacturing.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

2
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Working Principle

1. Electrodes: Rotating copper wheel-shaped electrodes are used to pass current and apply
pressure simultaneously.
2. Material Feeding: The workpieces are placed between the electrodes, which continuously
rotate to feed the material through the welding zone.
3. Current Pulses: A controlled current is applied in pulses as the electrodes rotate, generating
heat at the interface.
4. Heat and Pressure: Localized heat melts the material, and pressure from the rotating wheels
ensures a solid weld upon cooling.
5. Continuous Joint: The overlapping spots form a continuous, leak-proof weld.

Key Parameters

1. Welding Current: Controls the amount of heat generated.

2. Electrode Speed: Determines the spacing of the weld nuggets and the overall quality of the
seam.
3. Pressure: Ensures proper contact between the workpieces.
4. Material Thickness: Influences the settings for current and speed.

Advantages

• Continuous Welds: Ideal for making liquid- or gas-tight joints.

• High Speed: Efficient for large production runs.
• Automation-Friendly: Can be easily integrated into production lines.
• No Filler Material: Uses only the parent material, reducing costs.

Disadvantages

• Limited to Thin Materials: Not suitable for very thick materials.

• Electrode Wear: Rotating electrodes wear out over time, requiring maintenance.
• High Initial Cost: Equipment setup can be expensive.
• Surface Preparation: Clean surfaces are essential for quality welds.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

3
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Applications

• Automotive: Welding fuel tanks, mufflers, and car bodies.

• Aerospace: Joining lightweight metal structures.
• Containers: Fabrication of liquid-tight drums, tanks, and pipes.
• Electrical Appliances: Seam welding in batteries and transformers.

BUTT WELDING

Butt welding is a resistance welding process used to join two metal pieces end-to-end by applying
heat and pressure. The edges of the workpieces are heated to their plastic or molten state using
electrical resistance, and pressure is applied to create a strong joint. It is widely used in
manufacturing pipelines, rods, and structural components.

Working Principle
1. Alignment: The ends of the workpieces are aligned and brought into close contact.
2. Current Application: An electric current is passed through the joint, causing resistance
heating at the interface.
3. Plastic/Molten State: The material at the interface heats up to a plastic or molten state due
to high resistance.
4. Pressure Application: Force is applied to the workpieces, forging them together as they
cool.
Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

4
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS (22ME33)-MODULE-V

Types of Butt Welding

1. Flash Butt Welding:

o The ends are brought into contact, and a high current creates flashes, cleaning the
surfaces by removing impurities.
o Pressure is applied after flashing, forming the joint.
o Suitable for joining large sections and ensuring high-quality welds.
2. Upset Butt Welding:
o Current and pressure are applied simultaneously until the material is plastically
deformed and joined.
o Primarily used for small cross-sectional components.

Advantages

• Strong Joint: Creates high-strength welds.

• No Filler Material: Eliminates the need for additional materials.
• Efficient: Quick and cost-effective for large-scale production.
• Clean Process: Minimal oxidation as impurities are expelled during flashing.

Disadvantages

• Limited Materials: Best suited for conductive metals with similar melting points.
• Surface Preparation: Proper alignment and surface cleanliness are essential.
• High Equipment Cost: Requires specialized machines for precise control of current and
pressure.

Applications

1. Pipelines: Welding sections of pipes for water, gas, or oil transport.

2. Wires and Rods: Joining wires, bars, and rods in electrical or construction industries.
3. Railways: Joining rail segments for tracks.
4. Automotive: Welding frames, shafts, and other components.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

5
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SPOT WELDING

Spot welding is a type of resistance welding used to join two or more metal sheets by applying heat
and pressure at localized points. It is one of the simplest and most commonly used welding
techniques, particularly in the automotive and electronics industries.

Working Principle

1. Clamping: Metal sheets are overlapped and placed between two copper alloy electrodes.
2. Current Application: A high electric current passes through the electrodes and the sheets,
generating heat due to electrical resistance.
3. Pressure Application: Simultaneously, the electrodes apply pressure to the sheets, forcing
the molten metal to fuse.
4. Cooling: The heat is stopped, and the weld cools under pressure, forming a strong nugget or
spot weld.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

6
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS (22ME33)-MODULE-V

Key Parameters

1. Welding Current: Determines the amount of heat generated.

2. Electrode Force: Ensures proper contact and fusion at the interface.
3. Weld Time: Controls how long the current is applied.
4. Material Thickness: Affects the required current and weld parameters.

Advantages

• Speed: Creates welds in milliseconds, making it ideal for high-volume production.

• Simplicity: No need for filler material, flux, or shielding gases.
• Clean Process: Minimal contamination or oxidation due to localized heating.
• Automation-Friendly: Easily integrated into robotic systems.

Disadvantages

• Limited to Thin Materials: Generally used for sheets up to 3 mm thick.

• Accessibility: Can only weld at spots accessible to electrodes.
• Electrode Maintenance: Electrodes wear out over time and require frequent replacement.

Applications

1. Automotive: Joining car body panels and frames.

2. Electronics: Welding battery tabs and small conductive parts.
3. Aerospace: Assembling lightweight structures.
4. Construction: Joining metal sheets for appliances and HVAC systems.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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PROJECTION WELDING

Projection welding is a specialized form of resistance welding in which heat is generated at specific
points using projections on one or both workpieces. These projections localize the heat and focus
the welding current, making the process highly efficient and suitable for creating multiple welds
simultaneously.

Working Principle

1. Projections Formation: Small raised points (projections) are created on the surface of one
or both workpieces. These act as localized contact points.
2. Clamping: The workpieces are aligned and clamped between two flat electrodes.
3. Current Application: A high electric current is passed through the electrodes, generating
heat at the projections due to high resistance.
4. Projection Collapse: The projections melt and collapse under pressure, forming welds at
the intended points.
5. Cooling: The molten metal solidifies under pressure to form strong weld joints.

Key Parameters

1. Projection Design: The size, shape, and location of the projections influence weld quality.
2. Welding Current: Controls the amount of heat generated.
3. Electrode Force: Ensures proper contact and collapse of the projections.
4. Weld Time: Affects the extent of heat and penetration.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

8
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS (22ME33)-MODULE-V

Advantages

• Multiple Welds: Several welds can be made simultaneously, increasing efficiency.

