THE CELL

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
◼ At the end of the discussion, the students can:
1. Differentiate prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
2. Describe the structure and function of animal and plant
cell organelles.
3. Describe some cell modifications that carry out
specialized functions (e.g. flagellum, cilium and root hair)
TWO MAIN CLASSES OF CELL

PROKARYOTIC VS.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
TYPES OF CELLS
Cells can be subdivided into the following
subcategories:
1. Prokaryotes: prokaryotes lack a nucleus (though
they do have circular DNA) and other
membrane-bound organelles (though they do
contain ribosomes). Bacteria and archaea are two
domains of prokaryotes.
TYPES OF CELLS

2. Eukaryotes: have distinct nuclei bound by a

nuclear membrane and membrane-bound
organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes,
rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
vacuoles). In addition, they possess organized
chromosomes which store genetic material.
PROKARYOTIC CELL

no nucleus
simpler structure
(bacteria)
EUKARYOTIC CELL

contains nucleus
more complex structure
(protists, fungi, plants &
animals)
PARTS OF THE CELL AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS
CELL

◼ All the processes that occur with an organism

are supported by the cell.
◼ The cell contains different parts, called
organelles, which carry out different functions.
CELL MEMBRANE

◼ Composed of a phospholipid bilayer embedded

with proteins and carbohydrates.
◼ It is semipermeable, which means that not
everything can enter or pass through it.
STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE
CELL MEMBRANE
◼ Substances that are absorbed and excreted by the cell
must pass through the cell membrane.
◼ The proteins in the phospholipid bilayer, which are called
membrane proteins, can participate in the transport of
molecules.
◼ These membrane proteins allow the entry or exit of
molecules that do not easily cross the phospholipid
bilayer.
MEMBRANE PROTEINS
CELL MEMBRANE
◼ In the cell membrane are several specialized
finger-like folds called microvilli, which mainly
increase the surface area of the cell.
◼ These parts enable the cell to perform several
functions depending on the type and location of
the cell.
MICROVILLI
◼ Example:
◼ The microvilli in the epithelial cells increase the
capability of the internal surface of the animal
intestine to absorb nutrients from food.
◼ Microvilli can also be found on the surfaces of
egg cells and white blood cells.
MICROVILLI

White blood cell

CYTOPLASM
◼ It is enclosed within the cell membrane.
◼ It contains semi-fluid substance called cytosol, where the
different organelles are suspended.
◼ Within the cytosol are different substances such as
electrolytes (substances that produce electrically
conducting solutions), metabolites (substances produced
during metabolism), ribonucleic acid (RNA), and
synthesized proteins.
CYTOSOL

◼ Site of many physiological processes such as

glycolysis (conversion of glucose into another
form) and protein and fat synthesis.
IMPORTANT ROLES OF CYTOPLASM

◼ It is where the molecules first pass through

after entering or before exiting the cell
membrane.
◼ The organelles can move within and around
the cytoplasm.
CYTOSKELETON
◼ Three (3) Major Filaments:
◼ Microfilament
◼ Microtubule
◼ Intermediate filament
MICROFILAMENT

◼ Has a diameter of about 7 nanometers (nm)

and is mainly composed of a contractile
protein called actin.
MICROTUBULE

◼ Has a diameter of about 25 nm and is

composed of globular proteins called tubulins
(particularly, the alpha and beta tubulins)
◼ It helps form the shape of the cell, as well as
track the movement of the organelles.
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT
◼ About 10nm in diameter and is the most
stable and least soluble constituent of the
cytoskeleton.
◼ It provides tensile strength in the cell.
◼ Tensile strength refers to the maximum stress
that an object can withstand before it breaks.
CYTOSKELETON
CENTRIOLES
◼ During cell division, the microtubules eventually
arrange themselves in a specific manners to form
centrioles.
◼ They help in the separation and transfer of the
replicated genetic materials in the cells called
chromosomes.
CENTRIOLES
◼ Usually surrounded by the pericentriolar materials.
◼ The centrioles, together with the pericentriolar
materials, form the structure of the centrosome,
the place where microtubules get organized.
◼ The pericentriolar material contains proteins that
enable the growth of microtubules, leading to the
formation of spindle fibers.
CENTRIOLES
CENTRIOLES
◼ The activity of the centrioles affects the nuclear
chromosome number. If the centrioles do not produce
the needed spindle fibers, the duplicated chromosomes
will not be separated during cell division. As a result, the
daughter cells produced by cell division through mitosis
may not have the same number of chromosomes as the
parent cell. Conversely, the daughter cells produced by
cell division through meiosis may not have half the
chromosomes.
NUCLEUS
◼ Serves as the control center of the cell, because it is where
most of the genetic processes take place.
◼ Parts of the nucleus:
◼ Nuclear envelope
◼ Perinuclear space
◼ Nucleoplasm
◼ Chromatin
◼ Nucelar pores
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
◼ The boundary of the nucleus, composed of
the outer and inner nuclear membranes.
◼ In between the membranes is the perinuclear
space.
◼ Inside the nuclear envelope is the
nucleoplasm.
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

