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Module 01

The Commonwealth Youth Programme's Diploma in Youth Development Work aims to engage and empower young people aged 15-29 to enhance their contributions to development through a rights-based approach. Module 1 focuses on learning processes, exploring theories of learning, adult learning principles, informal education, and factors that influence learning. The module includes assessments and emphasizes the role of youth development workers as facilitators of learning.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
11 views304 pages

Module 01

The Commonwealth Youth Programme's Diploma in Youth Development Work aims to engage and empower young people aged 15-29 to enhance their contributions to development through a rights-based approach. Module 1 focuses on learning processes, exploring theories of learning, adult learning principles, informal education, and factors that influence learning. The module includes assessments and emphasizes the role of youth development workers as facilitators of learning.

Uploaded by

ohinchy17
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Commonwealth Youth Programme

Diploma in Youth Development Work

Module 1

Learning
Processes
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Commonwealth Secretariat
Marlborough House
London SW1Y 5HX
UNITED KINGDOM

© Commonwealth Secretariat, 2007

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or otherwise without
the permission of the publisher.

The views expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect the opinion or the policy of the Commonwealth
Secretariat.

Wherever possible, the Commonwealth Secretariat uses paper sourced from sustainable forests, or from sources
that minimise the destructive impact on the environment.

Copies of this publication may be obtained from:


Commonwealth Youth Programme
Commonwealth Secretariat
Marlborough House
Pall Mall
London SW1Y 5HX
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel: +44 20 7747 6462/6456
Fax: +44 20 7747 6549
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: http//www.thecommonwealth.org/cyp

CYP Africa Regional Centre CYP Asia Regional Centre


University of Zambia Sector 12 (PEC Campus)
Great East Road Chandigarh - 160012
P O Box 30190 INDIA
Lusaka Tel: +91 172 2744482/2744463/274182
ZAMBIA Fax: +91 172 2745426/2744902
Tel: +260-1-252733/252153/294102 E-mail: [email protected]
Fax: +260-1-253698
E-mail: [email protected]

CYP Caribbean Regional Centre CYP Pacific Centre


Homestretch Avenue Lower Panatina Campus
D’Urban Park P O Box 1681
P O Box 101063 Honiara
Georgetown SOLOMON ISLANDS
GUYANA Tel: +677-38374/5/6
Tel: +592-2-268565 Fax: +677-38377
Fax: +592-2-268371 E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]

2 Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work


Module 1: Learning Processes

The Commonwealth Youth Programme’s Mission


CYP works to engage and empower young people (aged 15–29) to enhance their contribution to development.
We do this in partnership with young people, governments and other key stakeholders.

Our mission is grounded within a rights-based approach, guided by the realities facing young people in the
Commonwealth, and anchored in the belief that young people are:
• a force for peace, democracy, equality and good governance,
• a catalyst for global consensus building, and
• an essential resource for poverty eradication and sustainable development.

Acknowledgments
The Module Writers
Module 1 Dr G Gunawardena – Sri Lanka Module 8 R K Mani – India
Module 2 Lincoln Williams – Jamaica Module 9 Teorongonui Keelan – Aotearoa/New Zealand
Module 3 Louise King – Australia Module 10 Dr P Kumar – India
Module 4 Peta-Anne Baker – Jamaica Module 11 Steven Cordeiro – Australia
Module 5 Dr Mable Milimo – Zambia Module 12 Dr M Macwan’gi – Zambia
Module 6 Morag Humble – Canada Module 13 Paulette Bynoe – Guyana
Module 7 Anso Kellerman – South Africa

The CYP Instructional Design Team


Original version 2007 revision
Project manager Sid Verber – UK
Senior ID Melanie Guile and Candi Westney – Catherine Atthill – UK
Australia
Module 1 Hilmah Mollomb – Solomon Is Catherine Atthill – UK
Module 2 Ermina Osoba/RMIT – Antigua Catherine Atthill – UK
Module 3 Candi Westney – Australia Rosario Passos – Canada
Module 4 Rosaline Corbin – Barbados Julie Hamilton – Canada
Module 5 Judith Kamau – Botswana Catherine Atthill – UK
Module 6 Dr Turiman Suandi – Malaysia Chris Joynes – UK
Module 7 Evelyn Nonyongo – South Africa Evelyn Nonyongo – South Africa
Module 8 Melanie Guile – Australia Chris Joynes – UK
Module 9 Irene Paulsen – Solomon Is Rosario Passos – Canada
Module 10 Prof Prabha Chawla – India, Rosario Passos – Canada
and Suzi Hewlett – Australia
Module 11 Melanie Guile – Australia Rosario Passos – Canada
Module 12 Dr R Siaciwena – Zambia Dr R Siaciwena – Zambia
Module 13 Lynette Anderson – Guyana Chris Joynes – UK
Tutor manual Martin Notley / Lew Owen / Catherine Atthill – UK
Thomas Abraham / David Maunders
Typesetters Klara Coco – Australia Decent Typesetting – UK
Editors Lew Owen / Paulette Bynoe Lyn Ward – UK
Tina Johnson - USA
Proofreader RMIT Andrew Robertson

The University of Huddersfield for the Curriculum Framework Document and the Editorial work on the
module content – Martin Notley and Lew Owen.
Pan-Commonwealth consultant in development of the CYP Diploma – Martin Notley.
The Commonwealth of Learning for the provision of technical advice and expertise throughout the process.

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work 3


Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

The CYP Regional Centres and the following institutions for conducting the Regional Reviews:
• CYP Africa Centre; Adult Learning Distance Education Centre, Seychelles; Makerere University, Uganda;
Management Development Institute, The Gambia; Open University of Tanzania; The Namibian College of
Open Learning; National University of Lesotho; University of Abuja, Nigeria; University of Botswana;
University of Ghana; University of Malawi; University of Nairobi, Kenya; University of Sierra Leone,
Fourah Bay College; University of South Africa; Zambia Insurance Business College Trust.
• CYP Asia Centre; Allama Iqbal Open University, Pakistan; Annamalai University, India; Bangladesh Open
University; Indira Gandhi National Open University, India; Open University of Sri Lanka; SNDT Women’s
University, India; Universiti Putra Malaysia.
• CYP Caribbean Centre; University of Guyana; University of the West Indies.
• CPY Pacific Centre; Papua New Guinea Institute of Public Administration; Royal Melbourne Institute of
Technology, Australia; Solomon Islands College of Higher Education; University of the South Pacific, Fiji
Islands.
Graphic Art – Decent Typesetting.
Final Module review – Magna Aidoo, Lew Owen, Paulette Bynoe.
Guy Forster for the module cover designs.

The CYP Youth Work Education and Training (YWET) Team


PCO Adviser: Youth Development YWET PACIFIC
Cristal de Saldanha Stainbank Jeff Bost
Tony Coghlan
YWET Pan-Commonwealth Office Sharlene Gardiner
Jane Foster Suzi Hewlett
Tina Ho Irene Paulsen
Omowumi Ovie-Afabor
Fatiha Serour Pan-Commonwealth Quality Assurance Team
Andrew Simmons (PCQAT)
Nancy Spence Africa
Eleni Stamiris Joseph Ayee
Ignatius Takawira Linda Cornwell
Clara Fayorsey
YWET AFRICA Ann Harris
Yinka Aganga-Williams Helen Jones
Gilbert Kamanga Fred Mutesa
Richard Mkandawire Asia
Valencia Mogegeh Thomas Chirayil Abraham
James Odit Shamsuddin Ahmed
Vinayak Dalvie
YWET ASIA Bhuddi Weerasinghe
Seela Ebert Caribbean
Raj Mishra Mark Kirton
Bagbhan Prakash Stella Odie-Ali
Saraswathy Rajagopal Carolyn Rolle
Raka Rashid Pacific
Rajan Welukar Robyn Broadbent
Ron Crocombe
YWET CARIBBEAN David Maunders
Armstrong Alexis Sina Va’ai
Heather Anderson
Henry Charles YWET Evaluators and Consultants
Kala Dowlath Chandu Christian
Ivan Henry Dennis Irvine
Glenyss James Oscar Musandu-Nyamayaro
Richard Wah
YWET PACIFIC
Afu Billy
Sushil Ram

4 Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work


Module contents

Module overview.......................................................... 7
Unit 1: What is learning? ............................................ 19
Unit 2: How do adults learn? ...................................... 53
Unit 3: Education for all ............................................. 75
Unit 4: Informal education ........................................111
Unit 5: What helps and what hinders learning? ..........135
Unit 6: Learning styles ..............................................151
Unit 7: Facilitating adult learning ..............................179
Summary ..................................................................217
Assignments..............................................................229
Readings ...................................................................231
Module overview

Introduction ................................................................. 9
Module learning outcomes ......................................... 10
About this module...................................................... 11
Assessment ................................................................ 13
Learning tips .............................................................. 15
Studying at a distance ................................................. 17
If you need help ......................................................... 18
Module 1: Learning Processes

Introduction

Welcome to Module 1 Learning Processes. The ability to learn is the


most marked trait of human beings. You must have heard the
following saying (or its equivalent in your culture): ‘Learning is better
than silver or gold.’
Learning is intrinsically satisfying. What’s more, it can be fun. It’s a
personal experience, an experience of change. It’s an inner process,
which can only be observed by others in the form of changes in your
behaviour.
Learning takes place throughout life – in different ways, in different
contexts. It’s almost impossible to stop people learning, in some form
or other, all the time. This is very useful for youth development
workers. Learning is a powerful tool that we can use deliberately to
improve knowledge and enhance skills. If you can direct learning
along appropriate channels, then you will accelerate the process and
help young people to develop very rapidly.
The aim of this module is to introduce you to the ideas and practices
of learning that are relevant to youth development work. The module
focuses on the role of youth development workers as educators, or to
put it another way, as ‘learning facilitators’. We prefer this term
because it indicates that your role will be to help and guide the very
powerful internal learning processes in young people, rather than to
control them.
The module explores different theories of learning and their
influences. It identifies the different ways in which people learn and
the factors that inhibit or facilitate learning. It also considers
experiential learning as a method that is appropriate to youth
development workers, and examines appropriate strategies for face-to-
face work with young people and adults.

Module overview 9
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Module learning outcomes

Learning outcomes are statements that tell you what knowledge and
skills you will have when you have worked successfully through a
module.

Knowledge
When you have worked through this module you should be able to:
z identify and discuss key theories of learning
z outline the principles of adult learning and the characteristics of
adult learners
z give an overview of important psychological and philosophical
principles relevant to ‘education for all’ and youth development
work
z describe the characteristics of informal education and apply this
knowledge to youth development work
z identify factors that help and factors that hinder people’s learning,
particularly in informal settings
z explain what is meant by ‘experiential learning’.

Skills
When you have worked through this module you should be able to:
z describe your own and other people’s learning style(s) and mode
of intelligence
z devise effective strategies for learning with a range of individuals
and groups in youth development work
z make use of the techniques of informal and experiential learning
in youth development work
z enable other people to make use of these techniques in youth
development work.

10 Module overview
Module 1: Learning Processes

About this module

Module 1 Learning Processes is divided into seven units:

Unit 1 What is learning?


This unit offers you the opportunity to explore what learning is. It
introduces you to the main theories of learning and describes how
learning takes place.

Unit 2 How adults learn


This unit will help you to understand how adults learn and the factors
that have to be considered when dealing with adult learners.

Unit 3 ‘Education for all’


This unit focuses on describing some of the philosophical and
psychological aspects of learning that support the principle of equal
education for all. You will also learn about the role of the facilitator
and youth development worker in adult learning.

Unit 4 Informal education


In this unit you will learn about different learning settings, focusing
on informal learning. You will also look at the agents of learning and
how informal learning can take place in formal institutions.

Unit 5: What helps and what hinders learning?


While the first four units focus more on the positive aspects of
learning, this unit introduces you to some of the factors that can
either help or hinder learning. You will learn how to cope with and
manage these factors, which can be environmental or personal.

Unit 6: Learning styles


In this unit you will be introduced to different modes of intelligence
and different learning and training styles, and to the importance of
adapting learning methods to suit them.

Unit 7: Facilitating adult learning


In this unit you will learn about the crucial importance of learners
participating in all aspects of planning, designing, implementing and
evaluating adult learning programmes. You will also explore
strategies for adult learning.

Module overview 11
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

This table shows which units cover the different module learning
outcomes.

Module 1 Learning outcomes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Knowledge

1 Identify and discuss key theories of x x


learning.

2 Outline the principles of adult x


learning and the characteristics of
adult learners.

3 Give an overview of important x


psychological and philosophical
principles relevant to ‘education for
all’ and youth development work.

4 Describe the characteristics of x


informal education and apply this
knowledge to youth development
work.

5 Identify factors which help and x x


factors which hinder people’s
learning, particularly in informal
settings.

6 Explain what is meant by x x


experiential learning.

Skills

7 Describe your own and other x


people’s learning style(s) and mode
of intelligence.

8 Devise effective strategies for x x x x x x x


learning with a range of individuals
and groups in youth development
work.

9 Make use of the techniques of x x x x x x x


informal and experiential learning
in youth development work.

10 Enable other people to make use of x


these techniques in youth
development work.

12 Module overview
Module 1: Learning Processes

Assessment

Each module is divided into a number of units. Each unit addresses


some of the learning outcomes. You will be asked to complete
various tasks so that you can demonstrate your competence in
achieving the learning outcomes. The study guide will help you to
succeed in your final assessment tasks.

Methods
Your work in this module will be assessed in the following three
ways:
z a major research assignment of approximately 1750 words (worth
50 per cent of the final mark)
z a review of the learning journal you keep (worth 20 per cent of
the final mark).
z a written examination set by the institution in which you are
enrolled for this Diploma programme (worth 30 per cent of the
final mark).
Several exercises, some requiring field investigation and action, will
be required in the course of your work on each unit.
There are full details of the assignments at the end of the module.
Note: We recommend that you discuss the study and assessment
requirements with your tutor before you begin work on the module.
You may want to discuss such topics as:
z the learning activities you will undertake on your own
z the learning activities you will undertake as part of a group
z whether it is practical for you to do all of the activities
z the evidence you will produce to prove that you have met the
learning outcomes – for example, learning journal entries, or
activities that prepare for the final assignment
z how to relate the assignment topics to your own context
z when to submit learning journal entries and assignments, and
when you will get feedback.

Learning journal
Educational research has shown that keeping a learning journal is a
valuable strategy to help your learning development. It makes use of
the important faculty of reflecting on your learning, which supports
you in developing a critical understanding of it. The journal is where
you will record your thoughts and feelings as you are learning and
where you will write your responses to the study guide activities. The
journal is worth 20 per cent of the final assessment. Your responses to

Module overview 13
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

the self-help questions can also be recorded here if you wish, though
you may use a separate note book if that seems more useful.
Again, we recommend you discuss the learning journal requirements
with your tutor before you begin, including how your learning journal
will be assessed.

Self-test
Take a few minutes to try this self-test. If you think you already have
some of the knowledge or skills covered by this module and answer
‘Yes’ to most of these questions, you may be able to apply for credits
from your learning institution. Talk to your tutor about this.
Note: This is not the full challenge test to be held by your learning
institution for ‘Recognition of Prior Learning’.
Put a tick in the appropriate box in answer to the following questions:

Yes No More
or less

Can you already explain and discuss


the main theories of education and
learning?

Can you describe the main features


of adult learning and how adults
learn best?

Do you already have a working


understanding of the psychological
and philosophical concepts that
underpin learning in youth
development work?

Can you explain how the theory of


informal education is relevant to
youth in development work?

Can you identify factors that hinder


and help the learning process,
especially in informal settings?

Can you describe the nature of


experiential learning and give
examples of its practical application?

Can you describe your and others’


learning styles and mode of
intelligence?

14 Module overview
Module 1: Learning Processes

Yes No More
or less

Can you describe effective learning


strategies for a range of individuals
and groups? Do you have practical
experience in using them?

Do you already use the techniques of


informal and experiential learning?

Can you help others to use the


techniques of informal and
experiential learning? Can you
demonstrate that you have had
experience of this?

Learning tips

You may not have studied by distance education before. If so, here
are some guidelines to help you.

How long will it take?


It will probably take you a minimum of 70 hours to work through the
study guide for this module. The time should be spent doing the
activities and self-help questions, and completing the assessment tasks
and studying the readings.
Note that units are not all the same length, so make sure that you
plan and pace your work to give yourself time to complete all of
them. In this module, Unit 1 What is Learning? is likely to take you
longer than later units, as the ideas may be new to you.

About the study guide


This study guide gives you a unit-by-unit guide to the module you are
studying. Each unit includes information, case studies, activities, self-
help questions and readings for you to complete. These are all
designed to help you achieve the learning outcomes that are stated at
the beginning of the module.

Activities, self-help questions and case studies


The activities, self-help questions and case studies are part of a
planned distance education programme. They help you make your
learning more active and effective, as you process and apply what you
read. They will help you to engage with ideas and check your own
understanding. It is vital that you take the time to complete them in

Module overview 15
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

the order that they occur in the study guide. Make sure that you write
full answers to the activities, or take notes of any discussions.
We recommend that you write your answers in your learning journal
and keep it with your study materials as a record of your work. You
can refer to it whenever you need to remind yourself of what you
have done. The activities may be reflective exercises designed to get
you thinking about aspects of the subject matter, or they may be
practical tasks to undertake on your own or with fellow students.
Answers are not given for the activities. A time is suggested for each
activity (for example, ‘about 20 minutes’). This is just a guide. It does
not include the time you will need to spend on any discussions or
research involved.
The self-help questions are usually more specific and require a brief
written response. The answers are given at the end of each unit. If
you wish, you may also record your answers to the self-help questions
in your learning journal, or you may use a separate notebook.
The case studies give examples, often drawn from real life, to apply
the concepts in the study guide. Often the case studies are used as the
basis for an activity or self-help question.

Readings
There is a section of Readings at the end of the study guide. These
provide additional information or other viewpoints, and relate to
topics in the units. You are expected to read them.
There is a list of references at the end of each unit. This gives details
about books that are referred to in the unit. It may give you ideas for
further reading. You are not expected to read all the books on this list.
Please note: In a few cases full details of publications referred to in
the module have not been provided, as we have been unable to
confirm the details with the original authors.
There is a list of Further Reading at the end of each module. This
includes books and articles referred to in the module and are
suggestions for those who wish to explore topics further. You are
encouraged to read as widely as possible during and after the course,
but you are not expected to read all the books on this list. Module 4
also provides a list of useful websites.
Although there is no set requirement, you should aim to do some
follow-up reading to get alternative viewpoints and approaches. We
suggest you discuss this with your tutor. What is available to you in
libraries? Are there other books of particular interest to you or your
region? Can you use alternative resources, such as newspapers and
the internet?

16 Module overview
Module 1: Learning Processes

Unit summary
At the end of each unit there is a list of the main points. Use it to help
you review your learning. Go back if you think you have not covered
something properly.

Icons
In the margins of the Study Guide, you will find these icons that tell
you what to do:

Self-help question
Answer the questions. Suggested answers are provided at the
end of each unit.

Activity
Complete the activity. Activities are often used to encourage
reflective learning and may involve a practical task. Answers are
not provided.

Reading
Read as suggested.

Case study
Read these examples and complete any related self-help
question or activity.

Studying at a distance

There are many advantages to studying by distance education – a full


set of learning materials is provided, and you can study close to home
in your own community. You can also plan some of your study time
to fit in with other commitments, such as work or family.
However, there are also challenges. Learning away from your learning
institution requires discipline and motivation. Here are some tips for
studying at a distance.
1 Plan – Give priority to study sessions with your tutor and make
sure you allow enough travel time to your meeting place. Make a
study schedule and try to stick to it. Set specific days and times
each week for study and keep them free of other activities. Make
a note of the dates that your assessment pieces are due and plan
for extra study time around those dates.

Module overview 17
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

2 Manage your time – Set aside a reasonable amount of time each


week for your study programme – but don’t be too ambitious or
you won’t be able to keep up the pace. Work in productive blocks
of time and include regular rests.
3 Be organised – Have your study materials organised in one place
and keep your notes clearly labelled and sorted. Work through
the topics in your study guide systematically and seek help for
difficulties straight away. Never leave problems until later.
4 Find a good place to study – Most people need order and quiet
to study effectively, so try to find a suitable place to do your work
– preferably somewhere where you can leave your study materials
set out ready until next time.
5 Ask for help if you need it – This is the most vital part of
studying at a distance. No matter what the difficulty is, seek help
from your tutor or fellow students straight away.
6 Don’t give up – If you miss deadlines for assessment pieces,
speak to your tutor – together you can work out what to do.
Talking to other students can also make a difference to your study
progress. Seeking help when you need it is a key way of making
sure you complete your studies – so don’t give up!

If you need help

If you have any difficulties with your studies, contact your local
learning centre or your tutor, who will be able to help you.
Note: You will find more detailed information about learner support
from your learning institution.
We wish you all the best with your studies.

18 Module overview
Module 1: Learning Processes

Unit 1: What is
learning?

Unit 1
Unit introduction ....................................................... 21
Unit learning outcomes .............................................. 22
Thinking about learning ............................................. 23
Defining learning ....................................................... 28
Key learning theories.................................................. 41
Unit summary ............................................................ 47
Answers to self-help questions .................................... 48
References.................................................................. 52
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work
Module 1: Learning Processes

Unit introduction

Welcome to Unit 1 What is learning?


This first unit offers you the opportunity to explore what learning is.

Unit 1
It sets out a basic model of what is currently understood by educators
about how people learn. It introduces you to the main theories of
learning.
The aim of the unit is to start you thinking about learning – as a
learner yourself and as a youth development worker working with
other learners. It starts by asking you to reflect on experiences you
have had of learning, so that you can build up your own definition.
This first unit contains a lot of reading material and ideas that may be
new to you. It is one of the longer units in Module 1. Work through it
gradually. You can return to the readings and ideas as you work
through the rest of Module 1 and the other modules, as your
knowledge and understanding deepen. Don’t forget to use the
glossary for explanations of specialist terms. The self-help questions
and activities in the unit will help you to relate the ideas to your own
work and experience and to discuss them with colleagues and other
learners. The unit will ask you to analyse your own learning
behaviour and that of the young people you know, in the light of your
reading and thinking. Note that you don’t have to remember
everything.
The unit introduces important aspects and key theories of learning,
but it does not aim to give you an in-depth understanding of them.
However, it should help you to construct your own theory of how
people learn. This will act as a framework that you can use
throughout this module, and in your work as a learner and as a
facilitator of educational opportunities for young people.
The field of human learning is so rich and interesting that you will
soon begin to develop your own theories and philosophy of
education. We hope so, because these attributes will help guide your
practice as a youth leader, and help you to develop aims and
objectives for your work.

Unit 1: What is learning? 21


Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Unit learning outcomes

When you have worked through this unit, you should be able to:
z write your own definition of learning
z describe important elements of a definition of learning
z identify and discuss the main points of some key theories of
learning
z relate what you learn in this unit to your own experiences.

22 Unit 1: What is learning?


Module 1: Learning Processes

Thinking about learning

Learning is a process of mental growth that may also change your


physical and social abilities. For you as a learner, the experience of
learning is felt as personal, both as an inner process of improvement
in your mind, and as a change in your behaviour (such as the

Unit 1
improved ability to tackle problems). An educator or learning
facilitator will be able to observe your change in behaviour – but they
have to work out what has happened in your mind.
Human beings belong to a learning species. It’s almost impossible to
stop people learning, and therefore learning takes place throughout
life, in all sorts of different ways and different contexts. Of course,
what we learn may not always be what we want or need. People can
learn all sorts of behaviour by simply being exposed to situations
where damaging behaviour is normal. Think of teenagers who
acquire bad behaviour in school and refuse to learn useful school
knowledge, in order to be accepted as part of an anti-school peer
group.
Human beings have a huge capacity for learning. However, we use
surprisingly little of the active, intellectual part of our brains. But we
can extend our intellects enormously when we need to. This becomes
clear in disaster situations. For example, when villagers living
peaceful, repetitive lives on the land are forced to deal with the threat
of floods or earthquakes, they have to make extreme adaptations to
meet the challenge of finding food and shelter and reorganising
economic and social life.
For youth development workers, understanding this principle – that
people can extend their capacity for learning when they need to – is
crucial. You may encounter serious problems of community and
environmental breakdown when you are trying to mobilise young
people to utilise their intellectual capacity to solve the problems they
face. Their access to this spare capacity in their brains might be
blocked by previous learning experiences, and by present failure to
open the right intellectual doors. To open these doors, you need to
understand some of the principles of learning that have begun to be
discovered by psychological and sociological research. Above all, you
need to facilitate the growth of their self-confidence, and help them to
understand that they can achieve many intellectual skills relatively
easily.
So what we can find out about how people learn? Have you ever
thought about the question: ‘What is learning?’
By doing or studying research into the nature of learning, we can gain
a better grasp of how to organise the learning experience. It’s
surprisingly hard to define learning, though we can usually describe
the situations in which learning takes place. By thinking about what
happens to us in those situations, we can begin to develop a personal
understanding of the processes of learning. This helps us to observe

Unit 1: What is learning? 23


Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

whether or not the young people we are working with are actually
learning anything. It’s possible for people to appear as if they are
learning, but in reality their learning may be superficial, so they will
not be able to do anything with it nor build on it.
Over the last 100 years, the subject of how people learn has been
controversial, with different schools of thought struggling to define
the issues. You may meet much intellectual conflict regarding some
of the ideas presented here (particularly if you come from a culture
with different traditions from the contending liberal humanist and
Marxist ideas that underpin this module). Those disagreements are
valuable for increasing understanding, and involving yourself in them
will be good for your own development.
We start our investigation of how people learn by asking you to think
about your own experiences.

Activity 1.1
(about 15 minutes)
1. In your learning journal, write down brief descriptions of
different sorts of examples of learning that you have
experienced, such as learning a physical skill, an aspect of
a school subject, a social skill. Write down as much as you
can about them. Keep working for the whole 15 minutes.
2. Once you have a good list of examples, try to organise
them into groups or types of learning activities.
If you work with a tutorial group, you may want to do this as a
group activity.

24 Unit 1: What is learning?


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Self-help question 1.1


(about 15 minutes)
Now try to write an answer to the question: ‘What is learning?’

Unit 1
Look at the list you prepared in Activity 1.1 and try to write a
definition of learning that covers all the different examples
that you included.
Learning is
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the


unit.

The purpose of this question is to let you see that, while you can
usually describe what is happening on the surface of learning
situations, the underlying learning process itself is much harder to
define. However, we can use simple problem-solving techniques to
give us more insight into the nature of the learning process. Read the
following case study about ways of learning, teaching and testing.

Case study 1.1


Learning about cocoa production in Ghana
A group of young people are going to learn about why Ghana
became a major cocoa producer. John, a youth development worker
involved with the group, has been asked to plan the best way of
testing whether they have really learned the subject.
There seem to be three options:
1 Test them after a period of time, or immediately.
2 Test them in a variety of problem-solving situations.
3 Test them to see if the knowledge can be used as the building
block for more advanced abilities.
John realises that it all depends what the learners are expected to
achieve – the objectives of their learning. So the learning must be
arranged to meet the different objectives implied in the three options:

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1 Testing the knowledge immediately will tell John whether or not


the learners have understood it and recalled it, and may reassure
him that the structure of the argument is clear in their minds for
the moment. John could teach to this objective by clear, well-
illustrated presentation or by getting learners to work out the
ideas for themselves in a small group. By testing them again after
a long period of time, he can test whether they just recall the bare
facts or whether they can organise these facts into an argument
that shows comprehension as well as recall.
2 By testing in practical situations, John will be testing a higher
level of thinking than in option 1. Option 2 tests the application of
the knowledge. To be able to do that successfully, learners will
have had to analyse the meaning of the ideas very thoroughly to
see which of them apply to each situation, and how they apply.
To do this they will also have to understand the information. The
learners could perhaps be given several scenarios in which
political, economic and climatic conditions varied for Ghana,
and they could be asked to explain what would then happen to
cocoa production in Ghana. To answer these, they would need to
understand key economic ideas such as ‘comparative advantage’.
What John is testing here is their ability to apply a theoretical
understanding of an aspect of economic geography to the specific
situation of Ghana. To teach this, John would have to
concentrate on developing insight into the theory. That needs a
learning situation where learners are continually presented with
problems, and in order to solve them they have to apply the
theory. That can be done by a ‘discovery learning’ approach,
where they work in groups through a workbook, perhaps in
combination with a teacher-led, question-and-answer session, and
so on.
3 To test whether learners have developed the idea so that it can be
used as a building block for further learning, John might, for
example, present the learners with a description of the set of
recent world conditions in which Ghana’s cocoa production is
under threat, and get them to investigate why Ghana is in this
position. This would make them go back to why Ghana became a
major cocoa producer, but would also enable them to move on to
key principles of modern world trade. This test is perhaps the
most difficult, because it requires learners to build up the theory
themselves by synthesising material from several sources, material
which they will have had to analyse and evaluate and apply, which
means that they must comprehend that material also. This method
of testing would require a series of teaching processes that
encourage these skills, best done in small, interacting groups so
that ideas could be tried out and challenged.