• Controlled Heat: Localized heat reduces distortion and warping of the workpiece.
• Strong Joints: Ensures uniform and high-quality welds at specific points.
• Versatility: Suitable for different material combinations and thicknesses.

Disadvantages

• Projection Formation: Requires additional steps to create projections on the workpiece.

• Electrode Wear: Flat electrodes may wear out faster due to repeated usage.
• Material Limitations: Best suited for conductive metals like steel, stainless steel, and some
aluminum alloys.

Applications

1. Automotive: Welding of nuts, bolts, brackets, and other fasteners to sheet metal.
2. Electrical Components: Assembly of motor components and battery grids.
3. Aerospace: Joining structural components requiring precision.
4. Appliances: Manufacturing of parts like metal casings, enclosures, and handles.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

9
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FRICTION WELDING

Friction welding is a solid-state welding process that joins materials by generating heat through
mechanical friction at the interface of two workpieces, followed by the application of pressure to
forge them together. No filler materials, flux, or external heat sources are required.

Working Principle

1. Friction Generation:
o One workpiece is rotated or oscillated relative to the other under pressure.
o Friction at the interface generates heat, softening the material.
2. Plastic Deformation:
o The materials at the interface reach a plastic state (not melting).
o Axial pressure is increased to remove impurities and create a strong bond.
3. Solid-State Joining:
o The rotation or oscillation stops, and the materials are forged together under pressure.
o The joint is allowed to cool under controlled conditions, forming a solid bond.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

10
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Key Parameters

1. Rotational Speed: Determines the rate of heat generation.

2. Friction Time: Controls the amount of heat produced.
3. Pressure: Ensures proper forging and material flow.
4. Material Compatibility: Both materials must have similar thermal and mechanical
properties.

Advantages

• No Melting: Solid-state process avoids defects like porosity or cracking associated with
fusion welding.
• No Consumables: Eliminates the need for filler materials or shielding gases.
• High Strength: Produces strong, reliable joints.
• Energy-Efficient: Utilizes mechanical energy rather than external heat sources.
• Dissimilar Materials: Can join materials with different properties (e.g., aluminum to steel).

Disadvantages

• Equipment Cost: Requires specialized, often expensive machinery.

• Shape Limitations: Limited to components with rotational symmetry (for rotary friction
welding).
• Pre-Weld Preparation: Surfaces must be clean and aligned for quality welds.
• Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ): May alter the material properties near the weld interface.

Types of Friction Welding

1. Rotary Friction Welding:

o One workpiece rotates while the other remains stationary.
o Commonly used for pipes, rods, and shafts.
2. Linear Friction Welding:
o Oscillating motion in a linear path instead of rotation.
o Used for aerospace and automotive applications.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

11
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3. Friction Stir Welding (FSW):

o A rotating tool with a pin and shoulder is plunged into the joint area, generating
frictional heat to soften and stir the material.
o Ideal for aluminum alloys and other soft materials.
4. Inertia Friction Welding:
o A flywheel stores kinetic energy to create the friction needed for welding.
o Common for joining heavy or large components.

Applications

1. Automotive:
o Welding drive shafts, axle components, and engine parts.
2. Aerospace:
o Joining dissimilar materials for lightweight components.
3. Oil and Gas:
o Joining drill pipes and casings.
4. Manufacturing:
o Producing tools, rods, and fasteners.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

12
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EXPLOSIVE WELDING

Explosive welding (EXW) is a solid-state welding process that uses controlled explosive energy to
bond two dissimilar or similar materials together. The process relies on the high velocity of impact
between the materials, generated by a detonation, to create a metallurgical bond without melting the
base materials.

Working Principle

1. Setup:
o The materials to be joined are positioned: one is the base plate, and the other is the
flyer plate.
o A precise layer of explosive material is spread over the flyer plate.
o A gap (standoff distance) is maintained between the two plates.
2. Detonation:
o The explosive material is ignited, creating a high-velocity shockwave.
o The flyer plate is accelerated toward the base plate at high speed.
3. Jetting Action:
o As the plates collide, a jet of metal (formed by high pressure) cleans the surfaces of
oxides and contaminants.
o The clean surfaces come into contact under extreme pressure, forming a strong
metallurgical bond.
Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

13
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4. Bond Formation:
o The bond typically has a wavy interface, which increases mechanical interlocking
and bond strength.
o The plates cool immediately after the impact.

Key Parameters

1. Explosive Type and Energy:

o The type and amount of explosive used control the velocity of the flyer plate.
2. Standoff Distance:
o The gap between the plates determines the quality of the bond.
3. Material Properties:
o Dissimilar materials with different melting points, densities, and properties can be
joined.
4. Collision Angle:
o The angle at which the plates collide affects the bond's interface and strength.

Advantages

• Dissimilar Material Joining: Easily joins materials that are otherwise difficult to weld,
such as titanium to steel or aluminum to copper.
• No Melting: Solid-state bonding avoids issues like porosity, cracking, or distortion.
• Strong Bonds: Produces high-strength joints with excellent fatigue and corrosion resistance.
• Large Surface Area: Can bond large plates or sheets in a single operation.

Disadvantages

• Explosive Handling: Requires careful handling and expertise in dealing with explosives.
• Environmental Impact: The process generates noise and shockwaves that can affect nearby
areas.
• Post-Weld Processing: May require additional processing (e.g., trimming, leveling) due to
deformation or uneven edges.
• Limited Geometries: Best suited for flat or simple curved surfaces.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

14
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Applications

1. Aerospace:
o Bonding lightweight, high-performance materials like aluminum and titanium.
2. Shipbuilding:
o Cladding of corrosion-resistant materials onto steel for hulls and tanks.
3. Oil and Gas:
o Cladding of stainless steel or nickel alloys on pipelines and pressure vessels.
4. Electronics:
o Joining dissimilar metals like aluminum and copper for electrical connectors.
5. Defense:
o Manufacturing high-strength, lightweight armor plating.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

15
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THERMIT WELDING

Thermit welding (TW) is a fusion welding process that uses an exothermic chemical reaction
(thermite reaction) to generate heat for joining metals. This process is especially effective for joining
large sections like rail tracks, pipes, and heavy machinery components. The weld is formed by
pouring molten metal, produced in the reaction, into a prepared joint.