◼ Within the nucleoplasm are strands of

chromatin, which is a combination of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and proteins.
◼ Substances that move in and out of the
nucleus pass through the envelope’s nuclear
pores.
NUCLEUS
NUCLEOLUS
◼ A membrane-free organelle found inside the nucleus.
◼ Usually spherical in shape.
◼ Contains fibrils an granules.
◼ The fibrils contain DNA coding for ribosomal RNA
(rRNA).
◼ The granules contain rRNA molecules with proteins
coming from the cytoplasm.
NUCLEOLUS
◼ Important in creating ribosomes, which are sites of
protein synthesis.
◼ The rRNA produced by the nucleolus, together
with the protein exported from the cytoplasm,
produce the ribosomal unit (large and small
subunit).
RIBOSOMES

◼ Small, dense structures that help in the assembly of

proteins in the cell.
◼ May be found freely in the cytoplasm, attached to
the endoplasmic reticulum or as a polyribosome, a
series of ribosomes attached to MRNA.
RIBOSOMES
RIBOSOMES
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
◼ A membrane-bound organelle that forms a
network of interconnected sacs called cisterna.
◼ In between its mebranes is the lumen, or the
cisternal spoace.
◼ The membrane of the ER is connected to the
nuclear envelope, runs through the cytoplasm and
may also extend into the cell membrane.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
◼ When ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum, it gives a rough appearance; hence the
ER is called rough endoplasmic reticulum.
◼ When ribosomes are not present in the ER, its
appearance is smooth, and is thus called smooth
endoplasmic reticulum.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
ROUGH ER

◼ Produces proteins.
◼ In the pancreas and the digestive tract, proteins in
the form of enzymes break down food.
◼ These proteins move to Golgi apparatus for
modification, packaging, and distribution.
SMOOTH ER

◼ Produces lipids.
◼ Phospholipids make up the bilayer of the cell
membrane, whereas the cholesterol regulates the
cell membrane’s fluidity.
◼ Detoxifies the cell of certain substances
GOLGI BODIES

◼ Two faces in the Golgi bodies:

◼ Cis face – the part facing the ER
◼ Trans face – facing the cytoplasm or cell
membrane
GOLGI BODIES
◼ Work closely with the ER.
◼ The substance produced in the ER (e.g. protein)
enter its lumen, which is the space inside the
organelle.
◼ The substance then pinches off to become a
vesicle.
GOLGI BODIES
◼ The vesicle moves toward the cis face.
◼ The Golgi bodies may modify the substance in the
vesicle by putting “tags” so that the substance will
be recognized and accepted in their respective
designations.
◼ Once ready, the vesicles containing the modifies
substance exit at the trans face.
GOLGI BODIES
LYSOSOMES
◼ A membrane bound organelle that originated from the
endoplasmic reticulum.
◼ Has a hydrolytic enzymes (proteins that use water to
break down substances) that serve several functions:
◼ Digest food
◼ Recycle old components of the cell
◼ Kill invading microorganisms
LYSOSOMES
◼ The digested food and recycled components are
released into the cytosol to be used by the cell.
◼ The indigestible food stays in the lysosomes, which
eventually become the residual bodies. Residual bodies
can be eliminated by exocytosis.
◼ The lysosome can also fuse with phagosomes, which are
vesicles containing microorganisms (e.g. bacteria).
LYSOSOMES
◼ The lysosomes releases its hydrolytic enzymes to
the phagosome, killing the microorganisms inside.
◼ In the process, debris can be released, which can
stimulate the immune system to remember the
microorganisms. The next time the same organisms
get into the cell, the protective reaction of the cell
will be faster.
LYSOSOME
◼ Lysosomal membrane contains a special
carbohydrate covering its inner surface. This
prevents the lysosome from releasing the
hydrolytic enzymes all at once. If this happens, the
cell may be killed. This is why the lysosome is also
called the “suicide bag” of the cell.
LYSOSOMES
MITOCHONDRION
◼ A double membrane organelle.
◼ The outer covering serves as its covering, while
the inner membrane is folded many times to
create the cristae.
◼ Inside the cristae is the matrix that contains
different enzymes.
MITOCHONDRION