26 Unit 1: What is learning?


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The words in italics in the case study come from a method of


analysing the nature of different kinds of learning and the different
levels of complexity that they involve, invented by Benjamin Bloom
(1956). Bloom called it a ‘taxonomy of learning’. This is a valuable
idea because it tells us what we should be teaching in order to help a
learner reach a particular level of learning objective. It can also
suggest to us how best to teach it as well. The levels are:

Unit 1
z knowledge
z comprehension
z application
z analysis
z synthesis
z evaluation.
So it is important to create effective learning structures, depending on
different kinds of learning and the objectives of learning.
A lot of learning needs to be acquired in ways that will enable you to
build on it in the future, rather than getting stuck with a method that
suits just one situation. Even in many apparently simple, repetitive
skills, there are underlying abilities that could be developed and used
for different, more challenging problems, if you can expose them.
This is important if you are working with young adults. They may
have developed what appear to be very simple skills, such as quick
calculations when selling goods in public – very common among
young street traders in developing countries. However, it could be that
those apparently simple skills involve submerged logical thinking. As
the example of young street traders in Brazil shows later in this unit
(Case study 1.3), youth workers would be able to facilitate the
development of true mathematical abilities if they could recognise
and develop these underlying logical processes.
Youth workers meet many young people who do not have confidence
in their own ability and potential because no one has recognised the
extraordinary range of abilities that they have. Simply by having lived
and survived in the turbulent everyday world, they have considerable
abilities. But they may not have acquired these abilities in such a way
that they can build on them further. So youth workers must facilitate
that building-on process.
In this section you have thought about your own experiences,
formulated your own definition of learning , and begun to look at
levels of learning. In the next section, we will build on that.

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Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Defining learning

There appears to be no final answer to the question: ‘What is


learning?’ What we have is a number of theories backed up by
research, and we can use these findings to get more out of learning
techniques. So, while defining the concept of learning is very difficult,
even for the experts, we can examine some of the aspects of learning
that need to be considered in a definition.
inner competence change
process and
 performance
inbuilt
abilities

intentional meaning transfer


and and
un- under- practice
intentional standing

There are three self-help activities in this section to help you try out
the ideas.

1 Inner process
Learning is essentially a personal process that takes place in the brain.
It is a process of change in our underlying mental competence which
usually shows itself in aspects of our behavioural performance, such
as the skill to do calculations or cook food. Other people can only be
aware of a change in our inner competence by observing a change in
our behaviour or performance.
For example, they may see that we can make pepper soup faster and it
tastes better than before. Or they can set us more advanced arithmetic
questions and check how quickly and accurately we can do them.
And they can then infer that we must have developed a higher level of
ability in these skills.

2 Competence and performance


What’s the difference between competence and performance? It’s
important to distinguish between them. Competent learning means
the process of internal development. Actual performance in the real
world means behaviour that someone else can observe. From a
change in performance, it should be possible to work out what change
in underlying competence has taken place. However, the sort of
performance is significant (as shown in Case study 1.1).
Because human abilities tend to be complex, even in apparently
straightforward skills, we have to be sure that the performance does
reveal underlying competence.

28 Unit 1: What is learning?


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For example, somebody can be trained to develop the particular social


skill of behaving politely with other people. But the underlying
competence that enables this skill to be achieved may be the ability to
empathise with the other person and to use behaviour that will
increase the flow of communication between them. That will ensure
that this kind of behaviour becomes part of their everyday behaviour.
To know whether they have acquired that underlying competence we

Unit 1
need to test it in a range of circumstances. We need to be sure that the
learner understands what makes the behaviour work.
Even apparently simple skills, such as the ability to calculate money
in roadside transactions, are underpinned by complex, abstract
processes (as you will see later in Case study 1.3 about the Brazilian
street traders). So, not everything that is learned will necessarily be
demonstrated in an obvious way.
Motivation to perform is also crucial. For example, young people may
be inhibited from performing by the presence of their peer group,
especially if they believe the others are of socially higher status than
them. Or teenagers may have mastered a school subject but may
choose not to show their skills because they want attention from the
teacher, or because they are hostile towards the school. These are
important external conditions that affect the motivation to perform.
They are primarily social conditions. As a youth development worker,
you need to learn how to create the right social conditions if you are
going to motivate your groups to perform.
When learning is primarily intellectual (in other words, when it leads
to greater knowledge or understanding of something, such as
chemistry or history) other people can only assess that learning when
the learner applies it, by answering examination questions or by
solving intellectual problems in the real world. Intellectual
development will be seen in more sophisticated performance when
discussing or writing about a subject. Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) is
helpful in assessing these things. Assessing the mental competence
underlying this intellectual performance is not simple. You yourself
may well have passed examinations by presenting knowledge that you
have forgotten immediately afterwards, and which had no meaning
for you in the real world. Therefore the knowledge did not lead to a
permanent change in your ability to perform.

3 Change
Most definitions of learning assume that it involves change – the
notion of a more or less permanent change in performance or
behaviour.
Changes in performance or behaviour are not always due to learning,
but to other factors, such as injury or illness; intoxication or fatigue; a
natural developmental response (such as sucking and blinking); or
maturation or growth.

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When we talk about change as an indicator that learning has taken


place, we are usually talking about conscious change – changes in
understanding, in attitudes and in the ability to perform things such
as problem solving. However, Gleitman (2003) makes the point that
we perform most of our mental functions and much of our behaviour
unconsciously, or rather non-consciously.
For example, when we clean our teeth there is a series of quite
complicated movements, supported by detailed knowledge, that
enables us to do the cleaning. But we usually just use these
automatically, thinking only of the position of the brush in our
mouths. Likewise, we acquire large parts of our knowledge and skills
non-consciously, by absorbing them through interacting with others
and with our surroundings.
This implies that learning does not necessarily take place as a result
of teaching. Much of our learning occurs informally at a non-
conscious level and may very often be unintentional.
Take another example: making conversation in a group. That skill
involves subtle knowledge of where to position yourself in relation to
other people in the group, how to shift your body position and move
your head and arms, where to look when you are speaking in order to
show respect and interest. We can see how important this is when we
observe the dilemma of people who are slightly autistic and who do
not have the internal mechanisms for observing and acquiring these
detailed skills. Unwittingly, they may present themselves as clumsy
and perhaps rude because they are socially incompetent. Because they
have been unable to observe and understand these subtleties, they
may become very mechanical in what they do, rather like a robot.
Another example. You can see how complex some of these non-
conscious skills are in someone recovering from a severe stroke. He
has to learn the apparently simple skill of walking, a tiny bit at a time,
gradually stringing the sequences of tiny, separate movements
together into short but complete steps, then hopefully into full
movements.
The fact that the stroke patient can do this does suggest that, when we
first learned to do these things, we made changes in our performance
that, to some extent, we consciously learned through observation and
interaction. However, as we will describe later, our brains have
internal cognitive systems that accelerate this kind of learning. By
observing and interacting with people around us, and occasionally
being given instruction, these cognitive systems will have enabled us
to learn the complex patterns of social life in the family and
community, until we employed them ourselves, habitually and
automatically. As a result, we no longer have to waste energy paying
conscious attention to them. They are organised into sub-routines of
behaviour which can become part of longer and more complex
routines. They are then the source of fast and efficient behaviour.
Depending on where and how we are brought up, these routines vary
significantly. If we are brought up in an environment where ways of

30 Unit 1: What is learning?


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speaking, thinking and acting are part of our society’s elite culture,
then we will readily adapt to the norms of that culture. Any tests
designed by our elite are likely to be relatively easy for us to master.
Where we develop the low-status norms of our society, we have to
make huge adjustments to perform well against elite norms, such as
those tested by IQ tests or university examinations.

Unit 1
This largely non-conscious learning has its dangers. We can become
trapped into incompetence by these ingrained habits when we are
faced by problems that need a fresh approach. We may find that that
we have a rigid ‘mental set’: a way of seeing and dealing with
something that has become fixed in a way that’s hard to change and
that blocks our ability to adapt. As you will see in Case study 1.3, the
skills of the Brazilian street traders in selling food on the streets work
in the trading situation, but they can’t adapt them to school maths,
though they are based on the same principles. These skills have
become mentally fixed around items of food. When the food is not
there, the skills disappear.
This is where the process of conscious learning is so crucial. Like the
stroke patient, we may sometimes need to analyse a skill a bit at a
time into its small building blocks, then to rebuild these blocks, the
sub-routines, of our earlier learning, in order to be able to add on the
new learning. There are several alternative psychological models for
doing this.

4 Inbuilt abilities
It is important for youth development workers to recognise the inbuilt
learning abilities of their groups – to work in harmony with the way
that nature has endowed the human species. The evidence of linguists
such as Pinker, working in the general tradition of Noam Chomsky,
suggests that we are born with a structure in the brain known as the
‘Language Acquisition Device’ (LAD). This automatically
understands and recreates the rules of any language in which it is
immersed, providing that the right conditions are in place. By using
methods derived from this research it is possible for learners to
acquire mastery of a new language extremely quickly (Krashen,
2003). It is accepted among scientists working in this area that the
LAD is found in a structure consisting of several related parts of the
brain next to the motor areas that support spoken language
(Butterworth, 1999).
The best conditions for foreign language learning are normally met in
non-formal situations in childhood. The reasons for this are that:
z children are generally not under pressure to speak in a language
community until the basic rules of that language have been
formed in their minds from listening with understanding;
z this happens simply from exposure to or immersion in the
language, in conditions where they are allowed to concentrate on

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Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

the meaning of what is being said, rather than on the form of the
words.
When these conditions are met, the LAD seems able to absorb and
process the grammar and form appropriate grammatical rules.
What young children do naturally has to be carefully constructed
with young adults. This sort of learning has to be adapted to suit
them and their circumstances, and specific learning strategies devised
for specific bodies of learning. We have found, in our own action
research, that these principles that work so well in foreign language
learning, work even better when learners are acquiring new specialist
languages for the sciences and the arts – such as political literacy or
the language of the sociological thinker.
For example, you may be helping a group to set up a small business
enterprise. The learners will have to learn rapidly how to understand
business documents and communicate with funding companies and
other businesses. Think about what you might do to prepare them
quickly for these skills. They need to understand the meaning of what
is being studied. So what ways are there in which you can make
business situations meaningful and realistic when you are delivering
training? They will need lots of exposure to business language and
business communication, both spoken and written, but only when the
meaning is absolutely clear.
This view of language acquisition is very positive for adult learners, if
you can create the right learning conditions, because they have so
much experience on which to draw. This same model has been argued
by Jackendoff (1995) to be applicable to musical learning, social
learning, and artistic learning. Chomsky has argued that we have
inborn, open-ended faculties for acquiring all the main forms of
knowledge that have been developed. Butterworth (1999) describes a
similar model of people’s inborn capacity for mathematical learning.
He calls it ‘our innate Number Module’.
While there has been controversy about what the psychological
processes involved are, the general model is now widely accepted as
being relevant to learning. The model suggests that it is crucial to:
z understand the ideas or the essence of the situations embodied in
the linguistic form. For example, if you understand from
discussion of the real world what a sociological text is really
talking about, then you have no problem in coping with, and
acquiring for your own use, the ‘sociologese’ – the sociological
language registers.
z be exposed to lots of examples of the linguistic or
representational forms in which these ideas are expressed. (For
example, think about arithmetic where you need to work on lots
of examples before the process sticks and becomes a natural part
of your thinking).

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5 Intentional and unintentional


Many of the skills we take for granted, such as speaking our mother
tongue, are the result of unintentional, non-conscious learning. So,
unintentional learning occurs all the time in informal settings and
often goes unrecognised because we are not conscious of it. What we
are advocating in this unit is that you should become aware of these

Unit 1
non-conscious processes and use them intentionally to accelerate
learning.
The reading that follows and the self-help question will help bring
together the aspects of learning discussed so far, namely:
z inner process
z competence and performance
z change
z inbuilt abilities
z intentional and unintentional learning.

Now turn to Reading 1: ‘The automatic systems in the mind’, by Dr


G. Gunawardena. This paper discusses the automatic systems in the
case of learning to crawl and talk, and what this means to learning as
an adult. As you read, think about:
z the points that reflect your own experience, for example of
learning a new language
z the points that you could you apply to your work with young
people.

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Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Self-help question 1.2


(about 10 minutes)
Consider the learning that occurs in the following contexts and
ask yourself what sort of learning is going on (intentional or
unintentional, conscious or non-conscious).
1 A pupil learning to write an essay in school.
2 An adult learning to drive a motor car.
3 A child learning that touching a flame is risky and painful.
4 A son learning to plough a field while working with his
father.
5 A child learning to open up a bottle.
6 An adult learning a foreign language.
7 An infant learning its mother tongue.
8 An infant learning to crawl.
Compare your answers with those provided at the end of the
unit.

6 Meaning and understanding


The most critical element of learning is understanding. When there is
understanding of the underlying ideas of a piece of knowledge,
learners can be exposed to the forms in which this knowledge is
encoded and will be able to understand and acquire these codes.
You can most easily acquire this understanding of new knowledge by
applying it to your own experience, or to examples of experience
described for you, as shown in the following case study.

34 Unit 1: What is learning?


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Case study 1.2


Kes
There is a famous English language film called Kes, in which a
young, semi-literate boy called Billy Casper finds a young kestrel (a
bird of prey) and is determined to train it to hunt. He doesn’t read

Unit 1
well, but has to learn how to train the kestrel. So he steals a book on
hawking and teaches himself to understand this rather complex,
technical book by using the pictures for understanding and
experimenting with the bird to see if it matches what he thinks he’s
learning. He quickly becomes expert in the language and skills of
hawking, and even delivers a lecture to his classmates on this subject.
This is a big change of social and intellectual skill level for him. The
film was based on a true story about real characters known by the
author, who was then a teacher.
What is crucial here is that Billy crosses the boundary between not
understanding and understanding what’s written in the book because
the book becomes meaningful to him through his involvement with
the hawk. And this meaningfulness is the thing that leads to his
understanding the text. This enables him to build the new knowledge
onto what he already knows, and in the process to increase his
reading skills, which in turn leads to more understanding. The
meaningfulness of the book also sustains his interest and motivation.

Ausubel (1963) emphasises the importance of meaning, in particular


in the area of verbal learning. He contrasted effective meaningful
verbal learning with inefficient traditional ‘rote learning’ (memorising
information without it being meaningful). He proposed that being
able to combine and internalise an aspect of new knowledge depends
on the learner’s own knowledge and experience of that aspect.
According to the Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget, the
learner’s existing knowledge about an aspect of knowledge is
organised in one or more schemata (or structures of thought). The
new knowledge is then checked against one of these schemata. If it
does not contradict the schema it is accepted as one more element
within the existing structure. If it does contradict it, the schema may
reject the new learning, or it may be changed to accommodate the
new learning, making it a richer schema.
It is something like this process that must have been happening to the
young boy in Kes. The boy has a schema, based on everyday
knowledge, which tells him that hawks can be trained to hunt and
return to their trainers. He sees a picture in the book of the hawk on
the trainer’s wrist, wonders what the trainer in the picture is holding
out, and reads ‘fresh meat’. That enables him to extend his schema
about hawks being trainable to include the idea of using meat to
attract the hawk and getting it used to perching on his wrist. In this
way, he builds up a sophisticated schema of training hawks that now

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Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

includes some of the formal language of hawking, which he begins to


use well enough to explain the process to classmates.
Learning has to take the learner from the known to the unknown.
The emphasis of both Ausubel and Piaget is that the teacher should
teach by starting with what the learner already knows, then
modifying the learner’s available schemata by introducing new but
closely related knowledge. And, in developing a new schema, learner
and teacher must realise that the schema takes time to form into a
firm cognitive (intellectual) or psychomotor (physical) structure.
Working with adults in this way is a very natural process because of
the huge range of schematic structures already in place, developed
from their life experience. But those schemata may also be too firmly
set for some aspect of new learning to be acquired quickly. They may
reject the new learning because it contradicts their mental set for that
bit of learning.
In the 1920s, Lev Vygotsky developed a theory on the role of
language in learning and thinking. He outlined a model called
‘scaffolding’. This means the mental structure required for
understanding in order to move to the next level of complexity of
learning. This mental structure is built into a schema, or series of
schemata, which make the next level of complexity (the ‘zone of
proximal development’) accessible. This theory is called a social-
cognitive theory because it says that intellectual learning is based on
our socially acquired knowledge and experience. It emphasises the
co-operative basis of knowledge, particularly culture and language.
Culture and language are built up in us through social processes,
without which our intellectual functioning is very limited. Because of
culture and language, we are capable of higher mental functions such
as imagining, reasoning and remembering.
His theory presents a strong argument for carefully designed, socially
based, language-intensive activities that challenge the learners to
expand their perceptions and raise their consciousness. What this
means in an adult learning group is that the learners are invited
throughout to contribute to and control discussion and also the
learning processes. They are not confined to passive learning or
merely book learning. This means that the learning processes are very
active and participative. This approach makes it much easier to link
old and new learning and to adapt old schemata and develop new
schemata.
Reading 2 looks further at these ideas. The self-help question that
follows poses a problem, for which these ideas can suggest a solution.
Now turn to Reading 2: ‘Scaffolding and the zone of proximal
development’, by Dr G. Gunawardena. This reading discusses Lev
Vygotsky’s theory.
As you read, think about ways you could make use of the model of
scaffolding and also the practice of exploratory talk that is described,
in your work with young people.

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Self-help question 1.3


(about 10 minutes)
Think of yourself as a youth development worker somewhere in
your country. You have a mixed-gender group working together

Unit 1
on an environmental project.
You now want to move into a phase of the project where the
organisation of work will be used to break down traditional
gender roles and expectations. You hope this will develop new
social relations among the young people, to prepare them for
the changes taking place in their society.
You have decided to start this process by working together to
develop a project plan. You assume that the compulsion to
take on equal gender roles will automatically begin to bring
about the necessary changes in attitude. But what you find is
that the traditional local attitudes strictly separate male and
female roles. The rigid mental sets of the members of your
group means that they find it extremely difficult to conceive
of things in any other way. What can you do about this? Suggest
the first step you would take to start changing roles and
expectations.
Compare your answers with those provided at the end of the
unit.

7 Transfer
Can the learning be applied to a new situation?
For many, this is the final indicator of whether learning has taken
place – application, a high level of learning in Bloom’s taxonomy,
described earlier. This is called ‘transfer of learning’ (or of training).
It represents an important behavioural change that is related to the
learning process.
The following short case study illustrates the problem of transfer. It is
based on a piece of research in Sao Paolo, Brazil, reported by the UK
Open University. It contains an account of a group of street children
who, from the age of eight until late adolescence, sell food in the
streets of Sao Paolo to earn a living.
The self-help question asks you to apply your learning from this unit
to answer the questions.

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Case study 1.3


Brazilian street traders
The researcher Ana Lucia Schliemann found that a group of young
street traders, who had no school education of any kind, were
remarkably quick and extremely accurate at the following things:
z adding up and subtracting variable quantities of money
z multiplying and adding varying numbers of food items
z subtracting totalled additions from notes of large denomination
z moving effortlessly between the new denominations of the local
currency and the old denominations (the new denominations
consist of the old denominations divided by a thousand)
z breaking down complex amounts into simpler structures and
moving the parts around the sum to make the calculations easier.
The same children were hopeless at school mathematics.

Self-help question 1.4


(about 20 minutes)
Consider the following questions. If possible, discuss them with
others (co-workers and/or tutorial group).
1 How have the young street traders managed to do these
things?
2 Have they acquired any mathematical knowledge?
3 Why can’t they do school maths?
4 If you were a youth development worker assigned to help
these young people, what could you do?
Compare your answers with those provided at the end of the
unit.

8 Practice
Driving a car, playing a musical instrument or performing well in
sport require a lot of experience, or practice. Learning theorists not
only emphasise changes in behaviour. They also stress that these
changes are deepened as a result of experience, or practice. To master
arithmetic we need to be using it everyday to solve problems in
shopping, budgeting and so on. And the nature and quality of that
practice is extremely important, as the examples of great performers
(such as sports people) show.

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In the study of learning, ‘practice’ is a major area of concern. How


you practise is important in developing a high level of ability. Take for
example, in the United Kingdom, the Institute for Advanced
Motorists. It uses a technique whereby the motorists practise on the
road as normal but talk themselves through all the processes that are
happening, so that they pays extra conscious attention to what they
normally do non-consciously. This significantly improves their driving

Unit 1
ability. This principle is supported by what research has shown about
the effects of language on learning (Slobin, 1979).
This technique can be applied widely. For essential psychomotor-
based manual skills, such as bricklaying or drilling, the trainer can
make learners direct their efforts much more precisely, improving the
quality of the movements involved, by the use of language. What
seems to happen is that the words, by drawing attention to the
meaning and the detail of what is being done, sharpen the learner’s
perception. That feeds into the psychomotor system, because these
two areas (perceptual and psychomotor) are closely linked in the
brain.
Spectators don’t generally appreciate that a great deal of the skills
used in sport depend on the link between psychomotor and
perceptual schemata in the brain. In other words, much of the process
is intrinsically mental. The great coaches make use of the research in
this area to increase the performance levels of their athletes, often
employing psychologists and psychotherapists as part of practice.
The great tennis champion, Billie-Jean King, is reported to have spent
the days prior to major tennis matches envisaging what might happen
in the game, and talking herself through all the moves she would
make to counter her opponent’s efforts. Of course, she could not
foresee exactly what would happen, but she was presumably able to
develop a complex mental map that underpinned and sharpened her
perceptual and psychomotor schemata. This was complex enough to
pre-alert her to most of her opponent’s moves.
One of the techniques considered particularly useful for beginners in
a sport has been called ‘the inner game’. Here, the learners are
encouraged to observe closely the quality performers whom they
admire. When they practise the sport, they think of themselves as if
they were those players. They will not be able to perform like their
favourites, but they will absorb non-consciously some of the basic
skills necessary for playing the sport. This is what Jackendoff (1995)
is suggesting when he writes about people being born with a mental
acquisition device that enables them to acquire psychomotor skills
efficiently. Many of the young people who become competent
footballers have possibly been doing this non-consciously when
watching matches on television.
Actors and directors often rely on similar techniques to improve the
quality of performance in films and plays. Many of the great
Hollywood films of the 1950s and 1960s were trained in the ‘Method
Acting’ techniques taught by Lee Strasbourg at the Actors’ Studio in

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Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

New York. In this method, which was influenced by the great Russian
director, Konstantin Stanislavsky, actors use techniques that enable
them to live inside the mind of the character they are playing. They
draw on their own deepest emotions and experiences to bring a
character alive in a quasi-real world. It is as if they are ‘taken over’ by
the character. That generates powerful schemata that underpin and
drive the practice of ‘method’ actors, such as Robert de Niro.
Rehearsals then become ‘inner-directed’ by the way the actors
experience the practice situations emotionally and mentally.
Of course, this is only one theatrical tradition in acting and may be in
conflict with your own tradition. But as one way of transforming
young adults, so that they grow in confidence and personality, it is a
very powerful technique. It is a process of transformation observed in
young people who have learned to act in dramas and have then
transferred these understandings and skills into their everyday
behaviour. Of course, successful experience of the performing arts in
any tradition will probably transfer into everyday life at one level or
another.

Activity 1.2
(about 20 minutes)
Go back to Self-help question 1.1, where you wrote your own
definition of learning.
Review your definition in the light of the aspects covered in
this section of the study guide:
z inner process
z competence and performance
z change
z inbuilt abilities
z intentional and unintentional learning
z meaning and understanding
z transfer
z practice.

If possible, discuss with colleagues or your tutorial group.


Now write your revised definition in your learning journal. We
will ask you to review your definition again later.

40 Unit 1: What is learning?


Module 1: Learning Processes

Key learning theories

Now that you have thought about your own experiences of learning
and looked at aspects of learning that need to be considered in
reaching a definition, it is time to consider theories that can help
explain and define learning.

Unit 1
Many theories of learning have evolved as psychologists and others
have tried to account for what happens when learning takes place. In
describing the evolution of learning theories, we could go back as far
as the ancient Greeks.
However, as we explained in the unit introduction, we are not trying
to give you an in-depth understanding of theories of learning, only
introducing you to some of the key concepts. Reading this should
help you to construct your own theory of how people learn, because
this will act as a schema that you can use throughout this module,
and in your work as a learner and as a facilitator of educational
opportunities for young people.
Learning theories alone could be the subject of a complete module.
We will limit our discussion to some of the main theories, those that
have been developed by psychologists, starting at around the late
1800s. An important thing to keep in mind is that the earlier theories
are not necessarily wrong and later theories right, but that
understanding about learning has become more and more complex as
research has grown. There are useful aspects to all of these theories.
Learning theories can be broadly classified as:
z behaviourist
z cognitivist
z or humanistic.

Though the lines separating these types of theories are not always
clear, using them is a useful way for us to begin.
Some of the important points about each theory are summarised
below. These are followed by a reading that examines the theories in
more detail. Then there are activities and self-help questions to help
you explore each theory further or to apply it.

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Behaviourist learning
In a behaviourist analysis of learning, the idea is that we learn
primarily by responding to external conditions.
Among human beings, behaviourist learning techniques are usually
based on the principles of operant conditioning. Here, people are
essentially free to choose their behaviours.
Learning methods derived from behaviourist theories tend to be
focused on the change and/or development of specific skills. They are
often involved with social skills and are product/outcome oriented.
They stress external motivation and accountability.
A major limitation of behaviourist learning theory is that it describes
only observable behaviours and insists on ignoring what is taking
place inside the mind of the learner.

Cognitivist learning
Cognitivist theorists want to know more about the processes that go
on in the mind of the learner.
For them, the processes of learning are more important than
behavioural changes. Their work throws some light on what is going
on in the mind of the learner.
In this module, we will be advocating learning methods that, to a
significant degree, derive from the cognitivist view: methods such as
discovery learning, process-oriented learning, relying on internal
motivation, networked learning and student choice. Learners need to
be involved in thinking for themselves, developing tools for acquiring
knowledge, problem solving and organising their knowledge.
In essence, cognitivist theories of learning look at three things:
1 types of learning or knowledge
2 information processing and memory
3 metacognition (awareness of the self as a learner; capacity to
understand and monitor one’s own cognitive processes).

42 Unit 1: What is learning?


Module 1: Learning Processes

Humanistic learning
The humanistic models of learning are all concerned with the
uniqueness, the individuality and dignity of each learner and the right
to self-determination.
Humanistic theories emphasise:

Unit 1
z the inborn and powerful human desire to learn
z the importance of the educator’s concern for the perceptions,
needs and feelings of the learner,
z the desirability of self-determination: the need for the learner to
have a strong measure of control over the learning process
z the need for the teacher to be a facilitator, rather than an
‘authority’.
The humanistic emphasis is on the development of the social and
emotional self, which is seen as the key supporting framework for
underlying competence.

Read Reading 3: ‘Key learning theories’, by Dr G Gunawardena and


revised (2007) by Lewis Owen.
Take your time over this reading, relating the ideas in it to your own
definition of learning which you have been developing in the course
of each unit. Do the related activity/ self-help after each section.

Activity 1.3
(about 15 minutes)
This activity applies ideas about behaviourist learning.
Write a response to the following questions in your learning
journal.
1 How might you follow Skinner’s lead and use operant
conditioning for improving the social and practical learning
of young people?
2 With what other kinds of learning would the behaviourist
approach be appropriate for youth development work?
If possible, discuss the behaviourist approach with others (co-
workers and /or tutorial group).

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Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Self-help question 1.5


(about 15 minutes)
This question and Activity 1.4 apply ideas about cognitivist
learning.
Based on what you now know about information processing and
memory, try to think of teaching strategies that promote each
of the following phases of cognitive learning:
1 motivation
2 attention
3 retention (remembering)
4 transfer.
Compare your answers with those provided at the end of the
unit.

Activity 1.4
(about 15 minutes)
If possible, discuss the concepts of information processing and
memory with others (co-workers and/or tutorial group) and
write in your learning journal the ways that you could use
cognitivist concepts to promote learning in your own work.

