03/09/2024

Heat Transfer
Engr. Shirley C. Pagsinuhin, RMEE, CWI

What is heat? What is

The form of energy that can be
transferred from one system to
temperature?
another as a result of It is the measure of average
temperature difference kinetic energy of particles in a
substance

Heat is NOT Temperature

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Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Thermodynamics Heat Transfer

 Concerned with the amount of heat  Concerned about the rate of heat
transfer as a system undergoes a transfer (heat transfer per unit time) to
process from one equilibrium state to and from a system and thus the time of
another. cooling or heating, as well as the
variation of the temperature
 Example:
 Example:
We can determine the amount of
But a typical user or designer of a
heat transferred from a thermos bottle as
thermos is primarily interested in how long
the hot coffee inside cools from 90°C to
it will be before the hot coffee inside cools
80°C by a thermodynamic analysis. to 80°C.

Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Thermodynamics Heat Transfer

 deals with equilibrium states and  deals with systems that lack thermal
changes from one equilibrium state to equilibrium, and thus it is a non-
another. equilibrium phenomenon.

 the laws of thermodynamics lay the  the study of heat transfer cannot be
framework for the science of heat based on the principles of
transfer. thermodynamics alone.

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Application Areas of Heat Transfer

H E A T
The Human Body Household Appliances Automotive Power Plant

Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction Convection Radiation

• is the transfer of energy from • is the mode of heat transfer • is the energy emitted by
the more energetic particles between a solid surface and matter in the form of
of a substance to the the adjacent liquid or gas electromagnetic waves (or
adjacent, less energetic ones that is in motion, and it photons) as a result of the
as a result of interactions involves the combined changes in the electronic
between the particles. effects of conduction and configurations of the atoms
fluid motion. or molecules.

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Conduction
 Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic
particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a
result of interactions between the particles.

 Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.

 In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion

of the molecules during their random motion.

 In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules

in a lattice and the energy transport by free electrons.

Example:

 A cold canned drink in a warm room eventually warms up to the

room temperature as a result of heat transfer from the room to the
drink through the aluminum can by conduction.

Conduction
 Fourier’s law

where:

q” = heat flux (W/m² or BTU/hr-ft²)

= heat transfer rate in the x direction per unit area perpendicular to the
direction of heat transfer and it is proportional to the
temperature gradient , dT/dx, in this direction.

k = proportionality constant known as thermal conductivity, (W/m-K or

BTU/hr-ft-R)

The negative sign is a consequence of the fact that heat is transferred in the
direction of decreasing temperature.

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Conduction
Under the steady state conditions shown in Figure 1.0, where
the temperature distribution is linear, the temperature
gradient may be expressed as:

Then the heat flux, q” is expressed as:

Note:
This equation if for heat flux, that is, the rate of heat transfer per
unit area.
Figure 1.0
One dimensional heat For heat rate of conduction, the equation is:
transfer by conduction
(diffusion of energy)

Conduction
Thermal conductivity of a material

 can be defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit

thickness of the material per unit area per unit
temperature difference.

 It is a measure of the ability of the material to conduct

heat.

 A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that the

material is a good heat conductor

 A low value for thermal conductivity indicates that the

material is a poor heat conductor or insulator.

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Example 1

The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15 m thick

fireclay brick having a thermal conductivity of 1.7 W/m-K.
Measurements made during steady-state operation reveal
temperatures of 1400 K and 1150 K at the inner and outer surfaces,
respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through a wall that is 0.5m
by 1.2 m on a side?

Example 1
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15 m thick fireclay brick having a thermal
conductivity of 1.7 W/m-K. Measurements made during steady-state operation reveal temperatures of 1400
K and 1150 K at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through a wall that
is 0.5m by 1.2 m on a side?

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Example 2

A heat rate of 3 kW is conducted through a section of an insulating

materials of cross sectional area 10 m² and thickness of 2.5 cm. If the
inner (hot) surface temperature is 415°C and the thermal conductivity
of the material is 0.2 W/m·K, what is the outer surface temperature?

Example 3

The 5-mm-thick bottom of a 200-mm-diameter pan may be made from

aluminum (k = 240 W/m·K) or copper (k = 390 W/m·K). When used to
boil water, the surface of the bottom exposed to the water is nominally
at 110°C. If heat is transferred from the stove to the pan at a rate of
600 W, what is the temperature of the surface in contact with the stove
for each of the two materials?

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Convection

 Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a

solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion, and it involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.