Working Principle

1. Thermite Reaction:
o Thermite is a mixture of metal powder (usually aluminum) and a metal oxide
(commonly iron oxide).
o When ignited, the reaction produces molten metal and intense heat (~2500°C or
higher).
o The reaction:

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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2. Joint Preparation:
o The parts to be joined are aligned and a refractory mold is placed around the joint to
shape the weld.
3. Ignition:
o The thermite mixture is ignited using a magnesium strip or similar ignition source.
o The reaction produces molten iron and slag (aluminum oxide).
4. Pouring:
o The molten metal flows into the joint, fusing with the base materials.
o Slag, being less dense, floats to the surface and is removed.
5. Solidification:
o The joint cools and solidifies, forming a strong, high-quality weld.

Key Features

• Heat Source: Exothermic reaction, no external heat is required.

• Filler Material: Molten metal from the thermite acts as the filler.
• Welding Speed: The process is relatively quick but requires precise preparation.

Advantages

1. High Heat Output: Capable of welding large and thick sections.

2. No External Power: Ideal for fieldwork in remote locations.
3. Strong Welds: Produces high-strength joints with good metallurgical properties.
4. Simple Equipment: Requires basic tools for ignition and molding.

Disadvantages

1. Limited Applications: Primarily used for ferrous metals and large sections.
2. Pre-Weld Preparation: Requires precise alignment and mold setup.
3. High Temperature: Can lead to thermal stresses and distortion in surrounding material.
4. One-Time Use: Thermite reactions are single-use, making the process less flexible.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

17
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Applications

1. Railway Tracks:
o Commonly used for joining rail sections in situ.
2. Pipelines:
o Repairing and welding large-diameter pipes.
3. Heavy Machinery:
o Joining large components like gears, shafts, and casings.
4. Shipbuilding:
o Welding thick plates in ship structures.
5. Electrical Connections:
o Creating permanent connections in grounding systems.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

18
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LASER WELDING

Laser welding is a precise and efficient welding process that uses a highly focused laser beam as a
heat source to join materials. The process is commonly employed in industries requiring high-
quality, accurate welds, such as automotive, aerospace, electronics, and medical device
manufacturing.

Working Principle

1. Laser Beam Generation:

o A laser beam is generated using a laser source (e.g., solid-state, gas, or fiber laser).
o The beam is focused onto the material through optical components, creating a high-
energy density spot.
2. Heat Generation:
o The intense laser energy melts the material at the joint interface.
o The heat can be concentrated on a small area, minimizing distortion.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

19
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3. Material Fusion:
o The molten material solidifies to form a strong weld as the beam moves along the
joint.
o Shielding gases (like argon or helium) are often used to prevent oxidation.
4. Welding Modes:
o Conduction Mode: Heat is conducted through the material; used for thin materials.
o Keyhole Mode: Creates a deep, narrow weld by vaporizing material; used for thick
sections.

Types of Laser Welding

1. Continuous Wave (CW):

o Produces a steady laser output.
o Suitable for long, uninterrupted welds.
2. Pulsed Laser Welding:
o Emits laser pulses at intervals.
o Ideal for spot welding and delicate materials.

Advantages

1. Precision:
o High control over the weld area; suitable for intricate designs.
2. Speed:
o Faster welding compared to conventional methods.
3. Minimal Distortion:
o Low heat input reduces warping and distortion.
4. Versatility:
o Works with a wide range of materials, including dissimilar metals.
5. Automation-Friendly:
o Easily integrated into robotic systems for mass production.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

20
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Disadvantages

1. High Initial Cost:

o Equipment and setup are expensive.
2. Reflective Materials:
o Metals like aluminum and copper can reflect the laser, reducing efficiency.
3. Thickness Limitation:
o Less effective for very thick materials without multiple passes.
4. Safety Concerns:
o Requires proper shielding and precautions against laser exposure.

Applications

1. Automotive:
o Welding body panels, gear components, and battery housings.
2. Aerospace:
o Joining lightweight alloys and precision components.
3. Medical Devices:
o Fabricating surgical tools and implantable devices.
4. Electronics:
o Welding small, delicate components like sensors and circuits.
5. Jewelry:
o Repairing and manufacturing intricate pieces.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

21
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ELECTRON BEAM WELDING (EBM)

Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is a high-precision welding process that uses a focused beam of
high-velocity electrons to join materials. The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into heat
upon impact, causing the materials to melt and fuse together. This process is conducted in a vacuum
to prevent electron scattering.

Working Principle

1. Electron Generation:
o Electrons are emitted from a heated filament (cathode) in an electron gun.
o A high voltage accelerates the electrons to extremely high velocities.
2. Beam Focusing:
o Magnetic fields are used to focus the electron beam to a precise spot on the material.
3. Vacuum Chamber:
o The process is performed in a vacuum to ensure a clear electron path and prevent
oxidation or contamination.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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4. Heat Generation:
o When the electron beam strikes the material, its kinetic energy is converted into heat.
o The heat melts the material, creating a weld pool.
5. Fusion and Solidification:
o The molten material fuses and solidifies as the beam moves, forming a strong weld.

Key Features

• Vacuum Environment: Essential for beam focus and preventing contamination.

• Heat Source: Purely kinetic energy, with minimal heat-affected zones (HAZ).
• Penetration Depth: Can achieve deep, narrow welds in a single pass.

Advantages

1. Precision and Control:

o Highly accurate welds with minimal distortion.
2. Deep Penetration:
o Suitable for welding thick materials in a single pass.
3. Minimal Contamination:
o Vacuum environment ensures clean welds free from oxidation.
4. Dissimilar Materials:
o Can join metals with different melting points or properties.
5. Automation Compatibility:
o Easily integrated into automated systems for high production rates.

Disadvantages

1. High Equipment Cost:

o Requires expensive machinery and vacuum systems.
2. Vacuum Requirement:
o Welding must be conducted in a vacuum chamber, limiting part size.
3. Preparation Time:
o Vacuum creation and setup can be time-consuming.
4. Limited Material Thickness:
o Not ideal for very thin materials due to potential burn-through.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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Applications

1. Aerospace:
o Joining high-performance alloys for jet engines and spacecraft components.
2. Automotive:
o Welding transmission components and fuel injector parts.
3. Electronics:
o Fabricating sensors, circuit components, and connectors.
4. Medical Devices:
o Manufacturing implants, surgical tools, and precision instruments.
5. Nuclear Industry:
o Joining reactor components and radiation-resistant materials.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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INSPECTION METHODS
METHODS USED FOR INSPECTION OF CASTING AND WELDING

Inspection of Casting and Welding is crucial to ensure the integrity, safety, and performance of
the components in their respective applications. Various methods are employed to detect defects
such as cracks, voids, porosity, and inclusions that may compromise the structural integrity of cast
or welded materials.