44 Unit 1: What is learning?


Module 1: Learning Processes

Self-actualisation

(G
DS

RO
EE

WT
Aesthetic

-N
goodness,beauty

H
TA
truth, justice

NE
ME
Cognitive

ED
knowledge, symmetry

Unit 1
S)
Self-esteem
competence, approval, recognition

(D
EF
S Belongings and love
ED

IC
affiliation, acceptance, affection
NE

IE
NC
SIC

Y
BA

NE
Safety

ED
security, psychological safety

S)
Physiological
food, drink

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Activity 1.5
(about 15 minutes)
This activity applies ideas about humanistic learning.
Look at the diagram of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and try to
identify what motivates the majority of young people that you
know. If a person’s basic needs, such as food, shelter and a
safe environment, are not being met, what effect do you think
this will have on their ability to learn? If possible, discuss this
with others (friends, co-workers and/or tutorial group). Write
a response in your learning journal.

In Reading 3 and the related activities you have explored three main
types of learning theories – behaviourist, cognitivist and humanistic.
The last activity in this unit asks you to reflect on how these theories
relate to your own definition of learning, which you drew up at the
start of the unit and reviewed midway through.

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Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 1.6
(about 20 minutes)
Look again at your reviewed definition of learning in your
learning journal entry for Activity 1.2. Add further comments
in the light of what you have now learned. Think about the
following points:
z Has reading about the three key theories changed the way
you define learning? If so, how?
z How do you think you can apply what you have read to
your work with young people? Aim to list at least three new
things you might now try in your work.

Thinking about your definition and understanding of learning should


have helped you bring together your learning in this unit.

46 Unit 1: What is learning?


Module 1: Learning Processes

Unit summary

In this unit, you have covered the following main points:


z your own experiences of learning and your own definition
z aspects of learning that need to be considered in reaching a

Unit 1
definition. These are:
o inner process
o competence and performance
o change
o inbuilt abilities
o intentional and unintentional
o meaning and understanding
o transfer
o practice.
z key learning theories and how they evolved. There are three main
types of theories:
o behaviourist approaches, which see learning in terms of
stimulus and response structures
o cognitivist theories, which are about types of learning,
information processing and memory, and the process of
learning to learn
o humanistic theories, which focus on the individual and the
importance of linking feelings and perceptions to thinking.
z and finally, how your own definition of learning has developed in
the light of what you learned in this unit.
To check how you have got on, look back at the learning outcomes
for this unit and see if you can now do them. When you have done
this, look through your learning journal to remind yourself of what
you have learned and the ideas you have generated.
In the next unit we will look at what is different about adult learning
and at the role of experience in how adults learn – experiential
learning.

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Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Answers to self-help questions

Self-help question 1.1


Given below are some definitions of learning:
‘... a relatively permanent change in the potential for performance as
the result of our past interaction with the environment.’ (Lovell,
1982)
‘... a change in human disposition or capability which persists over a
period of time, and which is not simply ascribable to a process of
growth.’ (Gagne, 1977)
‘... the process whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience.’ (Kolb, 1984).
‘... the process which individuals go through as they attempt to
change or enrich the knowledge, values, skills, strategies and
behaviour possessed by each individual.’ (Brundage and
Mackeracher, 1980).

What are the common elements in these definitions? Three of the


definitions (Lovell, Gagne, and Brundage and Mackeracher) use the
term ‘change’ while Kolb uses the term ‘transformation’.

Transformation is an important word because of its implications.


English educator, James Britton, said that, for him, learning consists
of:
‘... reconstructing your previous knowledge in a new form and then
thinking about this new form and seeing where it leads.’

Definitions of learning indicate that:


z learning is a process and not an end result
z present learning is always based on previous learning, and
z learning is a continuous process that takes place throughout a
person’s lifetime.
Some theorists say that by the time we are about eight or nine years
old we have already got all the basic experience and mental tools to
create any new form of the knowledge available to human beings. All
that learning facilitators need to do is to help learners think about
what they know, and then reformulate this at a higher level of
understanding.
It does not matter if a learner is illiterate or unskilled. By using this
approach you can always begin the process of opening up the innate
and completely open-ended learning systems of the human brain.

48 Unit 1: What is learning?


Module 1: Learning Processes

There are no known ceilings on human learning for anyone who has
not suffered serious brain damage, and even for those with brain
damage, science is beginning to discover all sorts of new possibilities.

Self-help question 1.2


All these, except 7, will probably contain some intentional and

Unit 1
conscious learning, also some unintentional, unconscious elements.
1 and 6 are the most deliberate or intentional.
2 and 4 are very deliberate, but they may depend on a lot of small
unconscious aspects of learning to plough and drive, which have been
absorbed by watching other people, etc.

Self-help question 1.3


Of course, there are situations where it is almost impossible to change
attitudes such as these, without major changes in society, but let’s
assume the situation isn’t as bad as that.
What you’ve got to do is to alter the young people’s understanding of
the meaning of the conceptual framework (the way they tend to see
things usually). Language and meaning are closely related, in the
sense that they act upon each other to bring about mutual growth.
The trick is then to get the group discussing the specific problems of
gender relations they are experiencing. Let them do the talking
(because they have to own the ideas). You can keep the discussion
developing by asking questions about factual information such as:
z Are there any examples of... ?
z What do women do when men ...?
When the discussion deepens, you can ask more searching questions
such as: ‘What would it mean if... ?’
Handled properly (and you can only learn to do this through
practice), most of the underlying assumptions can be brought out and
examined. What you then have is a basis for change. Of course, it
may take a long time to get there properly, and working together on
equal terms is essential to reinforce the ideas, but talking themselves
into change really is feasible. (Later in the module, you will meet the
ideas of Paulo Freire, which discuss this further.)
This consciousness-raising process is partly based upon the research
of Lev Vygotsky who, as we saw earlier, discovered in the 1920s that
although the development of language is essentially automatic, it
requires human interaction for that automatic process to work.

Self-help question 1.4


1 The children have been able to acquire this knowledge because of
two things:

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Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

z the tasks they do are always meaningful, so there is no block


to learning in the mind
z they are doing these tasks all day, watching others do them,
and discovering constantly whether they are right or wrong
by the feedback from customers. They are experiencing
immersion and immediate knowledge of results.
2. What they have acquired mathematically are the following
crucial mathematical principles:
z knowledge of the additive composition of number
z the concept of a ‘set’
z the concept of a ‘function’.
3. The problem with their learning is that they are unable to transfer
it to a new situation, such as school maths, because they have not
discussed and thought about the abstract mathematical principles
underneath what they are doing. Therefore, they are stuck with
the maths of the practical situation.
Because of the meaningfulness of what they are doing and because of
the endlessly repeated activities, the mathematical principles have
been formed in their minds by their automatic learning systems until
they have become second nature. However, school maths is neither
meaningful, nor, because they can’t do the sums at school, is there
any immersion process.
What the school has done is taught them certain rules that they can’t
apply accurately because these rules don’t have any meaning for
them, therefore the automatic system is blocked off. So, what they’ve
got is a first class mathematical ‘grammar’, but it’s limited to the
concrete situations they know.
4. The youth development worker, knowing that the learners need
transferable abilities to cope with changing conditions and the
chance of getting a skilled job, has to:
z help them understand objectively the principles, which they
have developed and use automatically
z help them to develop the skills of transferring these principles
to other situations.
You could use Vygotsky’s scaffolding technique to develop transfer of
learning. One way of doing this is to get the learners to work in
groups to write down the steps by which they do a calculation. Even
better, get them to teach newcomers, using only paper and pencil to
describe what has to be done. They can use drawings to help them,
but they must invent their own number systems to describe the
process, so that a beginner can follow the right steps.
Once they have done that a few times, they will have grasped the
problems involved in developing a notation, and, by setting their own
systems alongside the school method, they should soon be able to see

50 Unit 1: What is learning?


Module 1: Learning Processes

just what the school method is doing. In that way, they will begin to
be able to bring their intuitive sense of what to do out onto the
surface so that they can observe it and use it in different situations.
The conclusion for the youth development workers is that the people
with whom they will be working are natural creative thinkers. If the
conditions are appropriate, then learners should be capable of

Unit 1
learning almost anything and learning it quickly. Where there are
learning blocks, then those have to be unblocked first, of course.
Bruner (1966) says that slow learners are blocked learners, but once
they are unblocked they can cope as well as anybody else.
The act of putting an idea into words, trying it out and getting
feedback from someone you trust, seems to make that idea
meaningful. That is the first stage of shifting any blocks and getting
the automatic systems moving; it’s also the first stage of exposing the
idea in a way that makes it transferable to other things.

Self-help question 1.5


1. Motivation – start with an attention grabber; arouse curiosity.
2. Attention – link what’s being taught to previous learning or
experience; state the goals of the task, lesson or workshop; make
it meaningful to the learner – use the learners’ context.
3. Retention (remembering):
z present information in small chunks (minimum of five,
maximum of seven items at a time)
z include interesting activities that encourage complex
processing rather than rote learning, after each chunk (the
activities need to be relevant to the type of learning)
z encourage practice (rehearsal)
z give feedback to maintain motivation and encourage self-
monitoring.
4. Transfer – activities that require learner to recall and apply new
knowledge or skills to new situations (elaboration).

Unit 1: What is learning? 51


Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

References

Ausubel, D. (1963) The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning,


Grune and Stratton, New York
Baron, R. A. (1997) Psychology, Allyn and Bacon
Block, J. H. (ed.) (1971) Mastery Learning: Theory and Practice, Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, London
Bloom, B. (ed.) (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives – Book 1: The
Cognitive Domain, Longman, London
Boulton-Lewis, G. (1997) ‘Information processing, memory, age and
adult learning’, in P. Sutherland (ed.) Adult Learning: a reader, Kogan
Page, London
Brundage, D. H., and Mackeracher, D. (1980) Adult learning principles
and their application to planning, Ministry of Education of Ontario,
Toronto
Bruner, J. (1966) Towards a Theory of Instruction, Harvard University
Press
Butterworth, B. (1999) The Mathematical Brain, Macmillan, Oxford
Gagne, R. M. (1977) The Conditions of Learning, Rinehart and
Winston, New York
Gleitman, H., Friedlund, A. J., Reisberg, D. (2003) Psychology, W. W.
Norton, New York
Jackendoff, R. S. (1995) Patterns in the Mind: Language and Human
Nature, Basic Books Publishing Co.
Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential Learning, Prentice Hall, Engelwood Cliffs,
New Jersey
Krashen, S. D. (2003) Explorations in Language Acquisition and Use,
Heinemann
Lacey, C. (1971) Hightown Grammar: the school as a social system,
Manchester University Press, Manchester
Lovell, R. B. (1982) Adult Learning, Croom Helm, London
Pinker, Steven. (1999) How The Mind Works, W. W. Norton, New York
Pinker, Steven (1999) Words and Rules, Basic Books Publishing Co.
Slobin, D. I. (1979) Psycholinguistics (2nd edn.), Scott Foresman and
Co., Palo Alto, California.

52 Unit 1: What is learning?


Module 1: Learning Processes

Unit 2: How do adults


learn?

Unit 2
Unit introduction ....................................................... 55
Unit learning outcomes .............................................. 55
Adult learning – what’s special? .................................. 56
Experiential learning .................................................. 58
How adults learn best ................................................. 60
Self-directed learning .................................................. 67
Unit summary ............................................................ 71
Answers to self-help questions .................................... 72
References.................................................................. 73
Module 1: Learning Processes

Unit introduction

Welcome to Unit 2 How do adults learn?


As a youth development worker, you should be able to understand
how adults learn best. You may well already have heard that adults,
when compared with children, have special needs and requirements
as learners. A significant body of research has shown that learning is
a unique activity for every learner, even among children. This is much
more true by the time we reach adulthood in our late teens, because

Unit 2
our unique patterns of learning will have become more marked as we
developed into individuals with unique sets of experiences and
attitudes.
This unit will help you to understand how adults learn and the factors
that have to be considered when dealing with adult learners. It builds
on the understanding of learning in general that you developed in
Unit 1.
This unit has a longer activity at the end, involving a meeting and
discussion with a group of young adults from your community.

Unit learning outcomes

When you have worked through this unit, you should be able to:
z outline the main principles of adult learning and the
characteristics of adult learners
z explain what is meant by experiential learning and evaluate the
theory against your own experience
z relate ideas about adult learning to the experiences of young
adult learners
z select teaching-learning methods that take into account the
characteristics of adult learners.

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Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Adult learning – what’s special?

During the 1960s, European adult educators invented the term


‘andragogy’ to describe the learning of adults, to take account of the
growing body of research knowledge and the applications of new
technology related to adult learning. The term ‘andragogy’ presses us
to ask, ‘What is special about the way adults learn?’ Malcolm
Knowles (1975 and 1978), considered to be the pioneer of modern
adult learning, developed a theory of adult learning that distinguishes
it sharply from the learning of children.
The main principles of Knowles’ theory of adult learning are that in
adults:
z the self-concept moves from dependence towards self-
direction/independence
z there is a reservoir of accumulated experience, which becomes an
increasing resource for learning
z readiness to learn is increasingly associated with social roles (e.g.
the work place, neighbourhood, parenting)
z the orientation towards learning becomes less subject-centred and
increasingly problem-centred (Knowles, 1978).
The most important of these principles is that adults already have a
very significant store of experiences and knowledge, which can be
restructured or used as building blocks for new learning. If used
skilfully, this can accelerate new learning significantly.
For example, adults, unlike children, can learn a new language well
enough to speak and think competently about everyday matters after
a very few weeks – but only if the conditions are right. Think about
the example of successful adult learning in the following case study.

Case study 2.1


Learning French
Michel Thomas, language tutor to the rich and famous, is shown in a
BBC television investigation successfully teaching basic
conversational French in five days in a school setting, to a group of
older British adolescents who had previously failed to learn any
foreign language.
Although he does not fully explain his methods, they are clearly based
on some of the recent ideas about language acquisition, including
pragmatics (the importance of understanding the everyday, social
patterns of language). He is above all a specialist in social
communication.
But his methods are also based on systematic analysis of the subject
itself, as suggested by the cognitive theorists. He creates an

56 Unit 2: How do adults learn?


Module 1: Learning Processes

environment which is above all relaxed, with easy chairs, no boards


for writing on, no information technology. There is nothing to block
the working of the innate language acquisition system. He tells his
students never to try and remember anything, because that will
impede the natural process of acquisition. The language will stick in
the mind of its own accord when the new structure has properly
formed. For the same reason, he asks them never to practise or test
themselves, only to talk in genuinely communicative situations.
Before teaching, he has prepared himself, over eight months, for this
process by cognitive analysis of the structure of the French language
(something he has done with all the main European languages). He

Unit 2
breaks it down to its core patterns and reconstructs those in a
simplified, schematic way. He teaches by getting the students to use in
English the basic conversational phrases that they will now learn in
French. He shows them in English how the French say those things,
then word by word he inserts French vocabulary in place of the
English. Eventually he uses a full English sentence, gets them to
translate it into French a word at a time, then a phrase at a time, then
to reassemble it as a whole sentence. He never tells them a phrase or a
pronunciation, but gets them to work it out from what they already
know. The cognitive, problem-solving processes are always uppermost
(‘learning is based on understanding’). At the same time he shows
how much of the French language is actually the same as English (the
two languages have many elements of common ancestry, of course),
just with different pronunciation. All the time, the students are
building on what they already know, a piece at a time.
What his students say is illuminating. The great film director Woody
Allen, who was taught French by Michel in a weekend, says that his
learning was ‘unblocked by the quality of Michel’s relationship with
me’. His adolescent students said: ‘I don’t need to remember the
words – they just pop into my head’; ‘You can see the words’; ‘He
doesn’t make you feel lost; he always takes you back to what you
know’; ‘ Because you say it in English first, you remember each piece
and it’s easy to build up from there’.

How does the Michel Thomas case study compare with any of your
own experiences of adult learning or language learning?
From the point of view of motivation, it’s clear that the learning
process itself provides the motivation. The students can see an
objective they need and want to reach at every point in the process;
that objective is just at the edge of their ability; it stretches them but
doesn’t scare them; they achieve continuous mastery. All this is
clearly a source of intrinsic motivation. But it’s also crucial that the
extrinsic motivation of the human relationships is supportive and
helps build confidence, and that the physical conditions are right. The
students are made to take on the roles, under Michel’s guidance, of
being self-teachers. They are the roles of adults capable of solving

Unit 2: How do adults learn? 57


Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

problems and achieving the reward of proper communication with a


teacher of high quality.

Experiential learning

It is often said that we learn a certain amount from what we hear, we


learn more from what we see, and we learn most from what we do,
but we learn best from what we hear, say and do.
Experiential learning is an approach that focuses on the importance
of learner participation – on the learner experiencing and doing
things for themselves. This is at the heart of Michel Thomas’ method.
The process of experiential learning emphasises learner involvement
in all aspects of the learning process, including decision-making
about what is to be learned. This takes us beyond Michel Thomas’
method.
The important aspects of adult learning, stated by Carl Rogers (1969),
are:
z Experience is very important in the process of adult learning.
z Feelings are very important in adult learning. Learning needs to
involve both thought and feeling.
z Learning is an internal process and therefore very much linked
with all our other experiences.
What is crucial in experiential learning is that the learners should
reflect on their experience: in other words, they should think about
and discuss it, preferably in a group. Then they can mentally
reconstruct and re-present it in a form that reveals more and more of
its meaningfulness. This is a natural enough process in the human
mind, for we are always thinking back over the rights and wrongs of
what has happened to us. As a youth development worker, you can
help your clients to do this more systematically, and to do so with
specific learning objectives in mind.
Carl Rogers explores the idea at length and identifies ten principles
that underpin experiential learning:
1 Like all human beings, you have a huge natural potential to learn.
2 Significant learning will occur when you perceive the relevance
of the subject matter to your own perceptions and needs.
3 True learning involves a change in the way you see yourself and
the way you organise your life.
4 Learning that threatens the way you see yourself will be more
easily accepted and assimilated when external threats are at a
minimum.
5 Learning occurs when the self is not threatened.

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6 Much significant learning is acquired by doing.


7 Learning is facilitated when you participate responsibly in the
learning process.
8 Self-initiated learning will involve you as an emotional and social
whole.
9 Independence and creativity and self-reliance are all facilitated
when self-criticism and self-evaluation are present.
10 Much socially useful learning is learning how to learn, and
staying open to new experience. In that way, you can easily
incorporate the process of change into yourself.

Unit 2
The very strengths of adult learning groups, the richness and variety
and depth of their experiences, can also present you with problems.
They can be challenging. In fact, you would hope that they will be,
because that is an excellent basis for self-learning. Many adult
learners have developed a strength and confidence from having
entered and survived in the challenging adult world. They may,
however, also have sustained a few scars during that process, from
failures and uncertainties that they faced and perhaps did not manage
to cope with. But these issues can also be the real key to their
development – by your helping them to reflect on and reconstitute
their uncertainties and failures in terms of what can be learned from
them.
These challenges are more complex because adult groups are so
diverse, partly through the range of their age differences, but also due
to differences in their experience of:
z employment/unemployment
z social and economic status
z marital status
z educational level or attainment
z mode of learning and ability to learn (usually preferred learning
styles)
z orientation to learning.
The basis of an experiential approach in youth development projects
is to draw upon the different experiences, knowledge and skills and
hang-ups that adults bring with them. Past experiences provide a
wealth of case studies and examples – especially useful for exploring
and developing members’ attitudes. In building a team your main aim
will be to discover and integrate the individual strengths of each
member. Learn how to use these individual strengths as teaching
resources.

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Activity 2.1
(about 20 minutes)
In your learning journal, say what you think about the truth
and practical application of the ten principles identified by
Rogers, measured against your own experience as a learner. If
possible, think of examples when they have been true for you.
(You may find it useful to look back at your response to Activity
1.1 in Unit 1 What is learning?).

So far in this unit, we’ve looked at how adult learning is special, and
particularly at the importance of experience. The next sections
consider what adults need to help them learn best.

How adults learn best

“Adults learn best when they feel the need to learn and when
they have a sense of responsibility for what, why and how they
learn. Adults use experience as a resource in learning – so the
learning content and process must bear a perceived and
meaningful relationship to past experience. What is to be
learned should be related to the individual’s development
changes and life tasks.”
(Brookfield, 1983).

Use adults’ experience as the building blocks of their learning – this


message comes across time and time again from researchers and
theorists about adult learning. We believe this should also be true of
children, but it is vital with adults. However, Brookfield is saying
much more than that here. His vision is of adult learners being
incorporated into the planning and control processes as well. Their
learning programmes need to be ‘owned’ by them. They will then
take responsibility for their learning.
So what do adults need to help them learn best? The next sections
outline the characteristics of adult learners and what they mean for
adult learning. They are grouped into six themes.
z Treat each person as an individual.
z Tap into inner motivation.
z Understand the learner’s orientation.
z Recognise readiness to learn.
z Value previous experience.
z Self-directed learning.

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As you read, think of examples from your own and your learners’
experiences.

Treat each person as an individual


Brookfield’s statement means that the youth worker should develop
some understanding of each learner’s psychological state in the light
of the stage of growth they have reached and the problems they face,
and then to build on that. That’s not easy, of course.
For example, if a young person has just been rejected by a loved
partner, then they may face a genuine sense of ‘grief ’ and a deep
crisis of confidence, just at the threshold of what should be a stable

Unit 2
interpersonal life. We are being asked then to engage with that
dilemma, in order to enable the learner to deal with it and move on.
We have to be very sensitive, but perhaps above all to allow any of
that hidden agenda to surface when the learner clearly wants to allow
it, and to create the supporting conditions for such feelings to be
integrated into the group culture and the group’s tasks. And we have
to be prepared to be as practically helpful as we can be.
z This is essentially a mentoring role, and will be aided by the
acquisition of counselling skills.

Tap into inner motivation


Knowles stresses that adults are characterised by strong existing
motivations in the form of more or less clear life goals. They create
the basis for a much broader set of learning motivations that often
influence them towards an interest in formal learning, in a way that is
not common among children. They will develop strong inner
motivations to learn only when these are not under stimulus control
from outside.
Children can be motivated by external factors like parental pressure,
rewards from teachers and by being compelled to learn, whereas
adults can not. When adults come into learning they seek to satisfy
often clear, personally felt needs, which may at first be imposed by
changes and demands from outside, such as losing one’s job or getting
divorced. Once the need is established, this generates clear goals and
encourages them to sustain the activity until the goals are attained.
z Satisfaction of a need gives a sense of completion and growing
maturity. It is this that learning facilitators should work towards.

Recognise the impact of life events


As explained above, the adult educator must engage with the whole
person and with the social and psychological effects of the key events
in adults’ lives. According to Knowles, these life events are a
fundamental source of motivation to learn. Often, the most
significant learning we undergo as adults results from some external
event; this acts as a stimulus that motivates us to engage in an activity.
It may produce an uncomfortable reassessment of our lives, which

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our psychological schemata have to accommodate, because it is most


unlikely to be easily assimilated. This external stimulus may well be a
‘calamitous event’ such as losing one’s job, experiencing the death of
a loved one, going to war or coping with a divorce.
z As a teacher, to work within the context of learners’ life events is
very challenging but also deeply interesting.

Give unconditional support to those who have learning


problems
Many adults have experienced a high degree of educational failure
and are marked by it. Therefore their motivation needs sustaining by
giving their learning as much support as you can afford. Our own
experience is that occasionally this support is needed to a remarkable
degree, but that eventually there always comes a point when the
learner will take over and then you can be happy to let go.
z The standard advice for educators is that the learners should be
given only a brief framework of support, but we have found that
this is adequate for only very few adults. Let them tell you when
they are ready to go it alone.

Make learning meaningful


Making learning meaningful, by relating learning to the needs and
experience of the learner, is something that all teachers should aim
for. Youth workers particularly should always seek to do this.
Establishing that a piece of new learning is meaningful creates
motivation, providing that what is to be learned is just beyond the
learner’s present knowledge, but not so far beyond that it looks too
difficult to attain. If learners become really interested in the new
knowledge, they will want to establish its meaning by applying it to
real situations, and to check it against their experience. This is of
course is what professionals do in their work, and it’s a fundamental
aspect of being educated.
z The problem for educators is finding out ways to make learning
meaningful, because it varies from group to group and from
person to person. But this must always be at the centre of your
learning and teaching. Then the learner can use the structures
already in the mind to engage with and retain the new
knowledge.

Understand the learner’s orientation


Our orientation to learning is the way that we look at it as an activity.
It is influenced by our previous experience of learning as young
people. It has a big influence on our initial ability to learn something,
so we need to try and get our orientation focused in a way that will
unblock the learning path.
Our learning orientation tends to be affected strongly by the result we
want. For example, in studying this course you may simply be hoping

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to get through the assessment to get a diploma and the chance of a


job. That is a perfectly acceptable form of orientation. But unless you
then become orientated towards the content of the course and
towards solving the problems it is trying to address, you will find the
experience very hard, slow work. You may learn very little that is of
practical value. It helps to think of it as a form of professional
development, rather like that of a doctor or engineer, but in a mainly
social field.
The essence of adult learning theory is not only that adults build new
learning onto previous schemata, but that their true learning
orientation is towards an intrinsic interest in what is being learned.

Unit 2
While children can often be persuaded to learn simply by passing
examinations or gaining adult approval or other rewards, this does
not work with adults. This is why adults are capable of learning faster
and more effectively than children.
Houle (1984) has identified three types of general orientation in adult
learning:
1 Goal orientated – for accomplishing fairly clear objectives.
Learners do not restrict their activities to any one type of
teaching or one method of learning. The need or interest appears,
and they satisfy it by taking a course or joining a group, reading a
book or going on a trip.
2 Activity orientated – just to be engaged in an activity.
Participation and social contact are the goals, rather than
learning a particular subject.
3 Learning oriented – seeking knowledge for its own sake. May
participate in higher education to develop understanding rather
than for qualifications.
We have to convert these general orientations into specific orientation
to our own programmes. It is therefore important as a learning
facilitator to know what the learner’s individual orientation is and to
be sympathetic to it. Then you can help them to relate what they are
learning with you to their individual pattern of needs and goals. It’s
also crucial however, for the reasons suggested above, that you use
their general orientation to get them to develop an intrinsic interest in
the course content (though sometimes this is difficult) because this
will make the whole of the learning experience meaningful.

Recognise readiness to learn


Motivation and orientation provide the learner with the driving force
to start learning. One other major factor that promotes learning is
readiness to learn. Motivation is one aspect of readiness. Readiness is
really decided by the amount of previous learning and experience that
is related to the proposed new learning; you must try to establish
what that is when you start work on the programme. The learner may
not fully realise how much they already know and may need careful
counselling to establish what that is.

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Take as an example a young woman who was offered the opportunity


of a term’s free university study if she could decide on a project that
she wished to research. She had no idea at all and was baffled, though
she definitely wanted to study for a term at a university, something
that her social background had made impossible before now. It took
half an hour’s discussion with a family friend, who was also an adult
educator, and going through her previous experience, to hit upon the
fact that she had spent a period helping to set up a textile mill for
South African workers, and that she had been very excited by that
experience. She had lots of important questions in her mind about
what all that meant in the global economy and what the results would
be. But those things needed teasing out of her, until they could finally
be formed into a plan for a project.
Readiness is also affected by the learner’s ability and capacity to
learn. This is a problematic area, because, as we have already
suggested, people have far greater powers of learning than is generally
accepted.
z The challenge is unblocking powers of learning by finding where
the learning blocks are: these may be cognitive, emotional or even
physical.

Check prior learning


All learning theorists, but especially Piaget and Gagne, argue that
prior learning facilitates subsequent learning. In Unit 1 (Reading 3:
‘Key Learning Theories’) we looked at Gagne’s theories about classes
of learning and learning hierarchies. He explains that it is important
to learn pre-requisite skills and knowledge before moving on to the
levels above, and finally to problem-solving and other high order
learning skills. Gagne’s theories are useful in assessing what people
can learn next and what may be going wrong for a learner.
Apart from the mental processes, the information required for any
type of learning also forms a part of readiness. During learning,
people usually find it much more effective to go from simple to
complex and known to unknown, because the present state of
knowledge and experience forms the foundation and readiness to
learn more.
The intrinsic interest in the knowledge can take learners to a much
higher level than we might expect. Learners can jump up several
levels in the right circumstances. Role is often the key to this. Where
learners take on the role of expert or teacher (like the boy who trained
the hawk in Kes – Unit 1, Case study 1.2), they will usually be able to
assimilate the appropriate attitudes and some of the expert’s
understanding.
An example of this is where a learning group is subdivided into small
groups, each of which is given the task of teaching an aspect of the
subject being investigated to the rest of the large learning group. The
groups are given access to learning materials, such as audio-visual

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supports, books, computer access where possible, people with


specialist knowledge who they can question, and so on. They are then
asked to prepare short teaching sessions, handouts, learning games or
whatever they can manage that is relevant.
We have found that this raises not just their knowledge levels but also
the levels of their mental operations significantly. The reason appears
partly to be that it increases their commitment to the learning process
and their motivation. More importantly, the goal of having to give
expert explanations seems to sharpen their thinking patterns, giving
these a shape that would normally belong to the expert teacher. They
also take on the formal language of the subject much more readily

Unit 2
than in traditional class teaching, releasing the language acquisition
system from the constraints of being in the subordinate, learner role.
In fact, this method is part of an ideal culture of learning which
should be as close as possible to the culture of the practitioners in that
field – a sort of apprenticeship in the field of knowledge (Seely Brown
et al, 1989).
z Teachers needs to understand the distinct kinds of mental
processes involved at each level if they are to help learners
operate at that level. In this way, a course can become a kind of
training in thinking.