 The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection

heat transfer. In the absence of any bulk fluid motion,
heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent
fluid is by pure conduction.

Convection
Types of Convection

 Forced convection

- the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by

external means such as a fan, pump, or the wind.

 Natural or Free convection

- if the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces

that are induced by density differences due to the
variation of temperature in the fluid.

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Convection
Newton’s Law of Cooling

Where:

q” – convective heat flux (W/m² or BTU/ft²)

h – convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m²-K or BTU/hr-ft²-R)

𝑇 - surface temperature

𝑇 - fluid temperature

Convection
Heat transfer coefficient (h)

 is not a property of the fluid.

 It is an experimentally determined parameter

whose value depends on all the variables
influencing convection such as the surface
geometry, the nature of fluid motion, the
properties of the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity.

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Example 4
Hot air at 80°C is blown over a 2 m x 4 m flat surface at 30°C. If the
average convection heat transfer coefficient is 55 W/m² · °C, determine
the rate of heat transfer from the air to the plate, in kW.

Given: Solution:
𝑇 = 80°𝐶
𝑇 = 30°𝐶 𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝐴 = 2 𝑚 𝑥 4 𝑚 = 8𝑚²
𝑞 = 55 𝑊/𝑚² · °C (8𝑚²)(80 – 30)°C
ℎ = 55 𝑊/𝑚² ·°C
1 𝑘𝑊
Required: 𝑞 = 22000 𝑊 𝑥
1000 𝑊
q in kW 𝒒 = 𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝑾

Example 5

For heat transfer purposes, a standing man can be modeled as a 30-

cm-diameter, 170-cm-long vertical cylinder with both the top and
bottom surfaces insulated and with the side surface at an average
temperature of 34°C. For a convection heat transfer coefficient of 15
W/m² · °C, determine the rate of heat loss from this man by convection
in an environment at 20°C.

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Example 5
For heat transfer purposes, a standing man can be modeled as a 30-cm-diameter,
170-cm-long vertical cylinder with both the top and bottom surfaces insulated and
with the side surface at an average temperature of 34°C. For a convection heat
transfer coefficient of 15 W/m² · °C, determine the rate of heat loss from this man by
convection in an environment at 20°C.

Given: Solution:
𝑇 = 34°𝐶 𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝑇 = 20°𝐶
𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝜋𝐷𝐻
𝐷 = 30 𝑐𝑚 = 0.3 𝑚
𝐴 = 𝜋 0.3 𝑚 1.7 𝑚 = 0.51𝜋 𝑚²
𝐻 = 170 𝑐𝑚 = 1.7 𝑚
𝑞 = 15 𝑊/𝑚² · °C (0.51𝜋²)(34 – 20)°C
ℎ = 15 𝑊/𝑚² ·°C
𝒒 = 𝟑𝟑𝟔. 𝟒𝟔𝟒𝟔 𝑾
Required:
𝑞 − 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

Radiation
 Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form
of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations

 Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of

energy by radiation does not require the presence of an
intervening medium

 In fact, energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the

speed of light) and it suffers no attenuation in a
vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the
earth.

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Radiation
 Thermal radiation

-is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of

their temperature.

-It differs from other forms of electromagnetic

radiation such as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves,
radio waves, and television waves that are not related
to temperature

- All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero

emit thermal radiation

Radiation
 The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted
from a surface is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law

Where:

𝐸 - Emissive power of a black body

𝑇 - absolute temperature of the surface, K or R

σ – Stefan Boltzmann constant

 The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a blackbody,
and the radiation emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation.

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Radiation
 The heat flux emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation
emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed as

Where:

E = Emissive power or the rate at which thermal energy is

released per unit area

ε – radiative property of the surface termed the emissivity

𝑇 - absolute temperature of the surface, K or R

σ – Stefan Boltzmann constant

Radiation
 Emissivity, ε

- this property provides a measure of how

efficiently a surface emits energy relative to a
black body.

- is a measure of how closely a surface

approximates a blackbody for whose
emissivity is equal to 1.

- value of emissivity ranges from 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1

- depends strongly on the surface material and

finish

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Radiation
 Radiation may also be incident on a surface from its
surroundings.

 The radiation may originate from a special source,

such as the sun, or from other surfaces to which the
surface of interest is exposed.

 Irradiation, G

- the rate at which all such radiation is incident on a

unit area of the surface

 A portion, or all, of the irradiation may be absorbed

by the surface, thereby increasing the thermal energy
of the material.