METHODS FOR INSPECTION OF CASTINGS

1. Visual Inspection:
o Description: The most basic and common method, where the casting is inspected
visually for surface defects like cracks, porosity, surface finish, and alignment.
o Advantages: Quick, simple, and cost-effective.
o Limitations: Only detects surface defects, not internal issues.
2. Ultrasonic Testing (UT):
o Description: High-frequency sound waves are passed through the material, and the
reflected signals are analyzed to detect internal flaws, such as voids, cracks, and
inclusions.
o Advantages: Can detect internal defects, such as porosity and cracks, without
damaging the part.
o Limitations: Requires skilled operators and can be time-consuming for complex
geometries.
3. Radiographic Testing (RT):
o Description: Uses X-rays or gamma rays to penetrate the material and capture an
image on a film or digital sensor. The image reveals internal defects like voids,
cracks, and inclusions.
o Advantages: Effective for detecting internal defects in thick materials.
o Limitations: Requires specialized equipment and safety precautions due to
radiation. It is also time-consuming and expensive.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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4. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI):

o Description: A magnetic field is applied to the surface of the casting, and
ferromagnetic particles are sprayed on it. If there are any surface or near-surface
cracks, the magnetic field will leak, and the particles will accumulate, revealing the
defect.
o Advantages: Effective for detecting surface and near-surface defects.
o Limitations: Only works on ferromagnetic materials.
5. Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT):
o Description: A liquid dye is applied to the surface of the casting. After a waiting
period, excess dye is removed, and a developer is applied. Defects will reveal
themselves by showing traces of dye.
o Advantages: Simple, inexpensive, and effective for detecting surface cracks and
porosity.
o Limitations: Only detects surface defects and requires cleaning of the part after
inspection.
6. Eddy Current Testing (ECT):
o Description: Eddy currents are induced in the material, and the change in impedance
caused by defects is analyzed. This method is used to detect surface and near-surface
defects.
o Advantages: Non-destructive, no need for direct contact, and can detect surface and
subsurface defects.
o Limitations: Limited to conductive materials and requires calibration.
7. Hardness Testing:
o Description: Measures the hardness of the material, which can provide insights into
its strength and microstructure. It is often used to verify if the casting process was
correct.
o Advantages: Quick and easy to perform.
o Limitations: Indirectly detects casting defects and only evaluates mechanical
properties.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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METHODS FOR INSPECTION OF WELDS

1. Visual Inspection (VT):

o Description: Similar to casting, visual inspection is used to check the weld bead, the
geometry, alignment, and any visible surface defects like cracks, spatter, or undercut.
o Advantages: Fast, simple, and cost-effective.
o Limitations: Limited to surface defects, cannot detect internal issues.
2. Ultrasonic Testing (UT):
o Description: An ultrasonic probe is used to send sound waves into the weld. Defects
like cracks, voids, or lack of fusion are detected by analyzing the reflection patterns.
o Advantages: Non-destructive, can detect internal and near-surface defects in thick
welds.
o Limitations: Requires highly skilled technicians and can be time-consuming.
3. Radiographic Testing (RT):
o Description: X-rays or gamma rays are used to create images of the weld. The
radiograph can show internal defects like voids, cracks, porosity, and incomplete
fusion.
o Advantages: Effective for detecting internal defects.
o Limitations: Requires complex equipment, radiation safety precautions, and can be
expensive.
4. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI):
o Description: A magnetic field is applied to the welded material, and ferromagnetic
particles are used to detect surface and near-surface cracks or discontinuities.
o Advantages: Good for detecting surface and near-surface defects in ferromagnetic
materials.
o Limitations: Limited to ferromagnetic materials and only detects surface or near-
surface defects.
5. Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT):
o Description: A dye penetrant is applied to the weld, and any surface cracks or
porosity are revealed by the dye.
o Advantages: Inexpensive and effective for detecting surface defects like cracks,
porosity, and lack of fusion.
o Limitations: Only detects surface defects and may require cleaning before
inspection.
Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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6. Eddy Current Testing (ECT):

o Description: Eddy currents are induced in the weld area, and the impedance changes
are monitored to detect surface cracks or other discontinuities.
o Advantages: Non-destructive, no need for direct contact, and can detect surface and
near-surface defects.
o Limitations: Limited to conductive materials, and sensitivity can decrease with
increasing thickness of the weld.
7. Destructive Testing:
o Description: A sample from the welded component is cut and subjected to tests like
tensile, bend, or impact tests to assess the strength, ductility, and overall quality of
the weld.
o Advantages: Provides definitive results on the mechanical properties of the weld.
o Limitations: Destructive in nature, meaning the component is destroyed in the
process.
8. Hardness Testing:
o Description: Hardness testing can be applied to a welded area to assess its
microstructure and mechanical properties, which helps identify defects like soft spots
or brittle regions.
o Advantages: Easy to perform, can be applied to welds to check for proper hardness.
o Limitations: Only provides indirect information about weld quality.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

28
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VISUAL INSPECTION:

Visual Inspection (VT) is the most fundamental and widely used method for detecting surface
defects in both castings and welds. It involves a direct or aided observation of the material or part
to identify visible signs of issues like cracks, porosity, surface finish, alignment, and weld quality.
This inspection method can be performed with the naked eye or enhanced with the use of various
tools like magnifying glasses, borescopes, or cameras.