Allow for physical, psychological and health factors


Especially in the case of older people, physical and health conditions
can be deciding factors in readiness. Poor health and debility may
prevent a person from learning, in spite of strong motivation (as
shown by Maslow’s motivational hierarchy seen in Unit 1). Teachers
can help by making time allowances and arranging whatever support
may be made available.
Among adult learners there are often people with physical disabilities,
for example visual and hearing impairments, or problems with
movement that affect walking or writing. Where possible, such
learners should be given access to special equipment or facilities, or it
may be possible to improvise. No matter how severe the disability,
these learners still have motivation and experience.
This may not appear to be as true where the disabilities are
psychological. These may manifest themselves as resistance to
particular kinds of learning, through learners’ fear of new experience,
or their inability to understand the teacher/learner relationship. In
cities especially, you may find a rise in conditions caused by isolation
and drug-taking. The roots of this may be in autistic problems, but
may simply be the result of social conditions. If you can learn about
the nature of the disability, sometimes from the learner or from a
psychology professional who has supported her, that should help to
shape your behaviour. Failing that, then openness of mind is
important.

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z Try not to judge someone’s behaviour until you have learned


more about their condition, and try to adjust your behaviour to
accommodate theirs, as far as is acceptable within the learning
group.

Value previous experience


As we have already mentioned, in Knowles’ adult learning theory,
previous experience occupies a high position. It is considered to be
the major resource and prerequisite for learning. Adults possess a
wealth of experience, developed throughout their lives.
How can we use this experience? As an example let’s look at adults
from different trades and occupations and consider the importance of
making the link between their experience and new learning. Read the
following case study about farming, drawn from the work of farming
support services in Kenya.

Case study 2.2


Pest control: linking experience and learning
People who have been engaged in farming over a period of time have
gained first-hand experience of learning by doing and reflection. This
experience helps them in the general process of developing concepts
for themselves, understanding processes and solving problems (for
example: forecasting weather, supplying water to the crops, fertilising,
weeding, using different types of crops, working in harmony with the
seasons and change of seasons). These processes show that they have
constructed a series of mental systems, often without formal learning,
which they can use as a method of working.
Much of the detail of that learning has been absorbed at the level of
non-conscious learning, on the skeleton of the things they have
thought about and done consciously. That detail is important and
they need help in reflecting on the non-conscious process and in
bringing it to bear on new areas of knowledge.
Suppose that you are helping these farmers to use organic methods of
farming for the control of pests. They may know nothing about using
formal botanical science to prevent the next generation of a crop
predator. They will, however, have absorbed a great deal about the life
cycle of the predator because they will have noticed its eggs, then its
larvae and so on.
This semi-systematised knowledge can be explored by first asking
them to represent in some way what they already know. The
predator’s life cycle can be clarified with drawings or objects used to
represent the stages of growth. Then the principles of how a botanist
can intervene in this cycle can be inserted into the model. This can be
done inductively. If the life cycle is clear and detailed enough, and if
enough is known about the life conditions for these stages of growth,
then it should be possible, by guided questioning, to see where the life

66 Unit 2: How do adults learn?


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cycle can be broken. However, you may have to insert the crucial bits
of scientific knowledge if they are at all specialised. The learners can
ask questions, toss ideas about and so on. To monitor and evaluate
the processes of using organic methods, they can add scientific
observation and testing to the normal methods they use for evaluating
their own crops.
(The Open University, UK has some excellent case studies of this
kind of programme from the Mount Kenya area).

Jarvis (1987) further emphasises the importance of experience when

Unit 2
he says:
“... learning then, always begins with experience; there can be
no learning that does not begin with experience, although the
level of consciousness of the learner plays a significant part in
both the experience and the learning.”
What the Kenya farming support services are doing is to raise that
level of consciousness.
Knowles stresses the application of contemplation and reflective
practice – the learning processes used in problem-solving.
z Experience forms a strong foundation for learning, if the
facilitator can help learners make the link between their
experience and the new learning.

‘Unlearn’ negative experience


Experience can also have a negative effect on learning (Knox, 1977),
creating a necessity for ‘unlearning’. By ‘unlearning’ we mean, for
example, getting rid of habits, myths and erroneous methods and
attitudes. This can be difficult. In such instances, experience has a
negative effect on adult learning and this can be compounded by the
difficult experience of unlearning.
z ‘Talking it through in a group’ can help in this process. So can the
process of ‘reflection’ and ‘representing our knowledge to
ourselves’ in some form.

Self-directed learning

Finally, the most important characteristic that Knowles has identified


in adults is that they can become self-directed and that they often
prefer this. The tendency towards self-direction is within every learner
to varying degrees, but it is usually more evident in adults than in
children. This is particularly obvious when we compare adults and
children in formal learning settings.

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The earliest definition of self-directedness given by Knowles (1975) is:


‘a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the
help of others, in:
z diagnosing their own learning needs
z formulating learning goals
z identifying human and natural resources for learning
z choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies
z assessing learning outcomes.’
The learning facilitator’s main purpose in using the process of self-
directed learning is to produce lifelong learners. Knowles suggested
that the process will develop in learners an abiding interest in self
improvement and confidence.
As a teaching technique, self-directed learning is indispensable in the
education of adults for a number of reasons:
z It allows learners to work on individualised programs that
accommodate their developmental stage, capacity, needs and
experiences.
z Adults have individual identities based on past experiences of
success or failure in educational situations, and they may have
anxieties to deal with. Self-directed learning allows learners to
progress at their own comfort level and speed.
z Self-directed learning frees the teacher from trying to motivate
and address the needs of all members of a group at the same
time. Learners can work independently on their special learning
programmes, with support from the teacher, facilitator or peers.

Self-directed learning skills


So what does self-directed learning involve?
When starting someone on an individualised self-directed
programme, the facilitator must assess whether the learners have the
required self-directed learning skills. If they don’t, the facilitator can
teach these skills them.
Learners need to be able to:
z identify their own needs and learning goals
z identify gaps in their knowledge and skills
z identify and use learning resources
z self-assess their own progress.

Identifying needs and learning goals


Learners need to be able to:
z state the learning goals or objectives very clearly

68 Unit 2: How do adults learn?


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z make them meaningful by putting them into a meaningful


context.
For example, a learner may need to get a loan from the bank to start a
business. The learning goal may be developing the ability to write a
business plan. To make this meaningful, the learner should be able to
visualise, then analyse the precise nature of a specific business,
identifying all the elements where the borrowing and repayment of
money are involved. It would help if the learner were to talk to a
business person running the same kind of business.

Identifying gaps in knowledge and skills

Unit 2
Learners need to develop the ability to identify gaps in their
knowledge and skills, especially those that they have identified as pre-
requisites. They also need to learn how they can fill those gaps,
perhaps by using other people’s expertise or turning to another
learning resource.

Identifying and using learning resources


Finding and using available resources is another skill that can be
developed through the use of a self-directed learning programme.
Facilitators need to help learners become aware of the resources that
they can use, for example, peer expertise, family members, libraries,
browsing in bookshops, newspapers and TV. Of course, there are also
more formal education settings that may be appropriate at some
stages of learning.
Developing such strategies is crucial, and can be done very readily
after a bit of experience. Teachers and learning facilitators do this
frequently as part of their preparation.

Self-assessing progress
Self-directed learning also lends itself to self-assessment of progress.
Learners need to judge whether they have really understood
something properly, and if they haven’t, the reasons why. If the
learning objectives are understood very clearly and they are
meaningful, then it is much easier for learners to self-assess whether
or not they have achieved the right level of learning.
Learners may find this difficult. At school, learners are almost always
told by their teachers whether they have got something right or not,
and that may be a difficult expectation to change. It helps to give the
sort of feedback that gradually facilitates self-assessment of progress.
Once the habit of self-direction is established, this process becomes a
lot easier.
Now test out the ideas you have learned about in this unit, by talking
to some young adult learners.

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Activity 2.2
(This is a longer activity. Allow time for the discussions, plus
about 30 minutes to write up findings.)
Meet with a small group of young adults from your community
and discuss with them the sort of things they would like to
learn and why. Then describe some non-formal methods of
learning that they could use. Find out their different learning
preferences and the reasons for these preferences.
Discuss your findings with others (friends, co-workers and/or
tutorial group). Try to relate your findings to the concepts you
have learned in Units 1 and 2, about learning and how adults
learn.
Then describe your findings in your learning journal (about 30
minutes).

In this unit we have looked at the adult learner from different


perspectives. You have seen that when the nature of the adult learner
is taken into consideration, the principles of teaching have to differ
significantly from those of the traditional forms of teacher-centred
education.
With this distinction in mind, go back over the unit again and revise
the characteristics of adult learners and the teaching-learning
methods that take into account those learner characteristics. Then do
Self-help question 2.1.

Self-help question 2.1


(about 30 minutes)
Draw up a table like the one below. In the left-hand column,
describe some of the characteristics of adult learners and
against each of these in the second column describe what you
would do to facilitate their learning. Discuss this with others
(friends, co-workers and/or tutorial group).

Characteristics of adult Teaching / learning methods


learners

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of the


unit.

70 Unit 2: How do adults learn?


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Unit summary

In this unit you have covered the following main points.


The ways in which adult learning is different from the learning of
children:
z The role of experience in adult learning (both as a mode of
learning and as a resource that adult learners bring with them).
z The characteristics of adult learners and what they need to learn
best.

Unit 2
z The concept of self-directedness.

You have learned that opportunities for self-directed learning satisfy


the needs to:
z diversify the learning environment
z individualise the learning experience
z tap diverse learning resources in the community
z establish lifelong learning skills and attitudes in the learners.

You have also been introduced to some strategies that facilitators can
use for adult learning programmes.
To check how you have got on, look back at the learning outcomes
for this unit and see if you can now do them. When you have done
this, look through your learning journal to remind yourself of what
you have learned and the ideas you have generated.
In the next unit we will look at the philosophical and psychological
ideas that underpin this Diploma’s approach to learning.

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Answers to self-help questions

Self-help question 2.1


Characteristics of Teaching/learning methods
adult learners

They have many Use an experiential approach, i.e. project


differences. participation. Draw on experience and
differences. Use individual strengths to
build a working team.

Inner motivation. Use dialogue to establish:


z needs
z life events that have prompted the
needs
z what will make the learning
meaningful.
Build on what is known.
Apply to real situations.

Orientation (goal-, Encourage dialogue and reflection to


activity- or develop awareness of learners’
learning-oriented). orientation to learning.

Readiness. Use observation and encourage dialogue


and reflection to establish:
z what the learner already knows (stage
of learning)
z what they are ready to learn now
z their capacity to learn.

Previous Make full use of learners’ previous


experience. experience, through:
z contemplation
z reflective practice
z dialogue
z problem-solving (real situations).

Self-directedness. Teach learning skills (required for


independent, self-directed learning):
z identifying needs and goals
z identifying gaps in knowledge and
skills
z identifying and using learning
resources
z self-assessment of progress.

72 Unit 2: How do adults learn?


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References

Brookfield, S. (1983) Adult Learner, Adult Education and the Community,


The Open University Press, Milton Keynes
Gagne, R. M. (1977) The Conditions of Learning, Rinehart and
Winston, New York
Houle, C. O. (1984) Patterns of Learning, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco
Jarvis, P. (1987) Adult Learning in the Social Context, Croom Helm,
London

Unit 2
Knowles, M. S. (1975) Self-directed learning, Association Press, Follet
Publishing Co.
Knowles, M. S. (1978) The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species, Gulf
Publishing Co., Houston, USA
Knox, A. B. (1977) Adult Development and Learning, Jossey-Bass, San
Francisco
Rogers, C. R. (1969) Freedom to Learn, Merril, Columbus
Seely Brown, J., Collins, A. and Guguid, P. (1989) ‘Situated
Cognition and the Culture of Learning’ in Educational Researcher (Jan-
Feb)

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74 Unit 2: How do adults learn?


Module 1: Learning Processes

Unit 3: Education for


all

Unit introduction ....................................................... 77


Unit learning outcomes .............................................. 77

Unit 3
A positive philosophy of learning ............................... 78
Developing the whole person ...................................... 79
Lifelong learning ........................................................ 88
Guiding principles ...................................................... 90
Unit summary ...........................................................104
Answers to self-help questions ...................................105
References.................................................................108
Module 1: Learning Processes

Unit introduction

Welcome to Unit 3 ‘Education for all’, which outlines a philosophical


and psychological perspective that supports the aim of education for
all.
In Unit 1, you were introduced to some of the attempts to define
learning. You also learned about key theories of learning. Unit 2
focused on how adults learn.
This unit outlines the positive philosophy of ‘education for all’ and
explores what this means in terms of developing the whole person
and lifelong learning. It develops the themes from Unit 2 about
characteristics of adult learners and how they learn best.
The unit introduces abstract philosophical and psychological ideas

Unit 3
that explain the theoretical basis for the practical approaches in later
units. It also brings in practical activities to help you to relate the
ideas to examples and your own experiences.

Unit learning outcomes

When you have worked through this unit, you should be able to:
z outline the principles that underpin the ideas of education for all,
developing the whole person and lifelong learning
z apply the principles to practical examples and problems to do
with developing the whole person.

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A positive philosophy of learning

Education around the developing world has often consisted of


systems where limited resources and post-colonial values have meant
excluding large numbers of people from experiencing the deeper
levels of learning. This has tended to limit to an elite what could be
made available to very large numbers of people. Of course, resources
are still limited, but we now know from physiological, social and
psychological research, that, approached properly, the deeper levels of
learning can be made available to a wide spectrum of society without
massive increases in funding.
Read the following extract. The argument here is based on a good
deal of research and also influenced by the ideas of Marx, as
discussed later in this unit.
No limits to learning?
“So far there have been discovered no limits to the human
capacity to learn. From earliest times, however, men in
positions of power or influence have suggested that the learning
capacity of certain individuals or groups is severely limited and
that they should not be expected to profit greatly, if at all, from
education. These so-called ‘uneducable’ individuals have
usually been members of minority or disadvantaged groups.
However, repeatedly, when their cultural disadvantages have
been removed, these groups have shown that their previous
failure to learn has been due not to lack of capacity but to lack
of fully realised opportunity.”
“These findings have led educators to be much more modest
and less hasty in their labelling and classifying procedures. It
has been realised that labels affixed to children tend to become
self-fulfilling prophecies, that those who are expected to learn
usually do so, and those who are expected to fail to learn also
usually do so. Hence, when educators resort to classifying
children at all, they increasingly tend to use their labels as
temporary rather than permanent, as saying something only
about a quality of the child rather than about his person, and as
something to be abandoned as soon as the child’s performance
proves the label wrong.”
“Similarly, no one has been able to confirm any certain limits to
the speed with which people can learn. Schools and universities
have usually been organised as if to suggest that all students
learn at about the same rather plodding and regular speed.
However, whenever the actual rates at which different people
learn have been tested, nothing has been found to justify such an
organisation. Not only do individuals learn at vastly different
speeds and in different ways, but also they seem capable of
astonishing feats of rapid learning when the attendant
circumstances are favourable. It seems that, in customary

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educational settings, one habitually uses only a tiny fraction of


one’s learning capacities.”
Philosophies of the Branches of Knowledge, Encyclopaedia Britannica (1996)

It’s important to remember that the philosophical position adopted by


the writers of this Diploma is very much a part of the intellectual
history of the northern hemisphere. You may come from the southern
hemisphere and different intellectual and religious traditions.
Therefore the principles outlined here may feel partly alien to your
sensibilities. That is perfectly understandable, and if it is the case, we
hope that you will still gain much from the material.
What we want above all is that you develop a philosophical view of
your own that helps you get to grips with the real problems that you
face in your work. That view may well be drawn partly from the
religious and/or intellectual traditions of your society. Providing that
it is coherent and gives you realistic support in fulfilling the aims and

Unit 3
objectives of the Diploma, then that is fine. We do, however, ask you
to work your way through this unit carefully, to understand and
evaluate the guiding philosophical influences on the Diploma
material. Take your time over the ideas and compare them to your
own ideas and experiences.
The quotation from the Encyclopaedia Britannica explains why the
writers of this Diploma consider that an educational philosophy that
supports elite and exclusive learning is totally contrary to youth
development work. The concept of youth development was generated
in the democratic ethical framework summarised by ‘equal social
justice for all’: for us, this also means ‘equal education for all’. Youth
development workers are involved in both formal and informal
training and education, and we work with young people who are
generally marginalised by the effects of current global economics. We
see education for all as the keystone to successful youth development
work. In this unit we start by exploring education for all from two
perspectives:
z developing the whole person, or total development
z lifelong learning, or developing people throughout their lives.

Developing the whole person

All the major philosophies of education in the Northern tradition


have begun with the assumption that the purpose of education is to
develop the whole person. The emphasis may be ‘empiricist’ (as in
behaviouristic theories) or ‘rationalist’ (as in holistic theories). These
terms are explained later in this section.
The practical reason is that when someone is being educated the
whole person is involved all the time, even on a specific programme
such as training for work skills. We also bear this in mind when we

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talk about ‘learning domains’ and ‘types of learning’. It is convenient


to break things down in this way when we analyse what is involved in
learning. But the end purpose is to educate and empower the whole
person, not only with marketable skills, but also with self-esteem,
social skills and positive attitudes, and with thinking and learning
skills that will develop over a whole lifetime.
In Unit 1, we looked at the work of Benjamin Bloom and the three
domains of learning: psychomotor, cognitive and affective. While it is
convenient to compartmentalise the learner’s abilities, the individual
does not really function or develop within compartments. The
individual is a thinking, feeling, doing ‘whole person’. The aim of
education, therefore, should always be to manage the learner’s
development in all of the three domains together.
As we saw in Unit 1 when we looked at the automatic learning
systems in the mind, the unconscious mind tends to work as a whole,
even though we see that the conscious mind, at any point in time,
tends to operate in small compartments.
For further background, read Reading 4: ‘The nature of knowledge’.
Here, Dr G. Gunawardena explores further the nature of knowledge
in the light of the three domains and ways of applying the ideas.

Total development
The concept of ‘total development’ in all three domains has
implications for the learning process.
Over the last decade, the idea of ‘emotional intelligence’ has become
a major theme in education. For example, in the education of
children it is understood that unless teachers can teach children to
manage the emotional aspects of their learning behaviour and mental
attitude, their emotions can impede their cognitive learning. It has
become much more obvious in turbulent schools in rich countries that
teachers have to manage their classes’ emotional education if they are
to teach anything successfully. But taught properly, these abilities can
enable learners to use their emotional energies as a powerful tool to
shape their social and cognitive learning.
This would also be true of their psychomotor abilities, which are so
important in physical activity of any kind, from playing for the school
basketball team to becoming a brain surgeon. For example, the
pioneering work of Rudolf Laban, the great dance teacher, began
with a study of how to improve the quality of the work experience of
manual workers. Fine-tuning their physical movement fed into the
quality of their emotional and social lives, as well as enhanced job
performance.
The theory is that the fine-tuning of each of the three domains within
a powerfully integrated framework means that all domains are
enhanced and the whole person develops more rapidly – holistic

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learning. To achieve this there is a need for a diversity of teaching-


learning approaches at most points within the learning situation.
Read the following explanation of holistic learning, which sums up
the general position in contemporary philosophy.
Holistic learning
“Human learning concerns the whole person. The intellect is
not the only agent of learning. The body, the emotions, and the
will share this activity. Moreover, the process cannot be limited
to any one of these domains without affecting the others.
Educators are most conscious of intellectual learning, which
tends to play the largest part in their plans and intentions. But
there is increasing evidence that makes clear the folly of
attempting to confine education to the training of intellects. If
the teacher does so, s/he is destined to fare badly, for the child
who is emotionally frozen or whose stomach is empty or who is

Unit 3
determined to thwart the teacher will not perform intellectually
as the teacher intends.”
“Educators are also becoming aware of the other side of the
coin – that is that the learner’s powers are vastly enhanced when
not only his intellect is stimulated but also when his feelings are
respected, his body is nurtured, and his will to learn is
strengthened. Effective education, therefore, is found when the
learner is regarded as a person to be respected, nurtured,
strengthened and stimulated, rather than just as an intellect to
be trained.”
Philosophies of the Branches of Knowledge, Encyclopaedia Britannica (1996)

These ideas have their philosophical origins to a significant extent in


the work of Karl Marx and the humanistic aspects of Marxist theory,
and in the educational ideas of Jean Jacques Rousseau (outlined later
in this unit).

The influence of Marxist theory


Marxism sees human beings as agents who continually construct the
world anew around what they find there and around their
understanding of what is possible. In doing so, they at the same time
construct themselves and their abilities anew. To do this they have to
be organised into a social structure, and that structure is sometimes
hostile to the changes that people would like, so conflict arises
between those social classes that are moving forward and those that
are controlling the present system for their own benefit. Marx saw no
real limits to human development other than the potential of the
material world’s resources. But he did see how powerfully reactionary
social classes controlled the ideas and actions of the progressive
classes.

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The essence of holistic education is in the last sentence of the


Encyclopaedia Britannica quotation – that the learner should be
regarded as a person, not just an intellect. The heart of the holistic
learning process is a relationship of mutual respect between learner
and teacher. Read the following case study about the work of Mrs
Muriel Pyrah.

Case study 3.1


Mrs Muriel Pyrah
Mrs Muriel Pyrah, one of the UK’s finest primary teachers (from the
1930s to the 1970s), used to say that what children needed from
teachers most of all was love – the love of equal spirits who listened
to each other with respect and attention.
Given this, her children, from a working-class, coal-mining town
called Castleford in the north of England, became the subject of
films, television and radio programmes around the world, for the
quality of their artistic work, their writing and scientific
investigations. This love expressed itself in the creation of an
environment where children worked concentratedly on learning
projects, art, scientific investigation, writing, voluminous amounts of
reading and at the same time were engaged in public classroom talk
about their discoveries and about intellectual topics of immediate
interest.
Whatever they said (and they spoke very freely but always seriously,
managing intuitively the rules of sustained oral interaction) was
listened to with great attention and responded to either by Mrs Pyrah
or by other children. This talk was always focused and of a high,
formal quality which somehow served to sharpen and intensify their
perceptions of whatever they were doing. Throughout, her focus was
on the quality of the social relationships in the class and on the
process of drawing out children’s insights. The level of emotional
intelligence was very high throughout the class; their physical
movements, in and around the classroom and in their scientific
experiments and art work, were deft and precise, and their cognitive
work highly focused and powerfully reasoned.
Over many years, Mrs Pyrah’s work epitomised the attainment and
integration of the objectives in all three domains. Her work showed
that learners need to be exposed to experiences that help them to
acquire insight and a sense of meaningfulness, so that the automatic
learning processes can be switched on. This must be the explanation
for the remarkable linguistic expertise and astonishing depth and
range of the children’s learning, which could not possibly have been
acquired from what they were told. Once they had established the
basic cognitive, affective and psychomotor schemata of their studies,
the intrinsic motivation of that classroom meant that they did an
enormous amount of work effortlessly, which effectively meant a

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remarkable amount of practice, far more than one might find in a


formal classroom.

As we saw in Unit 1, the cognitive theorist Jean Piaget says that the
process of laying down neurologically the basic patterns (schemata)
for an activity is done through assimilating new examples to the
existing schemata. In the process, the schemata are made to
accommodate the new examples. Although this is true in principle for
all three domains, cognitive abilities are approached somewhat
differently from affective and psychomotor abilities. It is important
that the facilitator understands how to create the best conditions for
learning in each domain, as well as holistically. That involves
analysing what the nature of the form of knowledge is, and what part
of that knowledge is being dealt with at a given time.

Unit 3
What kind of knowledge? What kind of learning?
To tackle the question: ‘What kind of knowledge?’ we need first to
explore the concepts of ‘rationalism’ and ‘empiricism’. Underpinning
the work of teachers like Mrs Pyrah was an intuition that children
had enormous inbuilt potential for mental development, an
intellectual power that would grow irresistibly if it were given the
right circumstances in which to grow. She realised that it couldn’t be
taught as such, because of the sheer volume of knowledge and mental
strategies involved, which no teaching system had time to implant.
What she felt was that it would unfold from the general mental
structures that everyone is born with. The roots of that lie in a
particularly modern version of classical rationalism.

Rationalism
Rationalism consists of various philosophies that emphasise that the
part played by people’s ability to reason when acquiring and
evaluating knowledge is more significant than the part played by
experience, and that we are born with this abstract power to reason.
The twentieth-century version of this philosophy was the theory that
we are born with pre-structured general categories of thought in our
minds. These determine the structure and remarkable speed of our
linguistic development and the rapid development of structures of
thought. All we need to develop thought and language and number
systems is the kind of experience and conditions that trigger the
underlying, rational, inborn, creative processes. (You have already
met this idea in Unit 1, in the account of Chomsky’s and Jackendoff ’s
theories. It is also there in the work of the cognitive theorists, though
slightly more subdued.)
z If this is true and if we can build our learning facilitation around
this then we can accelerate young people’s learning significantly.

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Empiricism
Empiricism is a very ancient philosophical argument but still central
to educational thought. It says that knowledge is always at base
founded on sense experience. Therefore our concepts depend upon
the experience our senses provide for us. Of course, in education we
often have to rely upon the sense-based observations of others who
are researchers and thinkers. Our sense knowledge of these ideas is
second hand but it is still knowledge gained from sense experience.
For educational facilitators, what follows from this idea is that they
must try to understand how sense experience can best be formed into
mental patterns, and how patterns of reasoning can be built up from
sense experience. The emphasis is always on increasing the quality of
learners’ experience of the world and reflecting back skilfully on that
experience in order to build up thought.
A powerful strand of the educational ideas in this module is based on
this view. The psychologists who are entirely empiricist are, of course,
the behaviourists. In practice, most educators use a combination of
rationalist and empiricist theorising, some with more emphasis on
rationalism, some with more emphasis on empiricism. A facilitator
such as Mrs Pyrah placed enormous emphasis on empirical scientific
and social research despite her strong rationalist approach, which
expressed itself in the talk-based curriculum: for example, her pupils
did an enormous amount of practical scientific investigation.
The self-help questions and activities that follow are designed to help
you think about conditions for learning in the three domains –
cognitive, affective and psychomotor – and to apply the theory to
practical examples.

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Self-help question 3.1


(about 20 minutes)
A youth leader in your country is preparing a young woman who
is seeking election on the local council. She has to:
z prepare a written manifesto
z speak several times on public platforms
z go from house to house in the local town meeting
individual families who work on local agri-business cash
crop farms
z speak to local small farmers.
What kinds and levels of knowledge must she master, and how

Unit 3
best can the youth leader get her to master these quickly?
Discuss this with others (co-workers and/or tutorial group) and
then make some notes in your learning journal.
Before reading on, compare your answers with those
suggested at the end of the unit.

Activity 3.1
(about 10 minutes)
Discuss with others what you think some of the elements of
emotional intelligence might be, and then write down your
thoughts in your own words, in your learning journal.

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Self-help question 3.2


(about 10 minutes)
Think of a situation in which you are doing something as a
group. One of the youths in the group, with whom you have
had a few awkward moments in the past, suddenly starts
fighting with another youth.
You ask them to stop and he shouts some very rude words at
you and tells you that you are hopeless as a youth leader. How
do you handle this?
Discuss with others (family, peers, co-workers and/or tutorial
group) and write a response in your learning journal.
Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the
unit.

Activity 3.2
(about 20 minutes)
Observe the process of skill learning in any situation familiar to
you. For example:
z learning to drive a vehicle
z learning to write a letter
z learning to operate a sewing machine
z learning to make a cake
z learning to repair electronic equipment
z any other skill relevant to you.
Record your observations in your learning journal. Consider
what the different forms of knowledge involved consist of.