◼ Responsible for producing adenosine

triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of
the cell.
MITOCHONDRION
FLAGELLA AND CILIA
◼ Appendages responsible for locomotion of cells.
◼ Their locomotive action is due to the specialized
arrangement of microtubules.
◼ Both have the central core called the axoneme,
which is surrounded by an extension of the cell
membrane.
FLAGELLA AND CILIA

◼ Flagellum moves in a whiplike manner such as

that of Euglena, a protist.
◼ Cilia require power and recovery strokes, as
in the swimming movement of the
Paramecium, a protist.
FLAGELLA AND CILIA

Paramecium

Euglena
FLAGELLA AND CILIA
◼ In humans, the flagella and the cilia are important in
reproduction.
◼ In males, sperm cells have flagella that enable them
to swim. A perm cell uses its flagellum to reach the
egg.
◼ In females, the cilia in the fallopian tubes help move
the egg or embryo toward the uterus.
PLANT CELL
CELL WALL
◼ In plant cells, there is an additional cell covering called the cell
wall.
◼ It is located outside the cell membrane and is primarily made of
cellulose.
◼ Cellulose is a polysaccharide, which is a substance composed of
a long chain of carbohydrates.
◼ The cell wall maintains the shape of the plant, protects the cell
and help regulate the cell’s uptake of water.
CELL WALL
◼ Primary cell walls and secondary cell walls
◼ Lignin – a substance which is the primary
component of the wood.
◼ Plasmodesmata – channels in the cell wall that
allow the exchange of substances between
adjacent cells.
CELL WALL
CELL WALL

◼ Cells of other organisms may also have cell

walls. Those that are found in bacteria are
made up of peptidoglycan, whereas those
found in fungi are mainly made of chitin.
PEPTIDOGLYCAN

◼ Composed of amino acids and sugars.

◼ The peptidoglycan in the cell walls of bacteria give
their structure and provide protection.
◼ The presence of such can be identified using a
Gram stain.
PEPTIDOGLYCAN

◼ Gram-positive bacteria (those showing a

darker color in the microscope) have thicker
layers of peptidoglycan than Gram-negative
bacteria (those showing a lighter color in the
microscope).
GRAM-POSITIVE AND GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA
CHITIN
◼ A nitrogen-containing polysacharride similar
to cellulose.
◼ It forms a semi-transparent substance.
◼ The chitin in the cell walls of fungi cells serves
as structural support.
ROOT HAIRS

◼ Some cells in plant roots have extensions.

◼ These extensions are specialized structures called
root hairs.
◼ Root hairs increase the surface area of the roots
for better absorption of water and minerals.
ROOT HAIRS
CHLOROPLAST
◼ Plant can make their own food through a process
called photosynthesis, a series of chemical
reactions using sunlight to convert carbon dioxide
and water to glucose.
◼ Glucose can either be stored as starch or be used
in respiration.
◼ Oxygen is the by-product of photosynthesis.
CHLOROPLAST
◼ Double membrane organelle.
◼ Inside the chloroplast is the stroma (stromata), a
colorless fluid surrounding several grana.
◼ Each granum contains several stacks of thykaloids.
◼ These thykaloids contain chlorophyll, which the
green pigment responsible for capturing light
energy during photosynthesis.
CHLOROPLAST
◼ Chlorophyll is also responsible for the plant’s green
color.
◼ The lumen is the space inside the thykaloid, which
serves as the site of several reactions during
photosynthesis.
◼ Each granum is connected to one another via the
intergrana thykaloid or the stroma thykaloids.
CHLOROPLAST
VACUOLE
◼ Animals and plants have vacuoles, but the vacuoles
of the plants are usually larger and are thus
observed more easily when viewed under the
microscope.
◼ In most mature plant cells, the vacuole that
occupies the largest space is called the central
vacuole. It is surrounded by a membrane called the
tonoplast.
VACUOLE
◼ In animals, vacuole serves as the temporary
storage of substances.
◼ In plants, the central vacuole’s main function is to
maintain turgor pressure to keep the cell from
wilting.
◼ Turgor pressure is the pressure exerted onto the
cell wall by water moving into the cell.
VACUOLE

Central vacuole

Cell wall
SIMILARITIES

◼ Both are eukaryotic

◼ Both have nucleus with DNA materials
◼ Both have cell membrane
◼ Both have cytoplasm
SIMILARITIES

◼ Both have these organelles (Golgi apparatus,

endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, ribosomes,
mitochondria)
DIFFERENCES
Plants have :
1. Cell wall
- it is the outermost covering of the plant cell
- a rigid structures made of cellulose
2. Central vacuole - holds water
3. Chloroplast - for photosynthesis