Process of Visual Inspection

1. Preparation:
o Cleaning: The surface must be cleaned of contaminants such as oil, dirt, rust, and

scale to allow for proper inspection.

o Lighting: Adequate lighting is essential to enhance the visibility of defects.
Specialized lighting, such as white light, UV light (for fluorescent penetrant testing),
or angled light, may be used.
o Positioning: The part may need to be positioned in different angles or orientations
to inspect all surfaces effectively.
2. Examination:
o The inspector visually examines the surface of the component or weld for defects,
such as:
▪ Cracks, surface pores, and voids
▪ Inconsistencies in weld bead size, shape, and penetration
▪ Surface finish irregularities
▪ Misalignment of parts or dimensional errors
▪ Spatter, undercuts, or lack of fusion in welds
3. Recording and Reporting:
o The inspector documents the location, type, and size of the defects. These findings
are recorded for further analysis or for inclusion in inspection reports.
o In more critical applications, photos or video recordings may be taken for
documentation.
4. Decision Making:
o Based on the findings, the inspector will determine whether the part meets the
specified standards and tolerances. If defects are detected, further non-destructive or
destructive testing methods may be employed to assess the severity of the defect.
Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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Advantages of Visual Inspection

1. Simplicity: No need for specialized equipment or technology, making it cost-effective and

accessible.
2. Speed: Can be performed quickly, allowing for rapid evaluation of the material or part.
3. No Material Damage: Non-destructive; parts remain unaltered after inspection.
4. Versatility: Applicable to all materials (metals, plastics, composites) and various types of
welding or casting processes.
5. Preliminary Check: Effective as a first step in quality control before more advanced testing
methods are employed.

Limitations of Visual Inspection

1. Surface Defects Only: It is limited to detecting visible or surface-level defects, such as

cracks, porosity, and misalignment. It cannot detect internal flaws like voids or inclusions.
2. Skill Dependent: The effectiveness of visual inspection is highly dependent on the skill and
experience of the inspector. Errors or missed defects may occur, especially in complex or
poorly accessible areas.
3. Inadequate for Complex Geometries: Parts with complex shapes, or those with limited
accessibility, can be difficult to inspect thoroughly with the naked eye.
4. Detection Range: Visual inspection may not detect small or hidden defects, such as
microscopic cracks or subsurface porosity.

Tools Used in Visual Inspection

1. Magnifying Glass or Jeweler’s Loupe:

o Used to inspect small defects like fine cracks, porosity, or surface roughness that are
not visible to the naked eye.
2. Borescope or Endoscope:
o A flexible tube with a camera that allows inspection of hard-to-reach areas (e.g.,
internal parts, pipe joints, or inside cavities).
3. Microscope:
o For high-magnification inspection of extremely small defects on the surface of
materials or welds.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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4. Camera or Video Systems:

o For documenting defects or conducting remote inspections, particularly in hazardous
environments.
5. Surface Cleaners:
o Cleaning agents or brushes are often used to ensure the surface is free from debris or
contaminants that could obscure defects.
6. Visual Aids (e.g., Templates, Magnification Lenses):
o For detecting dimensional inaccuracies or alignment issues, tools like templates and
magnifying lenses can help identify deviations from specified dimensions.

Applications of Visual Inspection

1. Weld Quality:
o Used to check for weld defects like cracks, undercuts, spatter, porosity, and bead
uniformity.
2. Casting Inspection:
o Applied to inspect surface irregularities, porosity, cracks, or shrinkage defects in
castings.
3. Dimensional Inspection:
o Ensuring parts are manufactured according to precise dimensions and alignment,
including checking for misalignment, gaps, or excess material.
4. Assembly Inspection:
o Verifying that components are assembled properly, with the correct fit, orientation,
and integrity.
5. Incoming Material Inspection:
o Ensuring that raw materials or parts received meet the necessary specifications and
are free from visible defects.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

31
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MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

Magnetic Particle Testing (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) method used to detect surface
and near-surface defects in ferromagnetic materials (like steel, iron, and certain alloys). It works by
applying a magnetic field to the material and then dusting it with ferrous particles, which accumulate
at areas of flux leakage caused by defects, such as cracks or voids.

Process of Magnetic Particle Testing

1. Preparation:
o The material is cleaned to remove any dirt, oil, or rust, which could interfere with
the inspection.
o A magnetic field is applied to the material using either a permanent magnet or an
electromagnet.
2. Application of Magnetic Particles:
o Dry or wet magnetic particles (usually coated with fluorescent or colored dye) are
applied to the surface.
o The particles are attracted to areas of flux leakage, such as cracks or surface defects.
3. Inspection:
o The inspector visually examines the surface to see where the magnetic particles have
accumulated, indicating the presence of cracks or other surface defects.
4. Demagnetization (if necessary):
o After inspection, the material is demagnetized to remove any residual magnetic field
that could affect its performance or function.

Advantages of Magnetic Particle Testing

1. Detects Surface and Near-Surface Defects: Ideal for finding cracks, porosity, and other
flaws near the surface.
2. Fast and Effective: Provides quick results, especially for large components.
3. Sensitive: Can detect small cracks and surface-breaking defects.
4. No Permanent Damage: Non-destructive and does not alter the material being tested.
5. Portable: Equipment can be easily transported to various sites.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

32
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Limitations of Magnetic Particle Testing

1. Material Restriction: Only works on ferromagnetic materials (iron, steel, etc.).

2. Surface Preparation: Requires proper cleaning of the part before testing, and surface
coatings (like paint) can interfere with the test.
3. Limited Depth Detection: Cannot detect defects below the surface or in non-ferromagnetic
materials.
4. Skill-Dependent: Requires trained personnel for accurate interpretation of results.

Applications of Magnetic Particle Testing

1. Weld Inspections: Detects cracks, porosity, or incomplete fusion in welds.

2. Casting Inspections: Identifies surface flaws such as shrinkage, cracks, or inclusions in cast
parts.
3. Maintenance and Repairs: Commonly used for checking the integrity of machinery,
pressure vessels, and structural components.
4. Aerospace, Automotive, and Manufacturing: Ensures the safety and quality of critical
components.

FLUORESCENT PARTICLE

Fluorescent Particles are a type of magnetic particle used in Magnetic Particle Testing (MPI),
especially in cases where high sensitivity and visibility are required. These particles are coated with
a fluorescent dye that glows under ultraviolet (UV) light, making them highly effective in detecting
small or fine surface defects, even in challenging lighting conditions.

How Fluorescent Magnetic Particles Work

1. Magnetic Field Application: A magnetic field is applied to the part being tested, which
magnetizes the surface and creates a flux leakage at any defects (e.g., cracks, voids).
2. Application of Fluorescent Particles: Fluorescent magnetic particles (either dry or
suspended in a liquid) are applied to the surface of the material. The particles are attracted
to areas of magnetic flux leakage, such as defects.
3. Inspection Under UV Light: The part is then inspected under ultraviolet (UV) light. The
fluorescent particles will glow brightly in the dark, making defects such as cracks, porosity,
or other surface imperfections highly visible against the dark background.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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4. Documentation: The inspector marks the areas where the particles have accumulated to
highlight the location and severity of the defects.