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Self-help question 3.3


(about 15 minutes)
Imagine that you are working with a group of young people on
a project building small dams for preventing soil erosion of the
river beds and banks in a hilly area. This involves quite heavy
physical activity, using sledge hammers to break rock and
arrange it in shock-absorbing screens of netting wire. Strong
hands and arms are needed to move them into position, but
also sensitivity to the soil structure, so that minimal damage is
done.
How would you teach the appropriate psychomotor skills?
Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the
unit.

Unit 3
Symbolic processes
Symbolic emphasis
“... it is to be noted that human learning is largely dominated by
symbolic processes. Much of the learning that human beings
acquire during their lifetimes is gained through their growing
ability to understand and manipulate symbols – verbal,
mathematical, artistic, musical and so on.”
“This symbolic emphasis gives human learning much of its
power... The symbolic emphasis also brings dangers. It can trap
people into circling around at a high level of generality without
ever feeling the need to tie abstractions to concrete
applications.”
Philosophies of the Branches of Knowledge, Encyclopaedia Britannica (1996)

This quotation is a timely warning for youth workers as well as


teachers, about the dangers of over rationalising and not being based
firmly enough in empirical experience. You should also think about
the notion that in all activities, even in physical activity, there is a
sense in which all actions can have a symbolic quality. This can be
utilised to great effect to intensify the quality of empirical experience.
It was noticeable in Mrs Pyrah’s classes (Case study 3.1) that the
children used socially high language registers in their public speech.
However, their talk always had a firm basis in first-hand empirical
experiences, through their practical investigations, or in second-hand
empirical experiences, through their reading. So the meaning of what
they were reading and saying and writing was always clear. Their use
of language meant that they very quickly became skilled with the
sorts of formal written registers of academic subjects. They did not

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find this a problem, because they were subjected to formal talk daily
on television and they were reading so many books that complex
written registers became very familiar to them. As contemporary
rationalists (such as Chomsky) argue, children have an in-built
language acquisition system that rapidly enables them to formulate
the grammar of high registers until they become their own.
For example, if you live in a country that is multi-lingual, you will
have experience of how children learn two or more languages at the
same time without any problem, despite enormous differences in
grammar. If you have trained to become an expert engineer or nurse,
you will also notice how quickly and easily you acquired the formal
language of that role. This is what the contemporary rationalists are
commenting on.
However, this high-level language has the symbolic weight of
authority and expertise – public confidence. Choosing to talk in that
way, under the guidance of the teacher, had the symbolic effect of the
children’s taking on of formal roles, the sorts of roles that teachers,
managers, experts have. That role-taking in turn made accessing the
knowledge of specialists much easier.
Take another example, which looks at utilising the techniques of the
‘inner game’. If you pretend to be your favourite cricket player when
you go out on the field, doing this will very rapidly improve your
grasp of basic skills. The skills you are emulating are those of your
favourite players and they symbolise the glamour and power of great
cricketers. This symbolic role-taking is powerfully energising to your
usual skill-acquisition process.
In the example of the young street mathematicians from Sao Paolo
(Unit 1, Case study 1.3), the balance was too much on the concrete
world and needed a little more of the symbolic to allow them to move
forward. The balance was empirical and needed rational reflection to
facilitate progress.
In this section we have looked at what is meant by ‘developing the
whole person’ particularly in terms of the three domains – cognitive,
affective and psychomotor. We have looked at rationalist and
empiricist philosophies about ways of acquiring knowledge and the
influence of these in learning and teaching.

Lifelong learning

‘Education for all’ means that as well as developing the whole person,
learning should be possible throughout life.
Lifelong learning is vital to our economic and social development,
particularly in poverty reduction as people lose their livelihoods and
jobs in the global economic revolution. The lifelong learning principle

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is based on the psychological research that shows that it’s never too
late for learning.
As currently understood, lifelong learning is a concept that covers all
forms of learning, both within and outside the formal education
system. Adult or continuing education are just two illustrations of the
use of lifelong learning opportunities. The lifelong learning principle
also shifts the attention from the learning ‘system’ or ‘institution’ to
the nature of the learner; it encourages learners to take more
responsibility for their learning.
z Economic necessity and more: it has become an increasing
economic necessity for many people to upgrade their skills
continually wherever technological and social development
occurs: some skills learned through school education can become
outdated even by the time the learner enters the world of work.
However, the philosophy of lifelong learning is meant to serve a

Unit 3
purpose much broader than social and psychological necessity.
z Self-realisation: even formal education is now considered a
preparation for lifelong learning, through ‘self-realisation’. It has
to develop skills, attitudes and interests, and a whole set of
personality characteristics that will enable learners to continue to
extend their capacity for controlling their own development
throughout their lives.
z Democracy: despite the current wide-ranging critique of the
political use of the concept of democracy in the new world order,
democratic philosophy seems to be the only political philosophy
that entails access to education as a fundamental individual right.
When democratic philosophy’s main entailments – individual
autonomy, individual responsibility and the need to abolish
privilege – are considered, it becomes clear that lifelong learning
must be essential to realising the democratic ideal.
z Skills for growth: For young men and women to ‘self actualise’
(which is the top of the Maslow hierarchy and is the first of
Rousseau’s principles of education – see box below) they will
need help (the third of Rousseau’s principles of education). They
will need help in acquiring the ability to select, plan, execute and
evaluate learning activities to satisfy their own individual needs
but also the needs of the community. Consideration of
community needs is essential, as there is no self-actualisation
independent of the communities to which we belong: we are a
social species.

Personality characteristics that contribute to lifelong learning are:


z self-awareness
z interest in the world
z interest in other people

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z desire to internalise standards or criteria for making judgements.

None of the skills or personality characteristics mentioned above is


contradictory to the learning processes advocated in adult education.
In fact, these are fostered in adult education. This makes adult
education programmes an appropriate means for equipping learners
for a lifelong learning journey, prompted by the inner necessity to
fulfil more of one’s potential, a motivation that should be intrinsic to
democratic systems.

Guiding principles

So what are the principles that underpin the idea of ‘education for all’
as applied to adult learning? This section looks at six aspects of adult
learning (some of which you have met already) and examines some
of the philosophical and psychological principles on which they are
founded.
1 Maturation and readiness.
2 Learner needs and motivation.
3 Participation.
4 Teaching as guidance.
5 Discovery and experiential learning.
6 A positive learning environment.

1 Maturation and readiness


The educational theories of the French philosopher, Jean Jacques
Rousseau were a major philosophical influence on the thinkers and
researchers discussed so far in this unit. In almost all the progressive
movements in education in rich countries, Rousseau’s philosophy has
been central. A key feature of his philosophy is one that is absolutely
central to the work of this Diploma: the importance of people
developing ideas for themselves, making sense of the world in their
own way, which he felt was at the heart of democracy. Educational
facilitators should encourage learners to reason their way through to
their own conclusions and not rely on the authority of a teacher (a
central plank of the theory of discovery learning, as described later).

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The educational philosophy of Jean Jacques Rousseau


Rousseau’s ideas were an important influence on the 1789 French
Revolution. This was effectively a liberal bourgeois revolution against
an incompetent aristocratic regime, and eventually brought about the
birth of the first modern capitalist state.
Rousseau’s The Social Contract begins with the famous statement:
‘Man was born free, and everywhere is in chains.’
Of course, he was writing from within a Europe finally emerging
from the broken structures of feudalism, dominated by royal and
aristocratic landowning families. He argued that a free society would
be one in which everybody accepted the domination of ‘the general
will’. We would now call this ‘the will of the people’, representing the
general good of all citizens. In such a society, no citizen should put
their private interests and ambitions before the general good of all.
Living in that sort of spirit, says Rousseau, will promote liberty,

Unit 3
equality and fraternity. This is, of course, one of the highly
proclaimed ideals of democracy. It is, however, an ideal that is in
frequent conflict with the main thrust of capitalism, which is also
argued to be essential to democracy.
The basis of Rousseau’s philosophy is that all people as children are
born with an original, perfect nature. The aim of education, in order
to build the ideal society, is to preserve this essential nature by
adapting education to the natural stages of growth of this perfect
nature. He sees education as occurring on the basis of three
principles:
1 The inner growth of our organs and faculties is the education of
nature.
2 What we gain by our experience of our surroundings is the
education of things.
3 The use we learn to make of our growth is the education of men.

Principle 1 is rationalist by implication. The use of the word


‘faculties’ suggests that there are interior mental abilities that grow
naturally, though they need to be shaped by education in society, as
suggested in Principle 3.
Principle 2 is empiricist in implication, though again needs to be
shaped by education.
Principle 3 is the only one we can control.
A true education has to harmonise all three of these principles. The
skill is in adapting the third principle to follow the directions
suggested by the other two principles.

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Crucial to Rousseau’s model of growth of the person is that what is


to be learned should be determined by an understanding of the
person’s nature at each developmental stage. This is the central part of
Piaget’s model. Rousseau also argued that individuals varied
considerably within each stage, and therefore that education should
be individualised. He extended this to argue that children should not
be presented with ideas that are beyond their grasp. Research has
shown that this is possibly a mistake. The right social environment
can advance almost anybody’s real learning beyond what appear to be
the limits of the stage of growth. This is shown clearly in the work of
Mrs Pyrah (see Case study 3.1) and Lev Vygotsky (see Reading 2).
Rousseau’s model is clearly embodied in the concepts of maturation
and readiness to learn which are important aspects of a positive
philosophy of learning. In psychological research and theory, the
physiological and psychological patterns of change that occur with
the stages of maturation are broadly associated with various age
levels. They are felt to influence the nature of one’s readiness to learn.
The characteristics of each stage are constructed as norms and are
used to describe the normal general abilities at particular age levels.
The work of Piaget, Bruner and Erikson has yielded a useful
psychological framework for mapping out the developmental stages
of infants, children, adolescents and adults.
The stage of development indicates:
z an individual’s probable level of readiness
z their probable ability to make use of instruction
z the types of instruction that are most likely to motivate learners
and help them achieve learning objectives.
The following table summarises learner readiness in terms of general
psycho-social findings – physical maturation, cognitive development
and psychosocial development, for individuals from the age of seven.

Age Physical Cognitive Psychosocial

School age Motor skills Concrete operational Stage – Industry vs


(7–11 years) increasingly stage. Logical thought inferiority. Mastery
coordinated. This processes and of academic work,
age brings reasoning develop. Can peer relationships
together physical, see cause and effect of and physical skills.
cognitive and concrete processes. Becomes aware of
psychosocial skills Learn strategies for society at large.
so that learning is concentration and
enthusiastically remembering.
undertaken.

Adolescence Rapid physical Stage of formal Stage – identity vs


(12–18 years) growth temporarily operations. Ability to identity diffusion.
resulting in poorly abstract, conceptualise Struggle to assert

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Age Physical Cognitive Psychosocial

coordinated and internalise independence,


muscle movements develops. Complex establish one’s own
and clumsiness. scientific theory values and
Secondary sexual related to cause and determine self’.
characteristics effect and process can Group
appear and be understood. belongingness high.
develop. Ability to interpret and Personal values are
use language, shaped by what is
Skills become understand important to others.
increasingly implications of future Concerned about
refined and highly outcomes and evaluate privacy,
developed. past events and confidentiality.
present implications Authority figures,
etc. develops. Growth including parents,

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of cognitive structure is approached with
complete. conflicting
attitudes.

Adults Growth of physical Will continue to learn Stage – intimacy vs


(20–40 years) structure is formally or informally. isolation.
complete. Concerned about Young adult is
Changes continue society’s values and expected to be
but not dramatic. lifestyle. Perceptual independent,
and cognitive achieve self-
capacities allow critical sufficiency, make
analysis and problem- decisions about
solving. education, career,
Past experiences marriage and
provide foundation for family.
further learning. May wish to learn
Can learn things of about nutrition,
various levels of physical fitness,
difficulty but interest is preventive health,
in things that are both occupational safety,
relevant and have stress management,
immediate application. societal issues and
Independent, self other relevant areas
directing. of interest.
Can be involved in
planning, content and
methods of learning.

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2 Learner needs and motivation


Naturally, people spend time and energy on a task when they are
motivated (as discussed in Unit 2). Motivated behaviour is
characterised by:
z a high level of emotional involvement
z energetic activity
z goal-directed behaviour.
If you want to design learning, especially for adult learners, the usual
way to ensure adequate motivation is to make them aware of the
importance of the learning by establishing the relevance of the
programme to their perceived needs.

Sources of contextual motivation for adult learning identified by Lieb


(1991) include:
z social relationships: to make new friends and to meet the need for
associations and friendships
z external expectations: to obey instructions from someone else; to
fulfil the expectations or recommendations of someone with
formal authority
z social welfare: to improve the ability to serve the community and
to participate in community work
z personal advancement: to achieve higher status in a job, secure
professional advancement, and keep abreast of competitors
z escape stimulation: to provide a routine of home or work and to
relieve boredom
z cognitive interest: to learn for the sake of learning, seek
knowledge for its own sake, and to satisfy an inquiring mind.

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Activity 3.3
(about 20 minutes)
Think back to your school days. Discuss the following questions
with others and write a response in your learning journal.
z Did all the children in your class get readily involved in the
learning activities?
z How many of them spent adequate energy and time on
learning?
z Why do you think some students spend more time and
energy in doing the set work in the learning situation?
z What were your own goals in doing the set work?

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z What differences have you observed in groups of adult
learners? Give some examples of how these differences
illustrate ideas discussed in this unit.

According to Knowles (1985), ‘Contextual motivation to learn in


adults is closely tied with the motivation to do better work. Training
courses must tap this inspiration. Courses that are seen by learners as
closely tied to present or future work responsibilities are always
considered relevant. Inappropriate, boring, or seemingly peripheral
training programmes can actually reduce, or temporarily extinguish,
the motivation that participants bring with them to the course.’
Once they have selected the content of a study programme, learning
facilitators need to create a general motivational atmosphere. Then
they have to clarify meaningfully the precise goals and objectives of
the learning. However, the use of an objectives model of learning
does not mean that the learning method should be a behaviourist one,
rooted in empiricism, though that is where the objectives model
originated. Many of the ideas in this unit have been inspired by the
rationalist philosophy that underpins the work of people like Piaget
and Chomsky. Objectives can be designed and stated along rationalist
lines as well as empiricist ones.

3 Participation
Democratic systems mean that anyone approaching adult life should
have the ability and right to participate as partners in anything that
affects them, especially their own learning – which includes more
than mere preparation for a job. Their learning needs and capacity for
responsible behaviour are not the same as those of children, and
therefore they should learn by methods matched with their needs and
capacities. In other words, they need participation, not just
preparation.

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The concept of education as preparation comes from the


connotations given to the word in different languages. For example, in
Latin, education means to lead out or to draw out. While this has
rationalist implications, it nevertheless assumes the facilitator to be in
authority. This implies that the educator knows what learners are to
be prepared for and how they should go about it. The relationship
implied is one of authoritative leadership.
The facilitator in adult education has to give up this traditional role of
teacher, which is why we use the term facilitator (‘one who makes
things easier’) rather than educator. Moreover, the facilitator may be
an authority but is not in authority, so must relinquish the leadership
role as well, in favour of a learning management role. Adults in the
learning situation should not be led by a leader, but instead treated as
participants in a managed process that leads to the acquisition of
certain negotiated objectives.
Looking at education as participation entails the principle that the
learning facilitator is responsible for creating an environment that is
conducive to participation.
Climate setting (creating the right atmosphere) is extremely important
and will be discussed in more detail later in this module. Adult
education research in the UK has shown that to get adult
participation the atmosphere needs to be informal. It has been found
that a ‘formal climate’ discourages participation. This may not be the
same in other cultures, where there may well be a range of specific,
well-established techniques to encourage participation. It’s important
that you understand what these are and how they work in your own
community.
It’s probably true in all cultures that, to encourage participation, the
climate must also be mutually respectful. There must be a general
consensus of opinion about the objectives of the learning, so that,
even when participants disagree on some of the specific objectives,
they can collaborate in the process of working towards the overall
objectives. When participants make the decisions regarding
objectives, it guarantees the relevance of the objectives to their needs
and thereby supports basic motivation.
The preparation view of education, as a process loaded with cultural
information, decided by an outside authority figure, is no longer
considered acceptable, even in the case of children. Today, learners
must get the opportunity to contribute their reflections on their
personal experience. They now see themselves as learning resources
in a cultural framework that is familiar to them. Within such an
environment, collaboration, support and consensus are normal.
When education is considered as participation, the learners
themselves steer the process. They become, in a sense, their own
educators. It is a point of view that satisfies the ethical and
psychological considerations in adult education, and it endorses the
liberal humanism of Rousseau’s philosophy and the humanistic
Marxism of Paulo Freire.

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The work of Paulo Freire


The great Brazilian educator Paulo Freire’s mode of development of
literacy among poor peasant communities was through the world of
action (or practice). The peasants learned to read and write because
reading and writing were essential tools that allowed them to
understand what actions to take in order to change their oppressive
conditions. Freire’s method was to get his subjects to ‘name the
world’ as the first step. He argued that once you name something and
understand what you mean by the name, you then have some power
to change it.
Freire began by making a representation of issues in the real world in
concrete form, such as a picture, or drawing, or an actual bag of
coffee beans. Words were then attached to these representations as
labels. He established with his learners that these written forms were
based on basic elements of meaning that could be broken down and

Unit 3
recombined in different ways to produce different meanings.
By doing this to the concrete representations of the generative
themes, he showed how reality and language in combination could be
used to demonstrate how the real world could be changed. In the case
of the price of coffee beans, for example, he could show from
analysing the concept of price and its associated terms – market,
trade, competition, value – how a local market monopoly could
accentuate and exploit competitive tendencies among farmers, and
they could see, from the detailed nature of the representation, what
elements of the situation might be altered and brought under their
own collective control, while also realising the importance of keeping
that monopolising company in the field, if possible. At the same time,
they were using this to learn to read and write.

There is more about Freire’s approach in Reading 9.

4 Teaching as guidance
The concept of education as instruction creates a picture of the
learner as passive, merely absorbing what is prescribed by those in
control. This may be appropriate in some cases: for example, for
teaching soldiers basic skills such as how to fire a gun. However,
nowhere in the contemporary philosophy and psychology of
education is learning conceived as merely accepting the ideas of
others. Learners are expected, by the help of supportive learning
environments, to forge for themselves, through their own activity, the
knowledge and skills necessary to deal with being in the world. That
requires critical engagement with the ideas of others. This principle is
a central feature of the philosophies of Rousseau and Freire and of
rationalist theories of learning. Even formal teaching has become
considered more as guidance than instruction.

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When teaching is seen as guidance, the role of the teacher assumes a


special focus. It does not mean that the facilitator totally relinquishes
a managing role. As Rousseau says, his third principle of education is
the only one where we have genuine control of the education process.
But we must make sure that the other two principles have room to
work. The facilitator is the one who most fully understands the aims
and objectives and essential mode of the learning process. It is the
facilitator’s task to guide learners into and sometimes through the
process. In the case of the adult, for all the reasons discussed so far in
this unit, this is necessarily a self-educative process, hence the use of
the term ‘facilitator’ rather than ‘teacher’. Instead of instructions or
directions, in general such guidance will take the form of suggestions
or tentative statements such as ‘... in my opinion it might help you if
you adopt a different approach.’ Such guidance never seeks to
suppress a learner’s liberty to choose or her individuality; nor does it
exert an influence that is not morally justifiable.
Of course, as you will have realised, this is a culturally loaded model.
It may be contrary to some of the basic assumptions of your own
society, as it is to some of the assumptions of the northern
hemisphere, where these ideas have developed since Rousseau.
However, the model is one that the designers of the Diploma believe
will help most in the critical youth development tasks that we now
face.

5 Discovery and experiential learning


In Rousseau’s novel Emile, the hero is taught by encouraging him to
draw conclusions from his own experience: for example, he learns the
consequences of breaking a window that is not then repaired, by
suffering from the cold air that gets through the broken glass. We call
this the principle of ‘discovery learning’.
Educational theorists, since the time of Dewey, have urged
educational reforms that engage learners in hands-on (experiential)
learning activities. These are used to question learners and enable
them to discover ideas for themselves, as the best way to develop
intrinsic motivation, and to stimulate deep-level understanding of the
principles involved.
Two examples of this follow.
z Canada’s McMaster University Medical School pioneered the
training of doctors through a series of highly organised and
researched, practical, problem-based simulations of actual
standard medical conditions. These gave very good results in the
preparation of medical students for professional life.
z In the UK, the most recent demonstration of this is the General
National Vocational Qualification (GNVQ) at age 16+ for certain
practice-based school subjects such as Forensic Science. The
learners spend much of the learning time engaged in simulations
of investigating crime scenes. This is awarded as the equivalent of

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several GCSE subjects. As part of the UK’s National Vocational


Qualification (NVQ) framework it is also an important policy
strategy that attempts to unify the world of work and its levels of
achievement with the world of education and its levels of
achievement. It attempts above all to foster and reward work
competence, which includes practical skill but also
understanding.
If you examine trends in your own country and region you will find
similar educational innovations.
Learning through guided experience at its best enables learners to:
z discover for themselves satisfactory solutions to practical and
theoretical problems
z acquire independently, appropriate methods for discovery
learning and for arriving at solutions to problems.

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Thus, as a learning technique, experience and discovery are very
appropriate to the aims and objectives of adult education. Learning
through experience means there is no need to use instructional
methods that are culturally unfamiliar, irrelevant or contradictory.
However, in some cultures, discovery methods as a mode of learning
may be alien, and may well need careful introduction.

Project-based learning
Vygotsky’s research showed the importance of the social context of
learning. When learners work together, exploring and discussing
ideas, suggesting tentative solutions to problems, trying these out and
evaluating results, then there seems to be a significant and rapid
improvement in linguistic and learning skills. For example, Richard
Owen (Lorac and Weiss, 1981) investigated groups of secondary
school children engaged in film-making and constructing tape/slide
projects. The process involved children translating cognitive and
affective ideas into visual and oral form. This confirmed Vygotsky’s
views, but also showed that the process of finding visual and sound
equivalences of the children’s ideas promoted the use of technically
sophisticated language, which in turn aided the deep understanding
of concepts.
Such experiential group learning meets the learners’ social needs as
well as motivational needs. It generates and sustains intrinsic
motivation towards the problems to be solved, because, while these
problems stretch the learners’ abilities, the technology used facilitates
solving the problems. There is positive involvement, sufficient quality
conversation, the use of reasoning, shared problem-solving and group
discovery. These abilities therefore become integrated into the
mainstream learning culture and do not remain the domain of
technical experts and inaccessible. Learning by experience and
discovery also increases the overall intellectual potency of learners as
they acquire the principles of how to learn and solve problems.

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The account of project-based learning in groups shows clearly an


application of Rousseau’s three principles of education.

Memory and information processing


You may remember from Unit 1 the importance of memory paths:
when items to be remembered are a day-to-day feature of pathways
that we use regularly, then they are easily accessed. Equally, when
they form an intrinsic part of a cognitive map, then providing we have
a clear understanding of the whole map, we can access individual
items on the map quickly.
Learning by experience and discovery is a powerful aid to memory.
Learners actively seek knowledge rather than passively receiving it.
This means that they build up powerful cognitive maps of the
knowledge, maps that are well marked in the neuronal structures
because the learners have committed considerable effort to making
the essential connections on the maps.
Experiential and discovery learning can promote self-monitoring, too.
They can be used to promote individual control of the learning
processes, especially if the facilitator applies the intervention principle
sensitively. The facilitator can for example ask How? and Why?
questions about what learners can observe in the learning
environment and can encourage them to expose their thought
processes and indicate where these might be improved, or whether
they might be accepted as workable.
Treated in this way, such learning can also encourage the
development of systematic, long-term metacognitive strategies for
information processing. Strategies might include, for example:
z paying appropriate attention
z the habit of self-questioning
z rehearsal
z review
z evaluation.
Therefore, the possibility of transfer of the abilities acquired through
experiential and discovery learning is also high.

6 A positive learning environment


A positive learning environment is one where there are no physical,
social or psychological barriers to learning. Thinking of the learning
environment holistically, as composed of these three elements,
promotes higher levels of achievement of learning outcomes.

Overcoming barriers
This approach also helps to remove barriers to learning. To
understand this problem of barriers, you need to think of the learning

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context as one full of possible tension. Learners are being required to


stretch themselves as whole persons. For example, in situations
involving physical exercise when others are present, you have to test
whether or not you can manage the exercise against human norms
and in the presence of others who are watching you, and may be
better than you. It is similar in all learning situations. You are on trial,
in your own mind if not in the minds of those around you. The aim
should be to reduce that tension.
To do that, learners need to be relaxed in the way that Michel
Thomas created when teaching a foreign language (described in Unit
2, Case study 2.1). What Thomas did was to use informal seating
arrangements: chairs that actually encouraged people to ‘flop’ when
they felt like it, but with enough support for when they wanted to sit
up. We realise that you may not even have chairs, possibly not even a
room. But you can set out to make the situation as informal as
possible, and encourage people to relax their bodies in order to let

Unit 3
their fears go. Thomas’ relationship with his students was one of felt
personal equality. This may be difficult, for example in Islamic
cultures where the status of the teacher is very high indeed and
respect for the teacher is paramount. What we have done with Islamic
students is to establish a feeling of strong and clear mutual respect
between facilitator and students, which abides by the cultural norms.
But it stresses the role of the facilitator as increasingly ‘learning’ from
the students, as well as being initially the ‘leader’ and ‘teacher’ of the
students.
One of the great barriers to learning has been the level of social
control exercised by dominant intellectual elites over the main
population of learners. This has been through processes like
‘intelligence testing’, and using the normal assessment and grading
techniques to ‘stream’ and ‘band’ learners. Often, use of these
procedures has not been genuinely to test people’s potential but to
allocate scarce resources in ways that society has agreed upon. The
very best IQ tests undoubtedly can pick out key features of learner’s
underlying mental skills. This can be useful if it is recognised that
these tests also miss out significant areas of human ability, for
example in social intelligence and visual creativity. But they are rarely
used like that in streaming and banding procedures. Many of your
learners may have been subjected to these processes, and they may
have resulted in dangerous labelling effects. You need to do your best
to treat these ideas critically if you are to break down the barriers to
learning.

Social conditions
Knowles (1980) suggests four basic social ingredients to produce an
environment that is conducive to learning:
z respect for personality
z freedom of expression and availability of information
z participation in decision-making

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z mutual responsibility in planning, setting goals and evaluating


activities.
These are all characteristics that adults value. From the point of view
of democratic ethics, they preclude the possibility of moral and
ethical problems that could arise from an attempt to impose another’s
point of view on adults who already have their own values.

Psychological conditions
Psychological factors that need to be considered in creating a positive
learning environment are:
z the past experiences that learners have had with success and
failure
z their beliefs about what was responsible for such success or
failure
z whether they believe that such factors are under their control or
beyond their control.
If their experiences have been positive, learners will be intrinsically
motivated to face future learning situations readily and confidently.
They should already know how to achieve certain goals, and how to
initiate and regulate learning activities to produce desired results.
There are a few other factors that you need to consider regarding the
learning environment:
z the learners’ perceptions of and attitudes towards the facilitator
z the extent to which the educational programmes receive
recognition and support from employers
z the interest expressed in such programmes at local and national
level.
In Unit 5 there is a further discussion on how facilitators can prepare
learning environments that encourage learning.
Now that we have looked at what developing the whole person and
lifelong learning and their underlying principles mean for adult
learning, the final activity in this unit asks you to bring together your
ideas and present them in your own words. This is a very effective
way of checking that you have mastered and absorbed new concepts.

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Activity 3.4
(about 30 minutes)
Imagine that a colleague (another youth development worker,
but one who is not studying on this diploma) says to you:
‘What’s all this about developing the whole person and
lifelong learning? How can all these theories help us in our
real life work?’
What would you reply? Look back through the ideas outlined in
this unit and write notes in your learning journal about the
main points you would make in response.

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Unit summary

In this unit you have covered the following main points:


z The psychological and philosophical principles underlying the
methods considered suitable for the teaching of adults, in
particular the ideas of education for all, developing the whole
person and lifelong learning, which underpin this Diploma.
z The importance in adult learning within an holistic perspective
of:
o maturation and readiness
o learner needs and motivation
o participation
o teaching as guidance
o discovery and experiential learning
o a positive learning environment.
z The value of these principles to promote total development and
lifelong learning.
To check how you have got on, look back at the learning outcomes
for this unit and see if you can now do them. When you have done
this, look through your learning journal to remind yourself of what
you have learned and the ideas you have generated.
All of these topics are developed further in the units that follow. In
the next unit, we will look at the nature of the informal education of
learners, the agents of education and the different forms of education.