Radiation

 Absorptivity, α

- the fraction of the radiation energy incident on a

surface that is absorbed by the surface

- value of absorptivity ranges from 0 ≤α ≤ 1

 A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on

it.

 A blackbody is perfect absorber (α = 1 ) as it is a

perfect emitter.

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Radiation
 Radiant energy absorbed per unit surface area may be
expressed as:

𝑮𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝜶𝑮

𝐰𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑮 = 𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒖𝒓

𝑮𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝜶𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒖𝒓

 Kirchoff’s Law

-states that the emissivity and the absorptivity of a

surface at a given temperature and wavelength are equal.

𝒊𝒇 𝜶 = 𝜺; then

𝑮𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝜺𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒖𝒓

Radiation
 net radiation heat transfer

- the difference between the rates of radiation emitted by the surface and the
radiation absorbed
𝑞" =𝐸 −𝐺 = ε𝜎𝑇 − α𝜎𝑇

𝒊𝒇 𝜶 = 𝜺; then
𝒒"𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝑬 − 𝑮𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝜺𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒔 − 𝜺𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒖𝒓
𝒒"𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝜺𝝈(𝑻𝟒𝒔 − 𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒖𝒓 )

 If the rate of radiation absorption is greater than the rate of radiation emission,
the surface is said to be gaining energy by radiation.

 If the rate of radiation absorption is less than the rate of radiation emission the
surface is said to be losing energy by radiation.

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Radiation
 Special Case:

Radiation exchange between a small surface at

𝑇 and a much larger, isothermal surface that
completely surrounds the smaller one.
𝑇 ≠ 𝑇
α= ε

The net rate of heat transfer from the surface per

unit area of the surface is

Radiation
 Net radiation heat exchange can be expressed in
the form:

 Where ℎ is the radiation heat transfer coefficient

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Example 6
A spherical interplanetary probe of 0.5-m diameter contains electronics
that dissipate 150 W. If the probe surface has an emissivity of 0.8 and the
probe does not receive radiation from other surfaces, as, for example, from
the sun, what is its surface temperature?
Required:
𝑇 = surface temperature

Solution:
𝐸
𝑞 =𝐸 = 𝜀𝐴𝜎𝑇 𝑇 =
𝜖𝜎𝐴
𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 150 𝑊
𝑇 =
𝑊
Given: 𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷 = 4𝜋𝑟 0.8 (5.67𝑥10
𝑚 𝐾
)(0.25𝜋 𝑚 )

𝐷 = 0.5 𝑚 𝐴 = 𝜋(0.5𝑚) = 0.25𝜋 𝑚² 𝑇 = 4 210 448 230𝐾

ε = 0.8 𝜎 = 5.67 𝑥 10 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 𝑻𝒔 = 𝟐𝟓𝟒. 𝟕𝟑𝟏𝟐 𝑲
E = 150 𝑊

Example 7
A 12 cm spherical ball whose surface is maintained at a temperature of
110°C is suspended in the middle of a room at 20°C. If the convection
heat transfer coefficient is 15 W/m²·°C and the emissivity of the
surface is 0.8, determine the total rate of heat transfer from the ball.

Given: Solution:
𝐷 = 12 𝑐𝑚 = 0.12 𝑚 𝑞 =𝑞 +𝑞
𝑇 = 110℃ = 383 𝐾
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇 − 𝑇 + 𝜀𝐴𝜎(𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝑇 = 20℃ = 293 𝐾
𝑊 𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
ℎ = 15
𝑚 ℃ 𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷 = 4𝜋𝑟
ε = 0.8
𝐴 = 𝜋(0.12𝑚) = 0.0144𝜋 𝑚²
Required:
𝜎 = 5.67 𝑥 10 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾
𝑞

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Example 7
A 12 cm spherical ball whose surface is maintained at a temperature of
110°C is suspended in the middle of a room at 20°C. If the convection
heat transfer coefficient is 15 W/m²·°C and the emissivity of the
surface is 0.8, determine the total rate of heat transfer from the ball.
W
𝑞 = 15 0.0144𝜋 𝑚 110 − 20 ℃
𝑚 ℃
𝒒𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟔 𝑾
𝑊
𝑞 = 0.8 0.0144𝜋 𝑚 5.67 x10 383𝐾 − 293𝐾
𝑚 𝐾
𝒒𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝑾
𝑞 = 61.0726𝑊 + 29.0314𝑊
𝒒𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟗𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟎 𝑾

Example 8

An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and
walls are at 25°C. The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its
surface temperature and emissivity are 200°C and 0.8, respectively.
What are the surface emissive power and irradiation? If the coefficient
associated with free convection heat transfer from the surface to the
air is 15 W/m²K, what is the rate of heat loss from the surface per unit
length of pipe?