Advantages of Fluorescent Magnetic Particles

1. High Sensitivity: Fluorescent particles are more sensitive than regular (non-fluorescent)
particles, making them better at detecting fine or small surface defects.
2. Better Visibility: The glowing effect under UV light makes the defects easier to spot, even
in dark or low-light environments.
3. Improved Detection in Low Contrast: Fluorescent particles can reveal defects more
clearly in materials with dark or complex surfaces, where traditional particles may not be as
visible.
4. Effective in Difficult Lighting Conditions: The UV light makes the fluorescent particles
glow brightly, ensuring defects stand out clearly, even in challenging lighting situations.

Limitations of Fluorescent Magnetic Particles

1. UV Light Requirement: Requires a UV light source for proper inspection, which may not
always be readily available in some work environments.
2. Surface Preparation: The part must be thoroughly cleaned before testing, as dirt, oil, or
rust can interfere with the application of the particles.
3. Cost: Fluorescent particles tend to be more expensive than traditional dry or wet magnetic
particles, making them less economical for certain applications.
4. Material Limitation: Just like regular magnetic particles, they can only be used on
ferromagnetic materials (e.g., iron, steel).

Applications of Fluorescent Magnetic Particles

• Weld Inspections: To detect fine cracks or porosity in welds that are difficult to spot with
normal particles.
• Aerospace and Automotive: For inspecting critical components where small, invisible
defects can lead to failure.
• Manufacturing: Used for testing high-stress parts that require maximum sensitivity, such
as turbine blades or engine components.
• Pressure Vessels: Ensures the integrity of pressure vessel welds and castings, especially in
high-pressure or safety-critical applications.
Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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ULTRASONIC TESTING

Ultrasonic Testing (UT) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) method that uses high-
frequency sound waves to detect internal flaws or measure the thickness of materials. It is widely
used for inspecting welds, castings, and structural components for defects such as cracks, voids, or
inclusions.

How Ultrasonic Testing Works

1. Transducer: A transducer, which generates and receives high-frequency sound waves

(usually in the range of 0.1 to 25 MHz), is placed on the material’s surface. The transducer
both sends out the sound waves and listens for their echoes.
2. Sound Wave Propagation: The sound waves are directed into the material. As the waves
travel, they encounter various internal structures such as flaws, changes in material
properties, or boundaries between different materials (e.g., weld joints).
3. Reflection: When the sound waves hit a flaw (e.g., crack, void, or inclusion), part of the
energy is reflected back toward the transducer. The time it takes for the echoes to return,
along with the strength of the returned signal, provides information about the location, size,
and nature of the defect.
4. Analysis: The received echoes are displayed on an oscilloscope or a digital screen. The
inspector analyzes the pattern of echoes to determine whether there are any internal defects,
and if so, where they are located and how severe they might be.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

35
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Types of Ultrasonic Testing

1. Pulse-Echo Testing: The most common UT method, where a single transducer both sends
and receives sound waves. It detects flaws by analyzing the time it takes for the sound waves
to travel to the defect and back.
2. Through-Transmission Testing: In this method, two transducers are used—one to send the
sound waves and the other to receive them. It is typically used for thicker materials or
complex geometries to assess material thickness or detect large-scale flaws.
3. Phased Array Testing (PAUT): This advanced technique uses multiple elements in the
transducer to generate sound waves at different angles, creating a "scan" of the material. It
allows for more detailed inspection and can detect defects at various depths and orientations.
4. Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD): TOFD uses the diffraction of sound waves at the edge
of a crack or flaw to measure its size and location more accurately. It is highly effective for
detecting cracks or other features in welds and other structures.

Advantages of Ultrasonic Testing

1. Detects Internal Defects: Unlike surface-only methods like visual or magnetic particle
testing, UT can detect internal flaws such as cracks, voids, and inclusions.
2. High Sensitivity: UT is capable of detecting very small defects that may be missed by other
methods.
3. Quantitative Results: Provides precise measurements of the depth, size, and location of
defects, and can be used to measure material thickness.
4. No Surface Preparation: Unlike methods like magnetic particle testing, UT does not
require the surface to be clean, though it is beneficial.
5. Portable and Versatile: The equipment can be moved easily, and UT can be used on a wide
range of materials, including metals, plastics, and composites.
6. Non-Destructive: It does not damage the material being tested.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

36
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Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing

1. Material Restrictions: UT is best suited for materials that are good transmitters of sound,
such as metals. It is not effective for inspecting materials like rubber, glass, or certain
ceramics.
2. Surface and Geometry: UT is most effective on flat or cylindrical surfaces. Irregularly
shaped objects or materials with rough surfaces can be difficult to inspect.
3. Operator Skill: Accurate results depend heavily on the skill and experience of the
technician, as interpreting ultrasonic signals can be complex.
4. Coupling Requirement: A coupling agent (such as gel or water) is typically required
between the transducer and the material to ensure efficient sound transmission.
5. Limited Detection of Surface Defects: While UT is excellent for internal defects, it may
not always be the best method for detecting surface-breaking flaws unless combined with
other techniques like surface wave testing.

Applications of Ultrasonic Testing

1. Weld Inspections: Detects internal weld defects like lack of fusion, porosity, or cracks.
2. Thickness Measurement: Used to measure the thickness of materials (e.g., in pipes, tanks,
or pressure vessels) to assess corrosion or erosion.
3. Casting Inspections: Detects internal flaws in castings, such as voids, shrinkage, or
inclusions.
4. Aerospace and Automotive: Ensures the integrity of critical components like turbine
blades, aircraft fuselages, and engine parts.
5. Manufacturing and Maintenance: Used for quality control during production and for in-
service inspections of equipment like boilers, pipelines, and pressure vessels.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

37
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RADIOGRAPHY TESTING:

Radiographic Testing (RT) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) method that uses X-rays or
gamma rays to examine the internal structure of materials and detect defects such as cracks, voids,
inclusions, or porosity. It is commonly used for inspecting welds, castings, and other materials to
ensure their integrity without causing any damage to the parts being tested.