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Answers to self-help questions

Self-help question 3.1


Cognitive domain: In order to answer constituents’ questions, the
young woman will have to grasp the ‘meaning’ of the situation, so
she has to have a very clear ‘cognitive map’ in her head of the overall
economics of the area in which she is campaigning, and this means
that she must also be able to understand it within the national
economic framework. She therefore needs to understand and
remember a lot of economic facts, because she must be able to deal,
for example, with very specific economic questions relating to queries
that an individual small farmer might have about the likely effects her
activities might have on his farming strategy, when she is in office.
For this, she needs considerable analytical skill, being able to break
down the question into component parts and to analyse it in terms of

Unit 3
the overall map of the economic issues. This is a high level of mental
organisation, because she will have to synthesise lots of information
into a whole pattern in such a way that any part of it can be retrieved.
These two things she must be able to do very quickly on the spot and
to repeat them in varied forms with many different people.
Affective domain: This requires considerable social intelligence and
knowledge. She will need a very clear map in her head of the local
political balance of power, including the different levels of power, so
that she knows what she can say, to whom, and in what way. She
needs to know what actions will be politically feasible when in office,
and she needs to know how to get this across to people in a way that
will convince them that she knows what she is doing and can make
things happen.
Psychomotor domain: Not only does she need the social skills to
handle large public meetings in different locations, and small face-to-
face interaction with people of different levels of knowledge and
different status, she needs to integrate this with movements and
gestures that are crucial in social interaction.
In addition, you have to help her writing her manifesto. Because this
is a learning situation, she will have to do the bulk of the work by
herself, but you could help by first doing a more detailed analysis of
what we have covered above, so that you know the essential
framework for the learning.
As a motivated adult, she will already have a lot of social knowledge
and intelligence, and probably some basic understanding of the
economic and social issues. The first stage is to get her talking to
people with relevant expertise (who will help her get inside and
master the zone of proximal development) and/or direct her to
readable but knowledgeable texts on the economic situation. She can
then be helped to develop a structured flow diagram (a ‘mind map’)
of all the economic issues. By exploratory talking with her, you can
help each other to create a supportive scaffold for the new ideas.

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Because this requires an ability to select key underlying aspects of the


economics, you can help her in the scaffolding process by using a
Socratic questioning method (i.e. you never tell her anything, you
only ask her questions, and, when she answers, you ask a further
question until she has built up the picture). A flow diagram would
help to synthesise the ideas into a whole pattern, and, if she has that
in her head, she should quickly be able to answer any individual
questions.
She will need practice to develop interactive skills, which can be done
through role-play sessions with the youth group members, followed
by exploratory evaluation of her answers. Those sessions can also be
general practice for public speaking. Here you will have to think about
the different skills involved (cognitive, political and social) and then
use role-play to practise weak skills. Her political map is best
developed by research, talking to skilled political figures in the town,
but again role-play will help to crystallise the issues and to enable her
to communicate them effectively. This all sounds very complicated.
However, it is an obvious procedure once you have begun to break
down the activities into a structure.
With the use of the mind map, what you are relying on is making
each aspect of the situation clear and meaningful in relation to all the
other aspects. That will then switch on all the automatic learning
systems. British psychologist Tony Buzan (1995) explains how
personally constructed, meaningful flow diagrams are the best ways
to mirror the actual processes in the mind, and therefore make the
meaning of what you are doing clearer, and memory access much
more powerful.

Self-help question 3.2


This question is designed to help you develop your emotional
intelligence. It’s a difficult problem to deal with because your
authority and even your competence are being questioned. You will
have also been hurt emotionally, and your natural reaction may be to
order the youth out and to refuse to let him ever join in again.
However, it may well be that the roots of this reaction is in problems
he is experiencing. Alternatively, it may be that your relationship with
the group is breaking down, or that your treatment of this young
person has not been completely appropriate.
It is important to take the immediate heat out of the situation by
being calm and stopping the fight gently and telling the offender
politely to calm down and take a bit of time out, and then to arrange
to see him privately. That private meeting should be an equal and
adult occasion – two adults meeting to explore, understand and
resolve a difference. Hurtful emotional claims may be made against
you, and you must deal with them coolly and with acceptance, and
explore them objectively, rather than reject them angrily. That way,
emotional learning can take place on both sides and the relationship
reformed.

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This may, of course be very difficult, especially in some cultures, and


you have to judge what is possible. However, the general principles do
usually work.

Self-help question 3.3


The physical movements themselves are best taught through
demonstration, because that gives the overall pattern (in psychology
this is often called the ‘gestalt’ of the movement).
By watching a skilled person perform, and imitating the pattern
yourself, you are effectively learning by the ‘inner game’ approach.
There is a rhythmic element to heavy labour with sledge hammers,
shovels and picks. When the learners have grasped the pattern, the
instructor can then fine tune the rhythmic elements, analysing the
movements as a sequence (a ‘learning chain’ of stimulus-response
units), emphasising the point at which to put maximum effort, and

Unit 3
letting that be the stimulus for the reinforcement of an effortless
‘follow through’ in which the momentum of the tool carries the
movement forward. This then becomes the stimulus for the upward
swing of the pick or the sledgehammer, all the time letting the
vibrations in the handle of the tool tell you about the quality of the
action.
But this work needs more than that: it needs ‘knowledge’ of the
materials being worked: the sedimentary rock that has to be broken in
the most energy-effective and sensitive way; the mechanics of the soil,
so that you don’t break up its substructure any more than absolutely
necessary; and the best way to arrange the broken rock in the netting
wire so that it will absorb the frightening energy of water that is run
off on steep slopes during storms such as those in the monsoon.
This is scientific knowledge, held at first in cognitive mode, but then
integrated into the intuitive psychomotor knowledge of the body and
affectively controlled by the pleasure of doing qualitatively good
work. The point is that, though we tend to split mind/body/feelings
conceptually, and for analytic purposes Bloom does the same, this is
really only for convenience and manageability.
Deep-structure psychomotor ability gains immeasurably from this
sense of holistic meaningfulness. The skills of the subsistence farmer
and the housewife have this kind of depth to them. If this is so, then,
as we said earlier in this section, by exploring people’s experiential
knowledge and exposing its nature, we can use that to move on to
almost anything else that we choose, providing we can create the
appropriate steps, understand the types and levels of difficulty
involved and find different ways around the various learning
obstacles. In this way, we can move freely back and forth among the
cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.
Once the psychomotor skill is in place, the deep-structure capacity for
it never really disappears. However, it can only be refined and
maintained properly through regular practice.

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References

Buzan, T. (1995) The Mind Map Book, BBC Books, London


Encyclopaedia Britannica
Knowles, M. S. (1980) The modern practice of adult education: from
pedagogy to andragogy (2nd edn.), Cambridge Books, New York
Knowles, M. S. and Associates (1985) Andragogy in Action, Jossey-
Bass, San Francisco
Lieb, S. (1991) Principles of Adult Learning, vvailable from
http://honolulu.hawaii.edu
Lorac, C. and Weiss, M. (1981) Communication and Social Skills,
Pergamon Press

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Unit 3

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Unit 4: Informal
education

Unit introduction ......................................................113


Unit learning outcomes .............................................113
Types of learning and education ................................114
Agents of informal education ....................................118
Implications for youth development work ..................129

Unit 4
Unit summary ...........................................................131
Answers to self-help questions ...................................132
References.................................................................134
Module 1: Learning Processes

Unit introduction

Welcome to Unit 4 Informal Education. As you’ve seen in Units 1, 2


and 3, learning is not just about acquiring knowledge. It’s also about
developing attitudes, values, and physical competencies.
Learning, especially adult learning, is not just restricted to what
happens at school. A great deal of informal learning takes place
outside formal educational institutions, in just about any setting,
regardless of the organisation’s or individual’s intentions. More
importantly, informal education works through, and is driven by,
social interaction and conversation. It involves exploring and
enlarging our experiences.
In this unit you will learn about different learning settings, focusing
on informal learning. You will look at the agents of learning and
opportunities for informal learning, even within formal settings.

Unit learning outcomes

Unit 4
When you have worked through this unit, you should be able to:
z distinguish between formal, informal and non-formal education
z identify agents of learning and the ways they provide informal
learning
z analyse examples of informal education
z suggest ways of providing informal education opportunities for
young people.

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Types of learning and education

Learning takes place in a variety of ways and in many different


places: formal, non-formal and informal settings. While these
different forms of learning might all be available throughout a
person’s life, the importance of each may vary at different points.
Formal, school-based education is usually more important during
childhood than in adult life. The process of learning will also vary as
a person progresses through life from childhood to old age.
The term ‘agents of education’ is used to cover organisations,
institutions and people that provide education (or opportunities of
education) for individuals to learn. The importance of each of these
agents may vary depending on the characteristics of the social context
– traditional or modern, agricultural or industrialised, developed or
developing, technologically advanced or not, urban or rural.
The agents of education can be:
z the family
z village elders, folklore, folk drama
z religious organisations
z educational institutions
z peer group
z cultural institutions
z community organisations
z the workplace
z the mass media.

Education that is provided by the agents listed above can be classified


into three types:
z formal
z non-formal
z informal.

The usual criteria for classifying them are:


z whether the educational programme is organised
z who decides what kind of education should be provided
z whether learning occurs within a specified time structure, or not
z whether the form of education is institutionalised.

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Activity 4.1
(about 20 minutes)
Complete the table below by answering the questions for each
agent. Note how the agents of education differ from each
other according to the criteria.
Make notes in your learning journal about your findings. Did
the activity help you understand the differences between the
agents. Were there any surprises?

Agent Is it an Who makes Is there a Is there an


organised decisions? specified institution
programme? time for involved?
learning?

The family

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Village
elders/
folklore/ folk
drama

Religious
organisations

Educational
institutions

Peer group

Cultural
institutions

Community
organisations
(including
clubs, health
centres,
youth
centres)

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Agent Is it an Who makes Is there a Is there an


organised decisions? specified institution
programme? time for involved?
learning?

The mass
media

The
workplace

The three types of learning


The three types differ in the following ways:
z Formal learning occurs where learners have no control over the
objectives or the means of learning.
z Non-formal learning occurs where learners control the objectives
but not the means of learning.
z Informal learning occurs where learners control the means but
not the objectives of learning.

One of the outcomes of UNESCO’s embracing of lifelong education


and the principles of ‘the learning society’ is the use of this three-fold
categorisation of learning systems.

Formal education: the hierarchically structured,


chronologically graded ‘education system’, running from
primary school through to the university and including, in
addition to general academic studies, a variety of specialised
programmes and institutions for full-time technical and
professional training.
Informal education: the truly lifelong process whereby every
individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from
daily experience and the educative influences and resources in
his or her environment – from family and neighbours, from
work and play, from the marketplace, the library and the mass
media. It is not organised.
Non-formal education: any organised educational activity
outside the established formal system – whether operating
separately or as an important feature of some broader activity –
that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and
learning objectives.

Bear in mind that even in formal educational settings such as schools,


a considerable amount of informal learning (positive and negative)
takes place. For example, even though it is not necessarily the

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intention of teachers, children develop attitudes towards the learning


process and about their place in educational institutions, from what
has been called ‘the hidden curriculum’. They may also learn a great
deal from their school-mates.
But do all educational experiences promote learning? Not always.
The famous educationalist John Dewey (1938/1997) referred to
‘miseducative experiences’, which do not result in learning. Situations
where there is little time for reflection on what we are learning and
little time for focused interaction with other learners will tend to be
miseducative (for example, when the situation offers only repetitive
activity and the environment is oppressive, as one can find in
workplaces where workers engage in routine, mechanical tasks).
Similar situations exist in education where knowledge transmission is
routine and over-controlled by teachers, and learners are passive.
Learners may well feel that what occurs is meaningless and unrelated
to their lives.
What is important is not just providing educational experiences but,
with the participation of the learners, choosing meaningful
experiences that can be used to enhance their being and their
capacities.

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Learning processes
Here are some of the learning processes that operate in different
settings:
z imitation z modelling z identification
z observation z memorisation z communication
z dialogue z presumption z non-consideration
z rejection z problem-solving z contemplation
z reflection z experimentation

How effective these processes are will vary with the age of the
learners and the characteristics of the setting.
Jarvis (1987) categorised contemplation, experimentation and
reflection (reflective practice) as higher-order learning processes than
processes such as imitation or memorisation. Yet he also cautions
against evaluating the effectiveness of a learning process in isolation
of its setting. Even a formal lecture provided in an egalitarian setting
might result in contemplation or experimental learning. An
egalitarian environment promotes learning not only for the learner
but also for the facilitator, who will focus on other elements that
influence learning.

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However, some general tendencies can be noted:


z There are some settings that obviously provide informal learning
opportunities: for example, the family, peers and village elders.
z Community organisations and cultural institutions generally
provide non-formal education.
z Others, such as educational institutions, deliberately focus on
delivering formal education.
Look back at your table in Activity 4.1 and see if you agree with these
three statements.

Agents of informal education

First, here is a task that asks you to reflect on your own experiences
of informal learning.

Self-help question 4.1


(about 10 minutes)
Below is a list of the agents we previously identified. Next to
each, note when each was important in your life (childhood,
adolescence, adulthood).

Agent Stage of life

The family

Village elders, folklore, folk drama

Religious organisations

Educational institutions

Peer group

Cultural institutions

Community organisations

The workplace

The mass media


Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the
unit.

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An important aspect of informal education is that it works through,


and is driven by, social interaction and conversation. It involves
exploring and enlarging our experiences.
You may be surprised at how much focus is being given here to this
approach. This is because informal education has always been a vital
element of practice within youth work. Please note, however, that this
does not imply that the formal and non-formal approaches are
unimportant. On the contrary, all three approaches complement one
another, and together contribute to a more effective education
process.
This section looks at each of the agents, focusing on how they
provide informal education. There are several activities to help you
analyse examples of informal education. You will also notice how
ideas from earlier units, for example about learning processes and
how adults learn, participation and experiential learning, reappear
here within the discussion of informal learning.

The family
Most individuals learn their social roles (the roles of being a son,
daughter, brother, sister) and acceptable social behaviour in the family

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setting. This kind of informal learning enables children to change
their behaviour from being at first self-centred, to becoming more
being socially aware, and eventually to caring for the needs and rights
of other family members.
At its simplest level, the family uses a system of rewards and
punishments, and from that the behaviour of the child is shaped until
it is socially acceptable. It is at this level that parents or parent
substitutes can use behaviourist tactics (e.g. ignoring bad behaviour
where possible, and rewarding good behaviour). However, the child
learns much more than this from ‘observation’, ‘imitation’,
‘memorising’, ‘modelling’ and ‘participating’. Through these learning
processes, plus the key one of taking on the roles of other family
members, or through empathy with their situations, the child learns to
understand the deeper levels of accepted norms in social groups,
especially adult-child relationships, gender roles, and social skills and
cultural values.
There have been significant changes in these processes as the
extended family has been eroded through industrialisation,
urbanisation, migration of labour and poverty. More recently, this
process has broken down much further with even the nuclear family
being threatened due to changes such as ease of divorce, the growth
of single-parent families and the threats from accelerating global
economic processes.
The good news is that the loosening of traditional gender role-taking
means that gender stereotypes can be broken down. This must be seen
as a precondition for involving men and boys in achieving gender
equality. This is very important, particularly when we consider that

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the process of socialisation begins in the family. Thus, the new social
attitudes and norms that are transferred to both boys and girls will
influence their perceptions of their own roles, as well as the roles of
others.
The contemporary home needs to become a more consciously
educative environment. This is partly because of the need to support
the learning of the young people who are faced with the challenges of
making their way in a demanding adult world, and partly because the
parents are facing more complex financial and occupational
challenges which mean they need to keep upgrading their own
knowledge. The home can also provide an important setting for the
education of both boys and girls on issues of sexual and reproductive
health, as well as alcohol and drug abuse. There is an urgent need for
the family to increase the awareness of boys and girls of the
consequences of uninformed sexual behaviour and the spread of
HIV/AIDS.

Village elders, folklore, folk drama and oral traditions


The role of non-formal and informal education was very significant
in the past and still is, in traditional societies. But today, the
dominance of the written word throughout the Commonwealth (with
all the advances in technology that help spread written information),
have made folklore and oral traditions less important means of
educating younger generations.
Nevertheless, oral traditions (story-telling, songs, drama, poetry, and
dance) which have been used by traditional societies for centuries to
pass on information from one generation to the next, still occupy a
vital niche that has not been filled by other media. This method of
educating and learning is still particularly important in some cultures,
but needs to be adapted for contemporary purposes, such as passing
on the scientific and social findings about health and economic
problems (for example, the AIDS crisis and dealing with
environmental damage).
A wealth of folklore exists in most societies. Folklore often grows in
association with religious traditions: Buddhist Jataka stories, Hindu
mythology and stories relating to Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
When they were created, those stories represented abiding truths for
their contemporary world. The major religions are all still adapting
them to the problems of making religious and social sense of the
world we now live in.
Parents and grandparents tell these stories to children to help them
internalise personal and societal traits that are admired by the elders
of the society. The desirable traits are exemplified by folklore heroes
and heroines, and undesirable traits are displayed by the villains.
Through identification, children learn to adopt the norms of
behaviour that are approved of by their community or society, and
reject socially deviant behaviour.

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For further background on oral traditions, read Reading 5: ‘Oral


Traditions and Rules of Evidence’, by Glen Custred.
This considers in more detail what is meant by folklore and oral
tradition, how they are transmitted and ways in which they can be
treated as reliable evidence.
As you read, consider whether this piece helps explain your
experience of the way folklore and oral traditions are used.

Activity 4.2
(about 20 minutes)
Can you recall an oral tradition in your family history that has
affected your learning? How has this oral tradition affected
you?
How might you as an elder express in story form to your
children and grandchildren what you feel should be admired
and feared today?
Write your responses and an outline of your story in your

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journal and discuss them with your family and colleagues.

Religious organisations
Religious organisations, such as churches, temples, mosques or
synagogues, may be agents of all three types of learning:
z informal learning through personal interactions with individuals
and groups of different social classes
z non-formal activities such as Sunday schools, Daham Pasals,
sermons and religious festivities
z formal learning opportunities offered by religion-based schools.
Religious organisations can also be agents of informal learning
through social events and community service projects. Participation
in such activities helps young people to broaden their vision and
develop their social and inter-personal, decision-making and problem-
solving skills.

Educational institutions
Although educational institutions, such as schools, universities and
technical colleges, are generally thought of as agents of formal
learning, there are many opportunities for informal learning too,
especially through interaction with peers.
Children learn a great deal informally through their interactions with
teachers and through participation in extra-curricular activities.

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In addition, the school brings together children and youths from


diverse social, ethnic and religious backgrounds, with different prior
learning. Informal and incidental learning often occur as a result of
peer communication and interaction. This learning can modify the
learning received from the family. With their peers, the process of
interchange is more powerful than in adult-child relationships.
When children encounter new or different ways of thinking, they may
learn new behaviours or remain unaffected – the process of non-
learning. According to Jarvis model of learning (1987 and 2001), a
non-learning response occurs when one of the following reactions
take place: presumption, non-consideration or rejection.
Presumption reinforces the established patterns of behaviour, as the
person presumes that the current situation is the same as the previous
one and therefore no variation in behaviour is necessary. Piaget would
see this as a failure of the accommodation process, which he felt
essential to building flexible mental schemata.
Non-consideration is explained as a non-response to a potential
learning experience due to a variety of reasons, either because the
point made has evaded the learner’s attention, or because they are too
pre-occupied to consider it.
Rejection occurs when people are unable to comprehend a situation
and are therefore unable to learn from it.
Consider this short case study and answer the questions that follow.

Case study 4.1


Alisha, an only daughter
Alisha, the only daughter in a conservative family with three older
sons, has entered a prestigious school in the city for her secondary
education.
She now associates with several friends from more liberal
backgrounds than her own.

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Self-help question 4.2


(about [?] minutes)
1. What would have been the likely gender role expectations
of Alisha’s family?
2. What kind of informal learning is likely to occur from
Alisha’s mixing with peers from more liberal backgrounds
than hers?
3. What behaviours by Alisha might indicate that:
z new learning has occurred?
z Alisha has experienced non-learning?
Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the
unit.

The peer group

Unit 4
It is mostly during adolescence that the peer group becomes
significant in someone’s life. During this phase, when young people
start interacting with male and female peers, they face new situations,
and new responsibilities are thrust upon them. As we have mentioned
already, the peer group provides plenty of informal learning
opportunities.
Through mixing with equals, young people get essential preparation
for adult life. They learn necessary social skills, appropriate gender
roles and acquire the skills needed for courtship and a stable
marriage. They also learn to achieve and accept status in a group on
their own account, rather than because of what they have inherited
from their family.

Cultural institutions
Cultural institutions, for example museums and arts centres and
libraries, provide new experiences that help people to discover their
latent talents, new interests and avenues for meaningful leisure time
activities.
The following case study is about a young English man. It illustrates
the non-formal and informal learning opportunities provided by
cultural institutions.

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Case study 4.2


The Midlands Arts Centre
“I joined the Midlands Arts Centre because my girlfriend at the
time (who came from a middle-class background) wanted to
join. When I read about the opening of the centre in the local
press, I wasn’t particularly interested. All that seemed alien to
my pattern of life. I was intimidated at first by the general
atmosphere and didn’t know how to behave.”
“However, this experience eventually changed my life. With a
developing cultural awareness came the need for academic
work. As time progressed, I became very interested in all forms
of drama and was active at the centre for a period of six or
seven years.”
From Michael Scully, ‘My Experience at the Midlands Arts Centre Changed My Life’
in UNESCO (1980), Young People and Cultural Institutions: A UNESCO Survey.
UNESCO, Paris.

Activity 4.3
(about 20 minutes)
Discuss the case study and the following questions with others
(friends, co-workers, tutorial group) and then make notes in
your learning journal.
1 What role did Scully’s middle-class girlfriend play in his
overall education? What were the long-term positive
benefits that Scully received through participating in the
centre activities?
2 Which of those benefits could have resulted from informal
education?
3 Can you describe any similar cases from your own or
others’ experiences?

Community organisations
Community organisations tend to pursue programmes with specific
objectives aimed at target groups in the community (for example,
boys’ and girls’ clubs, health centres, youth centres, gramodaya
mandalaya, mahila samakhya, lions’ clubs, jaycees, rotary groups and
soroptomists).
Through participation in programme activities, members of a
particular target group can learn a great deal informally. It is in this
setting that youth development workers can best facilitate learning

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opportunities for young people using an informal, experiential


approach.
Participants are first helped to identify what they want to achieve
within the organisation. They then set themselves some achievable
objectives, focused on their area of interest. Having analysed the
issues from different angles, they consider possible solutions. Then,
through preliminary planning and experimentation, they make
decisions about which solutions to implement. They quickly become
experienced and skilled in these abilities because of the high level of
motivation, which sharpens their awareness, and because of the fact
that their proposed solutions to difficulties are tried out and checked
against results. These are warrantable and empowering life skills
because they can be applied with variations across many activities.
Learning from experience takes place in this manner.
Participants are also involved in problem-solving. Knowles (1980)
considers problem-solving situations to be the basis for adult learning.
Contemplation and reflective practice are the main learning processes
used in problem-solving.
Here, ‘contemplation’ refers to considering mentally how to respond
to a problem situation. It does not necessarily mean acting upon any

Unit 4
intellectual decision made about it, but mentally storing the decision
until a parallel situation stimulates its recall. The process of
contemplation should take place continually and become part of our
mental habits.
Reflective practice is the process of solving practical problems or
performing practical tasks in the real world, and analysing and
theorising on the basis of what happens. In other words, learners
construct their own theories from the practical activities that they do
rather than from reading them in books. This is a method widely used
in teacher-training in the UK, because trainee teachers at first find it
difficult to connect educational theory with the very vital and
challenging business of working with children.
The great Brazilian educator Paulo Freire introduced problem-posing
and dialogue in his conscientisation model, as a method that leads to
empowerment. He was very successful in raising the literacy and
political skills of poor Brazilian farmers by this approach. (For more
on Freire’s work, see Unit 3 and Reading 9.)
All of these learning processes are activated through participation in
projects and experiential learning methods.

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The workplace
The workplace offers many opportunities for education and learning.
Many workplaces offer on-the-job training. Workers constantly learn
informally from each other by sharing tasks, observing each other,
asking questions. Trade unions in the metropolitan countries also
provide training and informal learning opportunities in negotiation
and problem-solving. Many workplaces have formal, professional
development programmes. They may offer development workshops,
for example on health and safety issues, as well as seminars and
conferences.
Marsick and Watkins (1990) examine four different levels at which
informal learning can take place in the workplace:
z individual
z group
z organisational
z professional.
The pace of change means that there are enormous requirements for
learning in the contemporary workplace, which will require
increasingly informal learning processes throughout the entire
organisation of work. Individuals grow by being open to others.
Through feedback, they learn how others see them. Through self-
disclosure, they open themselves to the potential for more intimate
relationships. The vision is one of holistic informal learning for the
contemporary workplace.
The quality of learning in groups is very different from other
situations, because of the inevitable processes of interaction. The
process of learning here is one of multi-tasking. Groups learn about
group processes and their roles in these, because they monitor the
effectiveness of the group interaction. They simultaneously learn
about the effectiveness of work processes through attending to getting
tasks done. One of the barriers to learning in groups is the pressure to
conform to group norms, because individuals form strong common
values and bonds, which may not encourage them to subject
controversial ideas to a thorough hearing.
Within the general ideal of the learning society, there has developed
the concept of the learning organisation. When organisations are
structured so as to learn, individuals become agents who influence
the way others in the organisation think and act. It’s a bit like the
football team that plays total football. Along each line of production,
each worker on the line knows what the person before them, and the
one after them, is doing and requires of them. They also know what
the company is producing, the problems it faces and their place in the
whole production and distribution process. A learning organisation is
open to learning from internal and external feedback from its
environment. At the professional level also, feedback and disclosure
are central to the learning organisation.

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Because standards are set by governmental and market requirements


outside the organisation, the professionals within the organisation
can create a higher-order set of norms, practices, values and attitudes
that influence the culture and practice within the organisation. So the
organisation is learning both within itself and from the social context.
Overall, Marsick and Watkins (1990) argue that the distinguishing
feature of workplace learning is collective learning, and that it plays a
particularly strong role in informal and incidental learning, because
people learn through collective interaction in defined social groups
that are connected by common organisational goals.

The mass media


The mass media, particularly television, radio, and the internet if you
have access to it (internet cafes are becoming widespread even in very
remote or poor countries), are an enormous resource for information
and education. For example, remote areas such as the highlands of
New Guinea may well be accessible by educational radio
programmes, using wind-up radios that do not require batteries,
provided that programme transmission problems can be solved.

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Information
Entertainment is only one of the functions of the mass media. They
also provide an enormous amount of information. They are used for
informing audiences about:
z products and services (commercial advertising)
z topical issues – news, current affairs programmes, documentaries
z campaigns, interviews, panel discussions and public debate etc.
z culture (programmes on sports, music, drama and the arts)
z scientific and technical matters for rural workers and businesses.

Education
Many educational institutions, for example the Indira Ghandi Open
University, offer formal learning at a distance, using various media
such as TV, radio and the internet. There are many opportunities for
non-formal and self-directed learning also, as people follow their
interests independently through the media.
In all of their functions, the mass media act as agents of informal
education. When we watch a film, a TV serial or a teledrama, we
probably tend to identify with the characters who would normally be
accepted in society. We may also gain insight into the lives and ideas
of people who are different from us, and who may not easily fit into
our societies.
For example, television in Pakistan is notable for its dramas, which
use dramatic story-telling to explore problems of relationships
between town and country and the conflict of values and lifestyles

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between old and young, rich and poor. These are an important source
of national dialogue, particularly as they use traditional dramatic
forms and expose the arguments thoroughly.
The media can provide people with a unique opportunity to observe
people and situations they would not otherwise meet. Through this
identification, they may experience either new learning or non-
learning.

Persuasion
Mass media may also convey subtle messages that lead to social or
anti-social behaviour, depending on the manner in which the
messages are perceived and received. The sponsorship of amusing
and enjoyable sports programmes by tobacco companies is a good
example. However, as Katz (1989) points out, the effectiveness of
mass media as agencies of persuasion depends on the ability of
audiences to evaluate what is happening, in their selective exposure,
perception and retention of messages. These media experiences can
be used by youth workers to explore and develop themes with their
groups.
The potency of mass media as an agent of informal education is
strongest in the case of children, who imitate the characters who
appeal to them. Often, children are seen imitating mannerisms,
gestures and language used by popular film and television characters.
In the case of adolescents, imitation involves adopting new fashions,
products, ideas, interests and behaviours. The media create
motivation for action by altering people’s values, preferences or
perceptions of themselves.