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Example 8
An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls
are at 25°C. The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface
temperature and emissivity are 200°C and 0.8, respectively. What are the
surface emissive power and irradiation? If the coefficient associated with
free convection heat transfer from the surface to the air is 15 W/m²K, what is
the rate of heat loss from the surface per unit length of pipe?
Given: Required:
𝑇 =𝑇 = 25℃ = 298 𝐾 1. 𝐸 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑇 = 200℃ = 473 𝐾 2. 𝐺 − 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
ε = 0.8 𝑞
3. 𝑞 =
𝑊 𝐿
ℎ = 15 𝑞 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑚 𝐾
𝐷 = 70 𝑚𝑚 = 0.07 𝑚

Example 8
Solution:
Emissive Power
𝐸 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇
𝑊
𝐸 = 0.8 (5.67 𝑥10 )(473𝐾)
𝑚 𝐾
𝑬 = 𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟗𝟔 𝑾

Irradiation
𝐺 = 𝜎𝑇
𝑊
𝐺 = (5.67 𝑥10 )(298𝐾)
𝑚 𝐾
𝑮 = 𝟒𝟒𝟕. 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟕 𝑾

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Example 8
Heat loss per unit length (q’)
Heat loss from the pipe is by convection to the room air and by radiation exchange with the walls
𝑞= 𝑞 +𝑞
Where
𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿
𝑞 = ℎ(𝜋𝐷𝐿) 𝑇 − 𝑇 + 𝜀(𝜋𝐷𝐿)𝜎(𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝑞
𝑞 = = ℎ(𝜋𝐷) 𝑇 − 𝑇 + 𝜀(𝜋𝐷)(𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝐿
𝑞
𝑞 = = 15 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾(𝜋)(0.07𝑚) 200 − 25 ℃ + 0.8(𝜋)(0.07𝑚)(5.67𝑥10 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 )(473 − 298 )𝐾
𝐿
𝑞 = 577.2677 𝑊/𝑚 + 420.6387 W/m
𝒒 = 𝟗𝟗𝟕. 𝟗𝟎𝟔𝟒 𝑾/𝒎

Example 9

A combustion chamber wall of 14.9 cm thickness is maintained so that

its outer wall is at 375K while the temperature of the atmosphere is
300K. If the thermal conductivity of the wall is 1.195 W/mK and the air-
side convection heat transfer coefficient is 19.95 W/m²K. Assume that
the emissivity of the wall material is 0.795.

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Example 9
A combustion chamber wall of 15 cm thickness is maintained so that its outer
wall is at 100°C while the temperature of the atmosphere is 25°C. If the
thermal conductivity of the wall is 1.2 W/mK and the air-side convection heat
transfer coefficient is 20 W/m²K. Assume that the emissivity of the wall
material is 0.8. What is the temperature of the inner wall?

Required:
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

Example 9

Solution:
By energy balance at the outer surface of the wall
𝑬𝒊𝒏 = 𝑬𝒐𝒖𝒕
= 𝒒"𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 + 𝒒"𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝒒"𝒄𝒐𝒏
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝒔
−𝒌 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )
= 𝒉 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝜶 + 𝜺𝝈(𝑻𝟒𝟐 − 𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒖𝒓 )
𝑳

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Example 9

Solution:
𝒌 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )
= 𝒉 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝜶 + 𝜺𝝈(𝑻𝟒𝟐 − 𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒖𝒓 )
𝑳
𝒉 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝜶 + 𝜺𝝈 𝑻𝟒𝟐 − 𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒖𝒓 𝑳
𝑻𝟏 = + 𝑻𝟐
𝒌
𝑾
𝟐𝟎 𝟑𝟕𝟑 − 𝟐𝟗𝟖 𝑲 + 𝟎. 𝟖(𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟖 ) 𝟑𝟕𝟑𝟒 − 𝟐𝟗𝟖𝟒 𝑲𝟒 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝒎
𝒎𝟐 𝑲
𝑻𝟏 = + 𝟑𝟕𝟑𝑲
𝟏. 𝟐 𝑾/𝒎𝑲

𝑻𝟏 = 𝟓𝟐𝟓. 𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟎𝑲 = 𝟐𝟓𝟐. 𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟎℃

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