How Radiographic Testing Works

1. Radiation Source: A radiation source, typically an X-ray tube or a gamma ray source (like
cobalt-60 or iridium-192), is used to emit high-energy radiation.
2. Exposure: The radiation is directed toward the material being inspected. The material
absorbs some of the radiation depending on its density and thickness. Areas with flaws, such
as cracks or voids, allow more radiation to pass through than intact material.
3. Detection: The radiation passing through the material is captured on a photographic film or
a digital detector placed on the opposite side of the material. The differences in radiation
intensity create an image, where dark areas indicate lower radiation absorption (e.g.,
defects), and lighter areas indicate more radiation absorption (e.g., intact material).
4. Interpretation: The recorded image, called a radiograph, is examined to detect internal
defects. The inspector analyzes the density variations in the image to identify any anomalies
in the material’s structure.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

38
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Types of Radiographic Testing

1. X-ray Radiography:
o Uses X-rays, which are high-energy electromagnetic waves, to penetrate the material
and create an image of its internal structure.
o Commonly used in industries like aerospace, automotive, and manufacturing for
inspecting thick materials.
2. Gamma Ray Radiography:
o Uses gamma rays, which are similar to X-rays but have higher energy and longer
wavelengths. Gamma radiography is typically used for inspecting thicker materials
or larger components.
o Commonly used in oil and gas industries and for pipeline inspections.

Advantages of Radiographic Testing

1. Detects Internal Defects: Can identify internal flaws like cracks, voids, porosity, and
inclusions that are not visible on the surface.
2. Detailed Information: Provides a permanent record of the inspection, which can be
reviewed later for analysis.
3. Non-Destructive: Does not alter the part being inspected, so it can be used repeatedly.
4. Applicable to Various Materials: Works on a wide range of materials, including metals,
plastics, ceramics, and composites.
5. Inspection of Complex Geometries: Can be used to inspect complex shapes, such as pipes,
welds, and castings, without needing to dismantle them.

Limitations of Radiographic Testing

1. Material Thickness: The effectiveness of RT decreases with material thickness. Very thick
materials can require high radiation doses or longer exposure times.
2. Safety Concerns: X-rays and gamma rays are harmful to human health, so strict safety
protocols and shielding are required to protect inspectors and others in the vicinity.
3. High Cost: The equipment and operation of RT, including the need for specialized
personnel, can be expensive compared to other NDT methods.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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4. Limited Surface Defect Detection: While RT is effective for detecting internal flaws, it
may not be the best choice for surface-breaking defects, as these can be difficult to capture
with radiation.
5. Interpretation Complexity: Radiographs can sometimes be difficult to interpret, especially
for complex geometries or small defects, requiring experienced personnel.

Applications of Radiographic Testing

1. Weld Inspections: RT is commonly used to inspect welds for defects such as lack of fusion,
cracks, porosity, and incomplete penetration.
2. Casting Inspections: Detects internal defects like voids, shrinkage, and inclusions in
castings.
3. Pipeline Inspections: RT is widely used in the oil and gas industry to check the integrity of
pipelines, looking for internal flaws and ensuring safety.
4. Aerospace and Automotive: Critical components like turbine blades, engine parts, and
structural elements are inspected using RT to ensure safety and performance.
5. Manufacturing and Maintenance: Used for inspecting a variety of materials and products,
from structural components to safety-critical equipment.

Safety Considerations

• Radiation Exposure: RT involves the use of ionizing radiation, which can be hazardous.
Appropriate safety measures, such as shielding, warning signs, and radiation monitoring, are
essential.
• Qualified Personnel: Only certified and trained personnel are allowed to operate
radiographic equipment and interpret radiographs.
• Regulations: Various regulatory bodies, such as the American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (ASNT) and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), set guidelines for
radiographic testing practices to ensure safety.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

40
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EDDY CURRENT TESTING (ECT)

Eddy Current Testing (ECT) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) method that uses
electromagnetic induction to detect surface and near-surface defects in conductive materials. It is
commonly used for inspecting metals such as aluminum, copper, steel, and other alloys. Eddy
current testing is effective for detecting cracks, corrosion, and other material degradation in
materials without causing any damage.

How Eddy Current Testing Works

1. Electromagnetic Induction: A probe, usually equipped with a coil of wire, is placed near
the material being tested. An alternating current (AC) is passed through the coil, generating
a magnetic field that induces circulating currents (eddy currents) within the conductive
material.
2. Eddy Current Flow: The eddy currents flow in circular paths within the material. The
presence of defects (like cracks or corrosion) disrupts the flow of these currents, altering the
impedance (resistance to electrical flow) of the coil.
3. Detection of Changes: The probe detects these changes in impedance, which are then
measured and analyzed. Defects in the material will cause changes in the phase, magnitude,
or frequency of the eddy currents, allowing the inspector to identify the location and nature
of the defect.
4. Display of Results: The results are typically displayed on a screen in real-time, showing an
indication of any anomalies. The data can be interpreted visually, or sometimes through
digital readings or prints, depending on the equipment used.

Advantages of Eddy Current Testing

1. Sensitive to Surface and Near-Surface Defects: Eddy currents are very sensitive to small
surface defects, cracks, corrosion, and changes in material properties near the surface.
2. No Contact with Material: ECT does not require direct contact with the material being
tested, which makes it ideal for inspecting delicate or difficult-to-reach components.
3. Fast and Immediate Results: The method provides real-time feedback, allowing inspectors
to immediately assess the condition of the material.
4. Portable: Eddy current testing equipment is generally portable and can be used in the field
for on-site inspections.
Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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5. Capable of Thickness Measurement: Eddy current testing can also be used to measure the
thickness of materials or coatings, especially in situations where traditional methods like
ultrasonic testing may not be applicable.

Limitations of Eddy Current Testing

1. Material Limitations: Eddy current testing can only be used on conductive materials, such
as metals, and is not suitable for non-conductive materials like plastics, composites, or
ceramics.
2. Surface Preparation: The surface of the material should be clean and free of contaminants
(e.g., dirt, rust, or paint) to ensure accurate results. However, unlike ultrasonic testing, ECT
can often be performed on painted or coated surfaces.
3. Limited Depth Penetration: Eddy currents are primarily sensitive to surface and near-
surface defects, making it less effective for detecting deep flaws or assessing the internal
integrity of thick materials.
4. Conductivity Dependent: The effectiveness of eddy current testing can be influenced by
the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the material. Some materials may
need specialized probes or techniques for accurate inspection.
5. Skill Requirement: Interpreting the results of eddy current testing requires skilled personnel
who are trained to understand the complex signals and patterns.