Agenda setting
The agenda-setting function of mass media has an effect even in the
case of adults. Here, it is argued that media tell us what to think
about. The media can set the agenda – political, social or otherwise.
Priorities for society are often set by the media, and the public is
socialised to accept these priorities as important.
More than any other agent of education, the media have succeeded in
creating a global culture, which transcends national boundaries, and
creates a new awareness, new aspirations and visions for their
audiences.
To get you thinking about the part the mass media can play in
informal learning, read the following short case study and then do the
activity that follows.

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Case study 4.3


Using TV drama
In one popular TV drama, the major actors are from two families
from the two main ethnic groups in the country.
The two fathers work in the same organisation and the families
occupy official quarters, adjacent to each other. The members of the
families gradually become very close, sharing joys and sorrows
together. Children become friends; adolescents become sweethearts.
When communal violence erupts, one family shields the other from
the assailants, braves their death threats and provides refuge.

Activity 4.4
(about 20 minutes)
Discuss the following questions with others (friends, co-
workers and/or tutorial group) and then make notes in your
learning journal. If you prefer, you could discuss an equivalent

Unit 4
TV drama from your country instead.
1 What do you consider to be the goal of this drama?
2 What might be its effect on a person who has never
intimately known a person from another ethnic group?
3 Why would this case study fit what we call ‘agenda
setting’?

Implications for youth development work

Let us look again at what we have discussed in this unit. We found


that informal education can take place in any setting. We also found
that learning is most effective when it is participatory or experiential,
in whatever setting – formal, informal or non-formal.
As a youth development worker you will work with young people,
often through community projects, for example those related to
health, the environment, planning educational and training
programmes, income generation, community development, recreation
and sport. You are in a key position to facilitate experiential learning
opportunities so that the young people become empowered to
participate in every aspect of the youth projects: identifying problems,
generating solutions, planning and implementing the solutions,
evaluating the outcomes and teaching their peers how to do the same.

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Through the processes of working with a supportive team, they will


also learn many invaluable social skills that are transferable to the
workplace, the family and the community.
Many of the young people you will be working with will be
disenchanted with formal education; others may not have had the
opportunity of a formal education. Trying to engage these young
people in formal education is unlikely to be appropriate for them,
especially early on, whereas the informal learning they can do
through experiential programmes could prepare them for and reignite
an interest in formal education later in their lives.
The last activity in this unit aims to bring together your learning from
the unit and apply it. The purpose is to get you thinking about how to
make best use of informal learning opportunities for young people.

Activity 4.5
(about 30–40 minutes)
Make a list of the situations of informal learning for youth with
which you are involved (check against the list of agents given
in the section on Types of learning and education).
Then take the list of learning processes given earlier in this
unit:
z imitation z modelling z identification
z observation z memorisation z communication
z dialogue z presumption z non-consideration
z rejection z problem-solving z contemplation
z reflection z experimentation.
Make notes about which learning processes take place in the
situations you have identified, and the ways in which they
happen.
Finally, suggest ways that other processes on the list could be
used to improve the informal learning of the young people
involved in the situations you have listed. (For example: could
you develop specific problem-solving activities in a youth
centre?)

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Unit summary

In this unit you have covered the following main points:


z There are different types of education/learning – formal, non-
formal and informal.
z There are many different agencies of education providing
learning opportunities, including: the family, village elders,
folklore, folk drama, religious organisations, peer group, cultural
institutions, community organisations, the workplace and the
mass media.
z Different learning processes operate in different settings.
z Experiential programmes, such as projects, offer great
opportunities for informal learning.
To check how you have got on, look back at the learning outcomes
for this unit and see if you can now do them. When you have done
this, look through your learning journal to remind yourself of what
you have learned and the ideas you have generated.

Unit 4
In the next unit we look at the factors that help and factors that
hinder learning.

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Answers to self-help questions

Self-help question 4.1


The response here may differ from country to country. For example,
in a traditional society, the family may continue to be an important
agent of informal education in adolescence.
It is also interesting to note that informal education may persist at
later stages in life, long after the agent’s influence no longer exists. For
example, strong values or attitudes learned from family or a religious
organisation may persist throughout life.

Agent Stage of life

The family Childhood, adulthood

Village elders, folklore, folk Childhood, adulthood


drama

Religious organisations Childhood, adulthood

Educational institutions Childhood, adolescence

Peer group Childhood, adolescence

Cultural institutions Adolescence, adulthood

Community organisations Childhood, adolescence,


adulthood

The workplace Adulthood

The mass media Childhood, adolescence

Self-help question 4.2


1 Alisha’s family would probably expect her to fulfil the traditional
role of marrying and becoming a housewife. They might also
expect her behaviour to be passive and obedient.
2 Alisha may learn from her friends that there are other alternatives
to what she has learned from her family about the role of
women. She may consider a career an alternative or addition to
the role of wife and mother. She might even consider an
independent life preferable, and she might question the sexual
morality that she has been taught.
3 If learning has occurred, Alisha might try to discuss the new
ideas with her family. If the family is open and has good
communication, they may approve of some changes and not
others. Or, through discussion, with her family, Alisha may

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choose the traditional ways she has been taught, while


appreciating the alternatives. Or she could become hostile or
depressed if she feels trapped or treated unfairly by her family. If
non-learning takes place, Alisha could simply presume that her
peers have the same beliefs that she does. She may not
understand the new ideas and so miss or avoid any discussion
that is too challenging, or she might reject the ideas without
further thought.

Unit 4

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References

Dewey, J. (1938/1997) Experience and education, Macmillan, New York


Jarvis, P. (1987) Adult learning in the social context, Croom Helm,
London
Jarvis, P. ( 2001) Learning in Later Life: An Introduction for Educators and
Carers, Kogan Page, London
Katz, Elihu (1989) ‘Mass Media Effects’ in Barnouw, Erik (ed.),
International Encyclopaedia of Communication, Oxford University Press,
London, pp. 492–497
Knowles, M. S. (1980) The modern practice of adult education: From
pedagogy to andragogy (2nd ed.), Cambridge Books, New York
Marsick, V. J. and Watkins, K. (1990) Informal and incidental learning in
the workplace, Routledge, London
UNESCO (1980) Young People and Cultural Institutions: A UNESCO
Survey, UNESCO, Paris

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Unit 5: What helps


and what hinders
learning?

Unit introduction ......................................................137


Unit learning outcomes .............................................137
A good learning environment ....................................138
Factors that hinder learning .......................................141
Unit summary ...........................................................147
Answers to self-help questions ...................................148

Unit 5
References.................................................................149
Module 1: Learning Processes

Unit introduction

Welcome to Unit 5 What helps and what hinders learning?


By now you will have seen that there is some controversy involved in
defining learning. As we indicated in Unit 1, however, most
psychologists agree that the one basic requirement of learning is that
some change must take place in the learner. It could be a change in
knowledge or skills, a change in attitude or a change in beliefs.
Learning is often not a conscious process. You have been asked to
consider that different forms of learning are continually taking place
in everyday situations, and in formal, non-formal or informal settings.
You have also learned that learning can take place at any age, and
that learning how to learn is a most important goal in adult
education.
While the earlier units in Module 1 have focused mainly on the
positive aspects of learning, this unit introduces some of the factors
that can either help or hinder learning. You will learn how to cope
with and manage these factors, which can be environmental or
personal.

Unit learning outcomes

Unit 5
When you have worked through this unit, you should be able to:
z identify the factors that help or hinder people’s learning,
particularly in informal settings
z suggest ways to create a good learning environment, including
physical, social and psychological conditions.

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A good learning environment

In Unit 2, we touched on the importance of creating a good learning


environment. Environmental factors generally fall into two categories:
z physical
z social.
We discuss some psychological factors later in this unit, when we
consider facilitator-related factors.

Activity 5.1
(about [?] minutes)
Before you continue, go back to Unit 3 ‘Education for all’ to
the section headed ‘Guiding principles’ and reread ‘6 A
positive learning environment’.
Think of any classroom or outdoor activity that you really liked
during your childhood or adolescence. What characteristics in
that social and physical environment made it easy for you to
learn?
Ask a group of young people you work with to do this exercise,
too. Compare your answers with theirs in a group situation and
encourage general discussion.
Then make notes in your learning journal about both sets of
experiences.

As you saw in Unit 2, the term ‘andragogy’ (rather than ‘pedagogy’)


is often used to differentiate between the curriculum development
needs of adults and those of children. Knowles (1980) identifies the
need for adults to be motivated to learn, to be active in the learning
process, and to have their past experiences respected in the learning
environment.
The following case study illustrates the general nature of an
environment that is conducive to learning.

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Case study 5.1


A motor mechanics course
A group of teenagers following a course in motor-mechanics was
housed in a well-ventilated building situated not far away from the
main road. The general surroundings were pleasing. Travelling to and
from this place was convenient, and conditions necessary for practical
work were favourable. The course manager only enrolled a group of
eight students at a time, so everyone had the opportunity to interact
with the instructors one-to-one.
The course manager always made point of selecting each group so
that they had a similar socio-economic background and similar likes
and dislikes. The two instructors were friendly and their approach
was flexible. The students had plenty of opportunities to learn from
the instructors as well as from their peers. Each individual was given
the opportunity to learn at his own pace. The social atmosphere in the
group was essentially informal and democratic.
Learning in the group was a pleasant experience and the students
learned effectively.

Activity 5.2

Unit 5
(about 10 minutes)
Discuss Case study 5.1 with others (co-workers and/or tutorial
groups).
Then in your learning journal, list the conditions, physical and
social, that you think are conducive to learning.
Is there anything in this case study that you think may hinder
learning? If you think there is something, how could it be
resolved?

Setting the climate


It is an important part of the facilitator’s job to set the climate of the
learning environment. It is particularly important for the environment
to be relaxed if it is going to encourage effective learning. The reason
is that the crucial supportive automatic learning processes will not be
switched on if there is tension. This could be created by over-
formality or by fear of the situation, particularly if there are physical,
social or psychological barriers.
Ingalls (1973) says that ‘... climate setting consists of the integration
of three perspectives of the learning environment: the physical, the
human and the organisational.’

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He illustrates it as follows:

Human and interpersonal relations


A learning environment

Physical surroundings

Organisational structure

From A Trainer’s Guide to Andragogy: Its Concepts, Experience and Application


(rev. ed. 1973) Social and Rehabilitation Service, US Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC.

Taking into account the differences in learners’ life styles,


personalities, learning styles, domestic backgrounds, socio-cultural
situations and access to learning resources, makes climate setting a
challenging task. The facilitator has to make special efforts to create a
relaxed learning environment that will suit everybody.
The best way to do this is to spend time developing the group as a
social unit and deepening your own relationship with the learners.
There may be many sharp differences of personality, belief and
culture among the members of the group, but effective group-building
should convert these differences into group resources rather than
blockages to communication.

The facilitator/learner relationship


The facilitator/learner relationship will only become relaxed if the
organisational structure within which the learning takes place is
flexible. The facilitator should mediate between the learners and the
organisation in such a way as to reduce any barriers. It’s also
important that the facilitator is an authority in the learning process
but not in authority over the learners.
In formal and non-formal learning situations where facilitators and
learners interact face-to-face, it is a good idea, if it is possible, to have
the learners take part when selecting and setting up the physical
environment.
The most important element of good relationships is open, inclusive
dialogue and shared decision-making. We will explore this further in
Unit 7.

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Self-help question 5.1


(about 20 minutes)
Describe how the following people might prepare a good
learning environment for their sessions:
z a driving instructor
z a swimming coach
z a karate instructor
z a music teacher
z a computer teacher.
Think about how the learning environment has to be planned
and adjusted depending on the discipline, subject matter, skills
and professional attitudes that are being learned.
For example, why do swimming instructors always coach
swimming in or around a swimming pool? Would it be possible
to teach any aspect of swimming away from the pool?
Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the
unit.

Unit 5
Factors that hinder learning

So far, we have concentrated on positive characteristics in the learning


environment. Now we consider conditions that can hinder learning,
both learner-related and facilitator-related.

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Activity 5.2
(about 20 minutes)
List all the ways you can think of that a learner could be
disturbed in his studies by characteristics of the physical
environment (for example, sounds, sights, other people, space
restrictions, disorganisation). Also think about any social
conditions that can hinder learning (for example, poor
relationships with tutors or peers).
Then survey the place where you are studying and identify any
such distracting features.
Discuss with others how the situation could be corrected and
make notes in your learning journal.

Learner-related factors
Some of the learner-related factors that can hinder learning are:
z beliefs and attitudes
z emotional factors such as anxiety and fear
z motivation and needs of the learner
z learning styles.
The impact of learner motivation and needs, and learning styles, are
discussed further in Units 6 and 7. Here, we focus on emotional
factors, beliefs and attitudes.

Beliefs and attitudes


Adults bring a range of experiences, skills, attitudes, values and
knowledge to a particular learning situation. These experiences can
be a rich resource. When an individual’s past experiences form the
starting point for new learning, the individual is better equipped to
learn successfully. However, when contradictions or dilemmas result,
perceptions based on prior learning must be reappraised. In the adult
learning process, each individual has the option to reject the
contradictory new information, or to revise their previous views.
While Piaget would have considered this an issue of accommodation
versus assimilation to existing schemata, Cranton (1996) describes the
process of making positive adjustments to prior learning as
‘transformative learning’.
While positive attitudes and beliefs will facilitate new learning,
negative attitudes (for example, the view that certain jobs should not
be done by women), prejudices (beliefs so dominant that they cause
you to make judgments before examining all the evidence) and habits
(set patterns of doing things) can lead adult learners to resist. They
may not be willing to accommodate their thinking to new ideas. This

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can, in extreme cases, cause them to withdraw from the learning


situation, or it can cause them to fail at the task in hand.
Reflective practice and openness of dialogue in the learning group
can help learners to adapt to the new ideas and behaviours. But
sometimes they may need counselling to explore and perhaps
overcome their negative attitudes.

Emotional factors: anxiety


Anxiety is a major factor that hinders learning. Creating a positive
learning environment, where there is mutual trust and respect, and
open dialogue, and where fears can be safely expressed, is the best
way to help learners overcome what can be debilitating levels of
anxiety.
Consider the following example.

Case study 5.2


‘Butterflies in my stomach’
“The whole point of drama is that you step out of yourself and
this is what I wanted to achieve, but the self-consciousness,
which I hoped to lose when I joined the class in the first place,
was the most severe barrier to shedding it.”
“Every time I came to my turn, I’d get butterflies in my
stomach, though I tried desperately to conceal my nervousness.

Unit 5
Everyone in the class was a colleague of mine and I did not like
them to see how afraid I was.”
From Rogers J. (1997), Adults Learning

This learner was not confident about his abilities and was nervous
about performing in the presence of peers, and experienced anxiety.
This is a common characteristic among adult learners.

Rogers (1986) highlights several reasons for anxiety:


z the fear of disappointing someone (teacher, parent)
z low assessment of one’s abilities (others are better)
z a lack of trust in oneself (I cannot do that)
z too high a sense of emotional need (need for love or reassurance)
z difficulty in memorising and recalling something
z fear of failing before the group
z over-concern about one’s age.
In all these, fear can be identified as a factor which causes anxiety.

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Over-anxiety is highest when the learner is faced with intellectual or


creative exercises (for example, sitting an examination), and is lowest
when faced with physical tasks. This is an important reason why
experiential learning involving physical activity is appropriate for
adult learners. Intellectual tasks can often be given a physical
dimension by arranging objects to model a problematic pattern of
ideas.
The evidence suggests that a degree of anxiety can have a positive as
well as a negative impact on adult learning. A certain amount of
anxiety is desirable, provided that it motivates learners to work.
However, someone who is too anxious, with a low opinion of their
ability to work successfully, will become so anxious that they may
perform poorly, or fail.

Facilitator-related factors
Even though adults may be happy sometimes to engage in a formal
process of learning, generally they need to experience learning as part
of their everyday lives. They like to feel that what they are learning is
going to be meaningful and relevant. Therefore, learning by
performing, rather than preparing to perform, is more appropriate for
adults. This is a key function of experiential learning.
Rogers (1986) states that a teacher or facilitator should be aware of
the normal learning processes of adults (which we have looked at in
earlier units), as well as their unique characteristics. This will allow
learners to:
z build up and enhance their existing learning techniques to make
them more efficient
z make the learning more permanent and more available for later
use
z progress to further purposeful learning.

Teaching style
Genuine, friendly interaction between the facilitator and learners, and
also among the learners themselves, helps to improve the self-
confidence and motivation of adult learners, increasing the
opportunities for success.
The type of interaction that facilitators have with learners will depend
on their personality, experience and training, and also their awareness
of the individual differences of the learners – that is their needs,
motivation, abilities and disabilities. On the other hand, learning will
be hindered if the facilitator is:
z inexperienced
z anxious or fearful of their role
z under pressure from outside or within the organisation

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z coping with a large group (which does not facilitate close


interaction)
z using unsuitable methods and aids.
Teaching style includes the choice of teaching method, teaching aids,
preparation, evaluation techniques and so on, for a particular
situation. When facilitators use methods such as group discussion,
role-play and project work, learners have to engage actively in the
process. Active participation will help them to learn things more
effectively. (We will look at active methods in Unit 7.)
The case study and activity which follow explore a number of factors
that hinder learning.

Case study 5.3


Course design and performance
The transition from school to a course at the Community
Development Centre was a shattering experience for the group of
school leavers. The group, whose members had completed secondary
school, was used to a more supportive, tutorial style of teaching.
Nobody from the staff at the centre seemed to care about them as
individuals, or their problems.
In designing the course, very little consideration had been given
regarding the pre-existing knowledge and experiences of the group, so

Unit 5
much of the new information was presented as lectures or in written
handouts. Coping with lectures, the main mode of instruction about
theory, was difficult. The students were very keen on a problem-
centred orientation to learning, and were looking forward to
opportunities for immediate application of their new knowledge to
practical situations.
The course developers had paid very little attention to these aspects.
The ultimate outcome was poor performance at the final examination
by the majority of students in the group.

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Activity 5.4
(about 20 minutes)
Discuss Case study 5.3 with others (co-workers and/or tutorial
group) and then make notes in your learning journal in
response to the following issues.
1 List the facilitator factors that you think are related to the
poor performance of these learners at their final
examination.
2 Make suggestions to change these factors, so as to make a
positive impact on groups of similar adult learners.
3 What methods might be more suitable for this group to
facilitate the immediate application of theory to practical
situations?

The last activity in this unit aims to bring together your learning from
the unit and apply it.

Activity 5.5
(about 25 minutes)
Look back at the activities you have done in this unit to
identify the characteristics of a positive learning environment.
As a learning facilitator, what could you do to create such
characteristics in a learning environment with which you are
familiar?
Discuss your ideas with others (co-workers and/or tutorial
group) and then make notes in your learning journal about
what you would do.

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Unit summary

In this unit, you have covered the following main points:


z the characteristics (physical, social and psychological) of an
environment that is conducive to learning
z factors that may hinder learning, including both learner-related
factors like prior experience, anxiety and negative attitudes, and
facilitator-related factors, including teaching style
z the importance of creating a good environment for learning and
ways of doing that.
To check how you have got on, look back at the learning outcomes
for this unit and see if you can now do them. When you have done
this, look through your learning journal to remind yourself of what
you have learned and the ideas you have generated.
In the next unit we look at learning styles and how you can take them
into account when dealing with adult learners.

Unit 5

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Answers to self-help questions

Self-help question 5.1


A driving instructor could prepare a classroom with a display of all
the different road signs and other educational materials relating to
driving. They should arrange the room by having the desks or chairs
placed in such a way that will enable everyone to see the instructor.
Practical instruction should take place in a real vehicle that is
equipped with dual controls for safety intervention if needed. The
vehicle should be clean and instruction should take place on quiet
roads to begin with.
The swimming coach should book the swimming pool where the
session will take place, so that there will be no other people using the
pool when the class is there. Classes should not be too large. The
coach might need to organise transport to get the learners to the pool,
which should be well-maintained and have clean changing rooms.
The karate instructor needs to make sure that the training room is
clean, and that any equipment needed for the session is ready and in
good condition.
The music teacher could create interest in the room, and in music, by
setting up a display of the different musical instruments, or by putting
posters of them on the walls. They should have the chairs and other
equipment ready, and while waiting for everyone to arrive, could put
on some music to relax those who are already there.
The computer teacher will have to check that all computers are in
good working order, that the software needed for the lesson is loaded
correctly, that printers are operational and sufficient paper is available
for student use. They will also have to have all instructional material
prepared and support staff on hand for any mechanical failure.
Any room used for instruction, no matter what the subject or skill is,
has to be prepared in such a way that is interesting and conducive to
learning. The instructor has to set the scene so that the learners are
tuned-in to what is to be learned. The setting is very important, as it
can help to motivate the learner.
In the case of a swimming coach, lessons will mainly have to be
taught in a swimming pool because all the skills must be practised in
water. However, there are some aspects of swimming, for example
some safety and life-saving skills, which could be taught in a
classroom.

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References

Cranton, P. (1996) Professional development as transformative learning:


New perspectives for teachers of adults, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco
Ingalls, J. D. (1973) A Trainers’ Guide to Andragogy: Its Concepts,
Experience and Application (rev. ed.), Social and Rehabilitation Service,
US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, US Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC
Knowles, M. S. (1980) The modern practice of adult education: From
pedagogy to andragogy (2nd edn.), Cambridge Books, New York
Millis, B. J., and Cottell, P. G. (1998) Cooperative learning for higher
education faculty, Oryx Press, Phoenix, Arizona
Rogers, A. (1986) Teaching Adults, The Open University Press, Milton
Keynes
Rogers, J. (1977) Adults learning, The Open University Press, Milton
Keynes.

Unit 5

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Unit 6: Learning
styles

Unit introduction ......................................................153


Unit learning outcomes .............................................153
What is learning style?...............................................154
Learning style models................................................156
Overall learning style.................................................165
Meeting learner needs ...............................................168
Socio-cultural background and learning .....................170
Unit summary ...........................................................174
Answer to self-help questions.....................................175
References.................................................................177

Unit 6
Module 1: Learning Processes

Unit introduction

Welcome to Unit 6 Learning Styles.


In this unit you will be introduced to different modes of intelligence
and different learning styles and the importance of adapting learning
and teaching methods to suit them.
The unit focuses on the different ways in which people think and
learn. It’s very important to consider this, as often the styles that
facilitators use and some of the learning styles of their learners may
not work well together. Moreover, learners may have modes of
learning that make it difficult for them to learn well in some
situations. We need to think about how to provide the range of
individuals in a group with the mix of learning experiences needed to
take account of their preferred learning styles.
After looking at what is meant by the term ‘learning style’, we
introduce a range of learning style models, with readings that provide
a fuller discussion of the underlying ideas and research. The activities
give you the opportunity to identify your own and other people’s
learning styles.
Finally, the unit looks at how socio-cultural factors can influence
learning style.

Unit learning outcomes

Unit 6
When you have worked through this unit, you should be able to:
z identify the characteristics of your own learning style and your
own spectrum of factors of intelligence
z use learning models to analyse learning styles
z outline learning strategies for a variety of individuals and groups.

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What is learning style?

In Unit 1, we explored the general concept of learning by looking at


theories of learning. However, that doesn’t tell us enough about why
individuals choose the patterns of learning that they do. A more
complex view of learning is evolving, based on the notion that people
process information and solve mental problems in a variety of ways,
depending on their personality, socialisation, previous intellectual
history and so on. In this unit, we will look at how that takes place.
Much of current research into learning focuses on the advantages to
be gained by discovering how different learners approach learning.
Although each of us is in many ways a typical human being, in some
significant ways each of us is also unique and processes information
in unique ways.
In your study on this course, you will notice that, while you are
required to do quite a lot of reading, we have included activities so
that you have an opportunity to learn in a variety of ways:
z You may prefer to learn by observing others – an effective
method for absorbing both the overall pattern or ‘gestalt’ of a
behaviour and some of the intricate detail.
z You may be more interested in representing something theoretical
in physical form, for example, a drawing or a sequence of
photographs or objects, which allows you to understand the ideas
more deeply by translating them into a physical pattern. The
process of having to re-present the ideas in a different form
means that you have to get right into the core of the ideas. If so,
some of the more practical activities in the module will help you
to learn more effectively.
z You may prefer to learn in co-operative teams, where you can try
out ideas with fellow students, facilitators and others. This is
another excellent method for learners who feel comfortable and
equal with their helpers.
Psychologists have discovered that individuals have characteristic
approaches to learning, which are conveniently labelled ‘learning
styles’. A learner may consistently show a preference for one
particular strategy when they perceive, organise, process and
understand information, solve problems and interpret what is
happening in a learning situation. They may switch this preference in
other situations, or they may maintain it over a range of situations.
You yourself may consistently prefer one approach across a range of
situations. If so, then you need to be aware that that is what you do. It
is also worth finding out when it helps you learn effectively and when
it is not so successful. In this unit, we will encourage you to reflect on
your learning style preferences. This is part of a ‘learning to learn’
strategy that you might like to use with the young people you work
with.

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Start thinking about different learning styles with the following case
study.

Case study 6.1


Learning and teaching styles
Tara, Elizabeth, Jane and Semi are chatting before the next session on
their course. As you read their conversation, try to identify each
learner’s preferred approach to learning (learning style) as well as the
characteristics of the instruction (teaching style) of the facilitators.
Tara: Who do we have today?
Elizabeth: Mr Arvind, that tall man.
Tara: Oh no, do we? I don’t like the way he explains things. He’s very
dry – no anecdotes, nothing personal. It’s all facts – there are no
jokes. I don’t seem to grasp what he’s saying. He doesn’t build a
picture. It doesn’t appeal to me at all.
Elizabeth: Oh, doesn’t it? I think the opposite. I really like the way he
analyses things and his structured approach. I like to learn in the
same way as he teaches – I go step by step, rationally and logically.
Tara: I prefer Mr Alexander. He’s more informal and he starts by
painting the whole picture. And he’s funny! He talks about his own
personal experience, too. It’s so descriptive and rich. Do you
remember the anecdote he told about the household when he was
explaining about women and development? Really interesting. His
stories really help me see the point of what he is saying.
Elizabeth: Oh, no! I don’t like all that flippancy. You have to sift
through loads of stuff to get to the point. I think it’s irrelevant. I can’t

Unit 6
follow his lessons so well.
Jane: I don’t mind so much about their approach. I just listen to find
out what they want me to do. I wait for the cues. I only study what I
think will see me through this course. I’m more interested in the
qualification. What do you think, Semi?
Semi: I’m just really keen to find out more. I’m always reading and
asking questions. It’s hard for me not to keep asking lots of questions
in class. And I want to apply everything to real situations. I want to
try everything out there and then. Learning is really fun.

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Self-help question 6.1


(about 15 minutes)
1 Describe how Tara prefers to learn.
2 How does Mr Alexander make his presentations?
3 Why does Elizabeth like Mr Arvind’s presentations?
4 What can you say about learners that adopt Jane’s
strategy?
5 How would you describe Semi’s approach?
6 Try to write a short definition of the term ‘learning style’.
Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the
unit.

Learning style models

A preferred learning style tends to become habitual, but is not just a


habit. It has its roots in personality and neurological structure and
can be influenced by genetic inheritance. However, it is mainly
acquired over time, through experience.
Psychologists have described learning styles using various models, for
example:
z cerebral dominance
z personality types
z sensory mode
z multiple intelligences
z structure of intellect (SI) theory
The complex interaction of these various factors determines what
type of learner you are. Socio-economic background and the learning
environment are also very important factors that affect learning
preferences.
Below we give a brief outline of each of these five models. There are
two readings that go into further detail. Don’t be put off by the use of
technical terms. Try to understand each term in the context of what is
said, and judge its validity by comparing it with your experience. As
before, there are activities to help you apply the ideas more
practically.

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Cerebral dominance
With the development of brain scanners in the 1990s and
sophisticated medical imaging systems, a great deal of research has
been conducted into the various mental functions that are controlled
by or located in different parts of the brain. Recent discoveries are still
to be built into a sophisticated model, but much valuable knowledge
about mental processes is emerging.
Of course, significant knowledge about the brain’s structure has been
around over a long period, for example from the field of linguistics.
Most important, there is the division of the brain into two separate
hemispheres – right and left, which are connected at the centre. They
have very different functions and in most people either one side or the
other tends to be dominant. This is referred to as ‘cerebral
dominance’ – where one side of the brain tends to take control of
most of the information processing. The table below highlights some
differences between the two types.

Left-side dominant: Right-side dominant:

z analytical thinkers z tend to take a global view


z tend to think logically, of things
step by step, viewing z may like to learn through
things rationally, images, stories and
objectively and personal experiences
sequentially. z tend to see the whole view
z tend to focus on details first
z may at times miss the big z may miss the details.
picture.