Types of Eddy Current Testing

1. Surface Eddy Current Testing: This method focuses on detecting surface-breaking defects
such as cracks, pits, or corrosion. It is typically used for inspecting thin-walled materials,
coatings, and surface finishes.
2. Eddy Current Array (ECA): This advanced technique uses an array of coils to scan larger
areas more quickly and efficiently. It allows for multi-channel measurement, improving the
inspection speed and coverage.
3. Eddy Current for Thickness Measurement: Eddy current can be used to measure the
thickness of non-ferrous coatings on metal substrates or to measure the thickness of a
material (such as aluminum) in a non-destructive manner.
4. Eddy Current for Conductivity Measurement: This technique assesses the material's
conductivity to detect changes in material properties or degradation (e.g., from heat
treatment or corrosion).
Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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Applications of Eddy Current Testing

1. Aerospace: Used for inspecting aircraft fuselages, turbine blades, and other components for
surface cracks, corrosion, and wear.
2. Automotive: Commonly used for inspecting critical parts such as engine components,
wheels, and structural elements for surface defects and cracks.
3. Power Generation: Used for inspecting heat exchangers, turbine blades, and generator
components to detect fatigue or corrosion damage.
4. Oil and Gas: Eddy current testing is used for inspecting pipelines, pressure vessels, and
other critical components for corrosion, cracks, and other degradation.
5. Manufacturing: Applied in quality control during production to ensure the integrity of
materials and components.
6. Nuclear Industry: Used for inspecting reactor components and other critical parts for
surface degradation or material defects.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

43
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HOLOGRAPHY METHOD OF INSPECTION

Holography is an advanced non-destructive testing (NDT) technique that uses the principles
of light interference and diffraction to create three-dimensional images of an object’s surface,
capturing its shape and any deformations that may occur due to stress or defects. This method
provides high-resolution, detailed inspection results, making it particularly useful for identifying
minute surface flaws, strain distributions, or structural distortions.

How Holography Works

1. Light Source and Interference: In holographic inspection, a coherent light source (such as
a laser) is used to illuminate the object being tested. The laser light is split into two beams:
o Reference Beam: A beam that directly illuminates the photographic plate or digital
sensor.
o Object Beam: A beam that strikes the object and then reflects toward the sensor.
2. Recording the Hologram: The two beams (reference and object) meet on the photographic
plate or digital sensor, creating an interference pattern. This pattern is recorded as a
hologram, which contains information about the object's surface.
3. Reconstruction of the Image: To view the object, the recorded hologram is illuminated
with the reference beam. This reconstructs the light waves that were reflected from the
object, producing a 3D image that displays the surface’s shape and any deformations.
4. Dynamic Holography: In some applications, changes over time can be recorded by
comparing holograms taken at different stages (before and after applying stress or loading).
The phase differences between the holograms reveal deformations or distortions in the
material, indicating the presence of defects or weaknesses.

Types of Holographic Inspection

1. Static Holography: Used to record and inspect the static surface profile of an object. It helps
detect surface deformations or distortions due to manufacturing defects, wear, or other
imperfections.
2. Dynamic Holography: In this type, the object is subjected to stress or deformation during
inspection (such as vibration, pressure, or thermal loading). The resulting holographic
images help visualize the object's behavior under these conditions and can reveal cracks,
fatigue, or stress concentration areas that are difficult to detect with traditional methods.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

44
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3. Digital Holography: Instead of using traditional photographic plates, digital holography

captures the interference pattern on a digital sensor (such as a CCD camera). This modern
technique allows for real-time inspection and is easier to analyze through computer software.

Advantages of Holography in NDT

1. High Precision and Sensitivity: Holography can detect even minute surface defects, such
as cracks, distortions, or micro-deformations, with high precision. It provides 3D imaging
of surface deformations with micrometer-level accuracy.
2. No Contact with the Object: The method is non-contact, meaning it does not alter or
damage the material being inspected. This is particularly useful for fragile or delicate
components.
3. Real-Time and Dynamic Analysis: Dynamic holography can provide real-time inspection
results while the object is subjected to loading, vibration, or other stresses, offering detailed
insights into material behavior under different conditions.
4. High Resolution: The interference patterns in holography provide high spatial resolution,
making it effective for detecting surface features that may be undetectable by other NDT
methods.
5. 3D Imaging: Holography produces a full three-dimensional image, which provides a better
understanding of the object’s surface profile and any defects or deformations.

Limitations of Holography

1. Complex Equipment: The setup for holographic inspection can be complex and requires
specialized equipment such as lasers, optical systems, and sensors. It also requires trained
operators to interpret the results accurately.
2. Surface Condition: The effectiveness of holography depends on the surface condition of
the object. Smooth, reflective surfaces are ideal for obtaining clear results, but rough or
highly absorptive surfaces may produce less accurate holograms.
3. Limited to Surface Defects: Holography primarily detects surface defects or deformations.
While it is excellent for visualizing surface features, it cannot detect internal flaws or defects
that are hidden within the material.
4. High Cost: The equipment and technology required for holographic inspections are often
expensive, limiting its widespread use in industries with smaller budgets.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

45
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS (22ME33)-MODULE-V

Applications of Holography in NDT

1. Aerospace: Holography is used to inspect aircraft components, such as wings, fuselages,

and turbine blades, for cracks, deformations, and other structural issues. It can also be used
to monitor the behavior of components under stress or vibration.
2. Automotive: Automotive manufacturers use holography for inspecting parts like engine
components, body panels, and suspension systems for surface defects, material fatigue, and
stress concentrations.
3. Material Science: Holography helps researchers study the mechanical properties and
behavior of materials, including the effects of stress, strain, and temperature changes. It can
be used to examine materials under load or during dynamic tests.
4. Civil Engineering: It is applied to the inspection of structures such as bridges, dams, and
buildings to detect any structural deformations or flaws that may compromise safety.
5. Precision Manufacturing: In industries where high-precision components are made (e.g.,
electronics, microelectronics, or semiconductor manufacturing), holography can be used to
detect surface defects that may affect the performance or integrity of the product.

Prepared by: PRASHANT MULGE, Assistant Professor, M.Tech. in AI & DS and PE, (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburgi, Karnataka
2024-25

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