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As the learning style is determined to some extent by established
neurological processes and pattern of cerebral dominance, people
may find it difficult to switch from one type of behaviour to the other,
even when that would be useful. The key to this problem is to be
aware of it and to have some strategy in the form of learning aids that
compensate for the weak faculty.
Here are some examples of strategies.

‘Left-siders’: ‘Right-siders’:

can be helped to get the whole can be asked to justify their


picture by being asked to draw holistic view by putting all the
patterns to show themselves supportive detail in a logical
how the details hang together. order.

For both:
Simply getting both sides to share their insights and explain
them to each other in a discussion group may be enough to
make up any important deficits.

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Personality types
This model argues that our personality tendencies help to determine
how we prefer to learn. The model can help us discover how to select
the best learning techniques for individual personality types. Current
literature on this subject indicates that there are four major
personality types, though these can be further sub-divided using
various combinations.
People may be primarily:
z extroverted (outgoing) or introverted (shy)
z sensing (favour data from using the five senses) or intuitive
(favouring instinctual responses)
z thinking or feeling
z judging or perceiving.
It is important to note that these personality types are tendencies,
rather than being permanently fixed. The learning facilitator can use
an understanding of these types to interact with individual learners
and be sensitive to their personality, varying the interaction and the
learning support accordingly.

Sensory mode
We also seem to have preferred sensory modes for learning.
These are:
z auditory (ear-gate) learners who process information better when
it comes through the ears, for example through tapes, films,
videos and small group discussions
z visual (eye-gate) learners who prefer to see or read information ,
for example in the form of charts and diagrams
z kinaesthetic (event/activity) learners who learn best by physical
activity, being actively involved or preferring practical
demonstrations.
By being sensitive to these differences and using as many sensory
channels as possible, learning facilitators can:
z optimise learning opportunities
z give equal importance to different learner preferences
z reinforce learning by enabling cross referencing from channel to
channel.
Now turn to Reading 6: ‘Learning styles’.
This reading looks at personality types, brain dominance and sensory
mode. It also looks at overall learning style, which we will return to
later in the unit.

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As you read, start trying to identify your own characteristics as a


learner.

Activity 6.1
(about one hour to observe the group, plus about 30 minutes
for discussion and writing)
Observe a group of learners. They might be in a classroom
situation, or a group of young people with whom you are
working.
Describe as far as you can the personality type and sensory
mode preferences for at least six learners. Then do the same
for yourself.
Discuss this with other friends, co-workers and/or tutorial
group) and then make notes in your learning journal.

Multiple intelligences
People vary enormously in their skills and capability. Intelligence
testing and related subjects are part of the history of the attempt to
understand these variations. The intelligence testing tradition is based
on the idea that our ability to deal with problems in the real world
depends on underlying general abilities in perception and reasoning.
But one of the problems with traditional intelligence tests (IQ tests) is
the assumption that there is a single universal factor – a general
intelligence – and that intelligence is determined by your genes. This
view does not allow the possibility of raising the level of people who
do badly in traditional intelligence tests. Also, these tests do not

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measure emotional intelligence or people intelligence.
However, there are theories and models that are much closer to the
rich and complex abilities of young people than the IQ model.
Howard Gardner (1983) argues that our experience of the real world
tells us that intelligence is not unitary, but multiple. When we develop
the capacities of young people through project work, we need to be
able to analyse how well they adapt their thinking and behaviour to
the tasks that face them in order to know how to help them. A unitary
view of intelligence is not helpful for that, whereas a ‘multiple
intelligences’ model is.
Intelligence is the mental process by which we understand the
situation we are in and deal with it. Gardner argues that:
z Each of us has available for use seven (or more) quite different
kinds of intelligence and each one tends to generate a different
learning style.
z All of these intelligences need to be equally valued.

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z The level we can reach in each of these intelligences is not fixed,


so they can all be taught, nurtured and strengthened.
z Where schools focus primarily on the linguistic and
logical/mathematical intelligences and learning styles, this has a
bad effect on a lot of children.
z Everyone learns in different ways, at different rates, for different
reasons.
z When you have strengths in certain intelligences and weaknesses
in others then you should use the stronger intelligences to awaken
and strengthen the weaker ones.
z In any of these multiple intelligences, the ways a high level of
ability shows itself can be very diverse, The central assessment
question then becomes ‘How are you smart?’ not ‘How smart are
you?’
Gardner’s multiple intelligences are described next.

Visual/spatial
Visual/spatial intelligence involves being able to deal intellectually
with visual problems and to look at other problems and create mental
images to analyse them. This is especially valuable with visual arts,
navigation, architecture and certain games such as chess, where the
logical structures of the game are overlaid by powerful visual
patterns.

Verbal/linguistic
Verbal/linguistic intelligence relates to words and language. We use
this intelligence to formulate our understanding of situations in
listening, speaking, reading and writing.

Musical/rhythmic
Musical/rhythmic intelligence includes the ability to recognise and
create tonal and rhythmic patterns and structures, and to formulate
their expression in musical notation. It includes mentally processing
environmental sounds, the human voice and musical instruments.

Logical/mathematical
Logical/mathematical intelligence deals with the analysis and
construction of patterns of symbolic information, using propositional
thought patterns.

Bodily/kinaesthetic
Bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence is the ability to use the body so that it
expresses emotion(s) and ideas, plays sports, and deploys the ability
to interpret and invoke effective body language. It deals primarily
with physical activities and kinaesthetic learning experiences.

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Interpersonal
Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand and manipulate
person-to-person relationships. It includes the ability to communicate
with others and to participate in group activities.

Intrapersonal
Intrapersonal intelligence is based on understanding and managing
the self. With respect to learning facilitation, it concerns the attention
needed by a person who is engaged in independent study rather than
group study or group work.

Naturalist
Naturalist intelligence consists of the underlying general intellectual
abilities that are embodied in the work of the farmer, countryman
and so on. It enables human beings to recognise, categorise and utilise
the natural environment. Gardner (1999: 48) uses the concept to
mean a combination of ‘the core abilities with a characterization of
the role...’

There are a number of criticisms of the multiple intelligences model.


A common criticism is that Gardner’s theories derive more from his
own intuitions and reasoning than from empirical research. Indeed,
Gardner himself has noted that there is an element of subjective
judgement involved. It has also been argued that Gardner treats very
different kinds of intelligences in exactly the same way. There have
also been questions about how Gardner’s criteria can be applied
rigorously, and about the reasons he gives for their relevance.
Now turn to Reading 7: ‘Understanding intelligence’ by Dr G.

Unit 6
Gunawardena.
At this point, read only Section 1 Intelligence Testing and Section 2
Multiple Intelligences, for a fuller discussion of the topics we have
just covered. You can come back to the ideas in the reading later if
you find them difficult to digest straightaway.
Section 3 of Reading 7 is about SI theory, which we discuss a little
later in this unit. You will have the opportunity to read that section
then.

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Activity 6.2
Try to identify which of the multiple intelligences tend to
dominate in you.
Which of these intelligences can you identify among your
friends and family?
What evidence do you base your judgement on?
Write notes in your learning journal.

Structure of intellect (SI) theory


In youth development work, multi-modal theories of intelligence
seem far more useful than the traditional intelligence testing
approach. While multiple intelligences theory possibly does need to
be developed and refined, the structure of intellect theory of
intelligence (SI theory) has undergone an enormous amount of
testing.
SI theory is a multi-factor theory of intelligence developed by J. P.
Guilford in The Nature of Human Intelligence (1967). Guilford’s
model was based on intellectual categories derived from testing of
Second World War recruits in order to give them rapid training for
combat in the European and Pacific wars. Guilford researched and
developed a wide variety of intelligence tests, very much in the way
that the IQ testers had done. But he came up with very different
conclusions from them. Instead of finding one underlying
determining intelligence factor, his SI model found 120 separate
general factors.
Though it was a model devised originally to solve the problems
during the Second World War, it is today widely used in education
and in personnel selection. It enables learning facilitators to analyse
what the intellectual abilities essential to a piece of teaching are, and
to ensure that the learners are able to access these before teaching. It
is also used because it is an excellent diagnostic tool for specifying
what aspect of thinking is blocking the learner’s thought processes
and showing how that can be overcome. Arguably, it is a very much
stronger model than others from the rest of the intelligence testing
community.
Today, the model describes 150 separate factors of intelligence,
developed out of the original 120 factors as a result of repeated
testing. Each of these 150 factors can be separate enough to block
your thinking if it is a crucial step in a learning process and you have
not developed it properly. One of the reasons why the model is used
so widely in education is because it enables learners’ information
processing weaknesses to be identified and remedied.

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For simplification purposes, Guilford structured his findings in the


form of a cube, as in the diagram below:
Contents
Visual
Auditory
Symbolic
Semantic
Behavioural
Products
Units
Classes
Relations
Systems
Transformation
Implications

Operations
Evaluation
Convergent production
Divergent production
Memory
Cognition

SI theory: factors of intelligence, adapted from Wikipedia

In SI theory, intelligence is viewed as comprising five types of mental


processing that Guilford calls ‘operations’. These are:
z ‘cognition’ (which is really awareness or recognition),
z memory
z generative or creative thinking, which he calls ‘divergent
production’
z thinking logically and in a linear manner, which he calls
‘convergent production’
z evaluation.
Guilford called the type of intellectual material with which the mind
works ‘contents’. There are five categories here:

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z visual information
z auditory information (these two he originally categorised as one
type called ‘figural content’)
z symbolic information, such as numbers or musical notation
z semantic information, which is carried in forms of language
whose meaning has to be processed
z behavioural knowledge, which is where he locates social and
emotional intelligence.
Therefore, the learner may be operating in any one or more of the five
areas of knowledge and may be processing the information by one or
more of five types of thinking. The learner’s ability to do so will
depend on underlying abilities to deal with what Guilford has
classified into six kinds of products:
z units
z classes

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z relations
z systems
z transformations
z implications.
It can be argued that although genetic inheritance undoubtedly has
some part to play in determining the basis of our intelligence, there is
no evidence that it sets definable limits to our intelligence. It may
influence our early intellectual preferences and affect our interests, but
we should use whatever evidence we find of our thinking and build
the new thinking we need onto that. The methods of even the best
intelligence tests or models are very crude in understanding the
intellectual power we have. We should be much more concerned with
using psychological and physiological insights to generate strategies
that will raise people’s intelligence to a high level. The SI model tells
us that even if only one of these factors is at all developed, we can use
that factor to connect up with other factors, to raise the level of the
whole information processing structure of the intellect.

Now turn again to Reading 7 ‘Understanding intelligence’ and read


Section 3 SI theory.

Read the following case study and do the self-help question. This
section gives a more detailed explanation of SI theory, illustrated by
the example of a playgroup leader and how she uses her behavioural
intelligence.

Case study 6.1


Applying SI theory
The author describes an example from experience:
“A part-time, in-service trainee learning facilitator came to me
with a particularly awkward problem. She was working with
young adults on a Pre-caring course, who wanted to become
nurses and carers. She explained that she had a small group of
learners who were particularly interested in working with old
people in the scattered, deprived former mining villages around
her centre. She explained that this was a priority area for the
local health authority and that these were learners with very
high people skills, but that they were hopeless at formal
mathematics, and had to pass in Basic Statistics before they
could be accepted on the full Caring course.”
“The facilitator and I were working with the SI model at the
time, so we used the information from the tests she did on her

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students to see what might best be done to raise their


mathematical skills through giving them statistical insight.”
“The tests showed that they were excellent at most of the
behavioural features of intelligence analysed by the SI model.
So she constructed with the group a survey of old people and
their needs and problems in five villages, got them to carry out
the survey face to face with the subjects. Then she helped them
to analyse the surveys statistically using a new method called
‘Statistics without Maths for Psychology’ (Dancey and Reidy,
1999) and to apply the numbers afterwards. This enabled them
to conceptualise the ‘symbolic’ issues working from their
‘behavioural’ insights, and so they were able to ‘produce
convergently’ ‘symbolic classes’ and ‘relations’ and to
understand ‘symbolic implications’.”
“From that point on, they gradually became adept at Statistics.”

Self-help question 6.2


When you have read Section 3 in Reading 7 about SI theory,
turn back to Unit 1. Look at Case study 1.3 about the Brazilian
street children selling food in the streets of Sao Paolo, and at
Self-help question 1.4. Read them again carefully.
See if you can use the SI model to analyse the factors of
intelligence that the street children have developed and which
are strong, and the factors that are weak and need developing.
Use the model to see if you can suggest how they might be
taught to strengthen the weak factors.
Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the

Unit 6
unit.

Overall learning style

From what you have learned in this unit, you will be able to see that
an overall learning style is a combination of many factors. Next, we
look at two models, each with four learning styles.
The four styles in Model 1 are:
z relational
z analytical
z structured
z energetic.

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This model was described in Reading 6, where you read about how
these factors co-relate to produce four overall types of learners, as
described in the table below. (You may want to look again at the
section on Overall learning style in Reading 6 now.)

Relational Analytical Structured Energetic


learner learner learner learner

Meaning- Theory- Solution- Activity-


oriented oriented oriented oriented

Sensory Auditory/Visual Visual Visual/Tactile Tactile/Auditory


preference

Brain Right Left Left Right


dominance

The four styles in Model 2 (which is similar to Module 1) are:


z analytic
z imaginative
z common sense
z dynamic.
Depending on their cerebral dominance and other factors such as
motivation and attitudes, we can identify four main learner types. As
you read, you will notice significant correspondences with the
multiple intelligences model and the SI model. The characteristics of
the four learner types are summarised below.

The analytic learner


Earlier, you learned that when the left side of the brain is dominant,
the learner adopts an analytical style of learning.

The imaginative learner


When the right half of the brain is dominant, learners adopt a more
divergent way of understanding and processing information. They are
the ‘Picassos’ who produce radical new drawings, the ‘da Vincis’ who
provide the details of a new creation, and the ‘Van Goghs’ who fill
the canvas with bold and rhythmic colours.

The common-sense learner


Personality characteristics, motivation and other attributes also
influence learning style. Some learners are concerned more about
getting qualifications and satisfying examiners.

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The dynamic learner


The dynamic learner is actively engaged in the learning process.
Dynamic learners are interested in the learning activities and try to
test out ideas, to find new ones and to search for knowledge.

The analytic learner: The imaginative learner:


z thinks of problems and z looks at things from a
processes information, in a broad perspective and in a
linear step by step holistic/global way, not
sequence part by part
z likes to analyse things and z generates new
likes synthesis combinations of ideas
z prefers rational and logical easily
thinking z makes much use of
z views things in an intuition and insight in
objective fashion learning
z is very committed to z relates learning to
systematic thinking personal experiences, likes
z likes clear structures analogies, makes use of
z has difficulty in human interest
recognising overall z is flexible, innovative and
patterns. sometimes radical
z uses emotional attributes
in understanding and
presenting concepts.

The common-sense learner: The dynamic learner:


z is dominated by course z is brimming with ideas to
requirements put into practice
z limits activities to those z engages in purposeful
required by the course activity most of the time

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z concentrates more on rote z tries to solve problems,
learning search for new ideas,
z tries to succeed by only experiment
doing what is necessary. z is a keen competitor
z plays a visible role, asserts
leadership
z gets involved with others
in learning.

Characteristics of the four learner types

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Activity 6.3
(about 20 minutes)
Look again at the descriptions of characteristics of different
types of learners. Can you place yourself in either of these two
overall learning style models:
z relational / analytical / structured / energetic?
z analytic / imaginative / common sense / dynamic?
Give examples of ways you have learned that illustrate your
style. Perhaps your overall style of learning is a composite of
more than one learner type.
Discuss this with others (co-workers and/or tutorial group) and
then make notes in your learning journal.

Meeting learner needs

Since people differ in the way they think, process information and
solve problems, how are we going to meet all our learners needs?
Obviously, we cannot facilitate learners if we stick to one narrow
method. Good teaching and training satisfy learner needs, and this
includes accommodating different learning preferences and adopting
a variety of strategies. For example, the learner who does not like
reading can be satisfied through discussion or through practical
activity.
In this distance education Diploma, you are given a variety of
activities: reading, observing, case study analysis, hands-on practical
application, reflecting on your own experiences, gathering
information and discussing with others. The variety should enable
you to find ways that suit your intellectual development best.

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Activity 6.4
(about 20 minutes)
Think back to a situation where you have received training as a
facilitator, and describe the various settings, for example,
classroom, workshop, lecture, small group discussion, distance
education modules.
1 What sort of learning activity was used in each setting?
2 What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of
each?
3 Which activities do you prefer?
Discuss this with others (co-workers and/or tutorial group) and
then make notes in your learning journal.

From the last activity, you may have discovered what training
strategies you prefer. Perhaps you like structured, sequential and
analytical presentations. Perhaps you prefer workshops to lectures.
Perhaps you choose highly imaginative and innovative activities, like
role-play or creative writing.
As a facilitator, you should use a mix of activities so that the learning
appeals to all learners. You can become a versatile learning facilitator
by trying various facilitating and instructional roles and using
contrasting activities:
z logical presentations/descriptions with analogies and anecdotes
z different sensory modes (auditory, visual, kinaesthetic)

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z concrete illustrations to make concepts less abstract
z practical illustrations, related to real life situations
z freedom to experiment, explore ideas
z plenty of collaborative planning
z an environment with diverse activities (reading, writing,
observing, analysing, teamwork tasks, role-playing, games,
explorations).
Participation is the key word. As the Chinese philosopher Confucius
said in around 450 BC:
‘I hear and I forget.
I see and I remember.
I do and I understand.’

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Metacognition
Metacognition means being aware of how you learn, and the
importance of controlling that process. Being able to identify your
own learning preferences, and overall learning style, can help you to
learn more effectively.
As a learning facilitator, you can help learners to learn by developing
their awareness of their own learning preferences and overall learning
styles, and their special intellectual qualities and how they can build
new learning on these individual characteristics.

Socio-cultural background and learning

As well as psychological, physiological and neurological differences,


socio-cultural factors can also influence learning style. For example,
Taufe’ulugaki (2003) refers to Pacific learning and thinking styles
which reflect a very strong emphasis on group and collaborative
learning. Some influences may be due to socio-economic factors,
others due to ethnic and or gender issues. What you need to do is to
explore these kinds of influences on the groups that you work with.

Now turn to Reading 8: ‘Pacific perspectives on learning: Pacific


thinking styles.’, by Ana Maui Taufe’ulugaki.
As you read, compare the findings with what you have learned about
your own and other people’s thinking and learning styles in this unit,
and how they may be influenced by socio-cultural factors.

Stereotypes
Traditionally, many cultures have sex-role stereotypes of learning.
Explore them by doing the activity given below. (There is more on
this in Module 5 Gender and Development).

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Activity 6.5
(about 30 minutes, plus interview time)
In your learning journal, write down some sex-role stereotyped
ideas about learning, under the headings:

Females are: Males are:

Make notes about what you think are the origins of differences
in expectations for women and men. How do you think the
patterns of social expectations for both genders affect their
learning?
Interview some women colleagues to find out the factors that
they feel have hindered their learning.
Write your responses in your learning journal.

Current research shows clearly that, with respect to learning, the


social constructions of gender transcend the effects of biological sex.
They include the values and practices of the social and cultural
environments within which learning takes place.
Undoubtedly, men’s and women’s learning styles tend overall to differ.
However, since research results are inconclusive we should certainly
not accept any fixed sex-role stereotypes. It’s worth noting,
nevertheless, that current research seems to suggest that men tend to
be more abstract learners, women tend to be more anxious about
study success; men tend to present as more intuitive, women as more

Unit 6
analytical; men are slightly more undirected, women tend to be more
organised. Additionally, men have often been noted to dominate
discussions as well as group work. However, be very cautious with
any such generalisations. Use them only to help people develop in
areas in which they may be weak.

Socio-economic differences
Socio-economic differences, too, may hinder or facilitate learning. For
example, people from more socially disadvantaged groups tend to
have poorer verbal ability in standard and high status language styles.
This may make it difficult for them to grasp abstract and complex
concepts when these are not made clear by preliminary exploration.
They can, however, very rapidly acquire expertise in such styles as the
work of Mrs Pyrah’s children showed (see Unit 3, Case study 3.1).
There may be bias against more socially disadvantaged groups in
assessment and testing.

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Ethnicity
Ethnicity may influence learning, since some cultures value
individual achievement and competition highly, while other cultures
value the group’s achievements more than those of the individual. In
some ethnic groups, the seclusion of women or religious beliefs may
affect active engagement in some learning activities.

Case study 6.1


Cultural issues
Ameena entered a teacher training college to be trained as a language
teacher. She had to engage in many, varied activities.
At one stage, she was asked to dance in a role-play in front of male
and female students. She refused, as her religion did not allow her to
dance in front of males.
The instructor was angry with her and complained to the principal,
adding that ‘Ameena has trouble with listening activities, as she
comes to class in the purdah and her ears are covered.’ The principal
asked Ameena to dress like the other students in the future.

Activity 6.6
(about 20 minutes)
Discuss this case study and the issues it raises with others
(friends, family, co-workers and/or tutorial group). The write
your responses to the following questions in your learning
journal.
1 Do you think that Ameena was right or wrong when she
refused to dance in front of male colleagues? Give reasons
for your answers.
2 Do you agree with the stand taken by the instructor and
the principal? If you do not agree, what alternatives would
you suggest?

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Activity 6.7
(about 30 minutes)
Review what you have learned in this unit about learning
styles. Make notes about the following questions:
z How has it helped increase your understanding of how
adults learn?
z How can you apply your learning in practice?
z How have your ideas now changed about how you and
other people learn?

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Unit summary

In this unit you covered the following main points:


z what is meant by ‘learning style’
z different models used to describe learning styles:
o cerebral dominance
o personality types
o sensory mode
o multiple intelligences
o structure of intellect (SI) theory
z how to identify your own overall learning style, for example using
the models of:
o relational / analytical / structured / energetic learners
or
o analytic / imaginative / common sense / dynamic learners.
z helping and encouraging learners to become aware of their
learning styles
z the socio-cultural factors that affect learning style.

To check how you have got on, look back at the learning outcomes
for this unit and see if you can now do them. When you have done
this, look through your learning journal to remind yourself of what
you have learned and the ideas you have generated.
In the next unit we look at how better to facilitate adult learning and
at designing, implementing and evaluating programmes.

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Answer to self-help questions

Self-help question 6.1


1 Tara prefers presentations that include personal experiences and
anecdotes. She concentrates on the total picture when learning.
2 Mr Alexander starts by painting the total picture, which is
descriptive and rich. He also uses anecdotes to illustrate his
points.
3 Elizabeth likes Mr Arvind’s presentations because they are
analytical, structured and logical.
4 Learners that adopt Jane’s strategy are those who just concentrate
on getting the work done. They just learn what they need to pass
the tests and exams and are only interested in the qualification.
5 Semi’s approach to learning is dynamic. He likes to find out more
about what he is learning and to read more about the things he is
learning. He asks questions and wants to apply what he learns to
real situations. He enjoys learning for its own sake.
6 Here are two definitions of the term ‘learning style’:
z ‘… a general tendency to adopt a particular strategy in
learning’ (Messick, 1976)
z ‘… habitual modes of information processing and problem
solving.’ (Pask, 1988).

Self-help question 6.2


The young street traders that you first met in Self-help question 1.1

Unit 6
were clearly very skilled with basic arithmetical processes and with
the representation of money in terms of coins and notes of two
denominations (old and new, which involved transforming from one
to the other mentally). They also broke numbers down into
constituent parts and moved the parts around to make adding and
subtracting easier. They could also map these operations into sets of
specific items and classes of food.
The traders are powerful convergent processors, memorisers and
evaluators of visual items (units) and classes (of food and coins and
notes). They understand the visual relationships between them and
the transformations between visual denominations of notes, and at
least part of the system of numbers represented by the visual money.
This is a pretty sophisticated set of information processing abilities.
However, it is limited at the moment to the visual domain.
To become adept at school maths, their abilities need to be moved
much more firmly away from the visual content into the area of
symbolic content, so that they become equally adept at convergent

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production and evaluation of symbolic relations, systems and


transformations.
To effect this, the facilitator has to free their undoubtedly skilled
mental processes from dependence on the visual materials, perhaps
by a halfway stage, where they are compelled to make explicit (to
represent to themselves or others) exactly what they know. Which is
why they should be asked to train other young people in the
classroom without the presence of the food, using drawings to
represent the money and the food.
By utilising their behavioural abilities, you could give them activities
to move them into the evaluation of semantic classes and relations as
a way of getting free of some of the dependence on visual content,
before attempting to access the symbolic content.

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References

Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of Mind: A Theory of Multiple Intelligences,


Basic Books, New York
Gardner, H. (1999) Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st
Century, Basic Books, New York
Guilford, J. P. (1967) The Nature of Human Intelligence, McGraw-Hill,
New York
Guilford, J. P. and Hoepfner, R. (1971) The Analysis of Intelligence,
McGraw-Hill, New York
Messick, S. (ed.) (1976) Individuality in learning (1st edn.), Jossey-Bass,
San Francisco
Pask, G. (1988) ‘Learning strategies, teaching strategies, and
conceptual or learning style’ in Schmeck, R. (ed.) (1988) Ch 4, 83–
100 Plenum Press, New York
Research Report: ERIC Document ED 422 164, available from:
http://www.ericdigests.org
Taufe’ulugaki, A. M. (2003) ‘Vernacular Languages and Classroom
Interactions in the Pacific’ in Thaman, K.H. (ed.) Educational Ideas
from Oceania, USP, Fiji, 13–35.

Unit 6

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178 Unit 6: Learning styles


Module 1: Learning Processes

Unit 7: Facilitating
adult learning

Unit introduction ......................................................181


Unit learning outcomes .............................................181
Communication and participation .............................182
Designing the programme..........................................188
Selecting learning strategies .......................................192
Resources..................................................................199
Implementation.........................................................204
Evaluation.................................................................207
Unit summary ...........................................................212
Answers to self-help questions ...................................213
References.................................................................216

Unit 7
Module 1: Learning Processes

Unit introduction

Welcome to Unit 7 Facilitating Adult Learning.


In this unit you will learn about designing, implementing and
evaluating learning programmes for adult learners, and your role as a
facilitator of adult learning. This will build on what you learned
about learning styles in Unit 6.
You will explore: why it is important for adult learners to participate
in all aspects of the learning process, including its management; the
relationship between learning needs and learning objectives; the
selection of appropriate learning strategies and resources; and the
evaluation of adult learning and criteria used to evaluate adult
learning.
There are several very practical activities in this unit to give you the
opportunity to apply your learning. Make sure that you allow time for
the observations and discussions that are involved in the activities.
As you come to the end of this first module of the Diploma you will
be asked to reflect on your learning so far.

Unit learning outcomes

When you have worked through this unit, you should be able to:
z explain the processes of communication and participation in
adult learning
z outline stages in developing a learning programme and apply
your learning to:
o develop objectives
o select learning strategies Unit 7

o choose resources
o implement the programme
z explain why evaluation matters and how and when it should be
carried out
z reflect on your learning from this module.

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Communication and participation

Communication
Adult learning is not a process of one-way communication, where a
facilitator only transmits knowledge to students who are expected to
absorb that knowledge.
The last unit of this module is a good moment to reflect on the
learning principles that underpin this Diploma.
Reading 9: ‘Principles that underpin the learning on the Diploma’
explores these principles. It is taken from the first Tutor’s Manual for
the Diploma and was meant as advice for those who were facilitating
the Diploma programme.
You can read it now, or at the end of the unit if you prefer.
As you read, think about the following questions:
How far do you think the principles outlined in the reading are
apparent in this module? How far has this reading helped you reflect
better on the module content and process of your learning through
the module?

Reading 9 compares the learning process for adults doing the


Diploma to a self-directed apprenticeship in the modes of working of
mature specialists in the fields covered by the thirteen modules. Of
course, the self-direction is under the management of the learning
facilitators running the programme and the writers of the modules.
Nevertheless, self-direction is the ultimate aim of the programme.
In order to achieve self-direction, facilitation of adult learning needs
to be a three-way communication process. This means attempts are
made to match the learning needs of adult students with the learning
objectives of the programme. This takes place within the general aims
and policies of the organisation funding the programme, using the
available communicative methods of specialists in the fields
represented.
Consider the two communication models shown below.
SENDER MESSAGE RECEIVER

(teacher) (lesson content) (student)


One-way communication

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In the one-way communication model, the teacher usually teaches the


student items on a syllabus, which is designed by an educational
specialist.
In adult learning, there has to be a three-way communication process
between facilitator and learners.
z First, the facilitator has to develop insight into the learning needs
and learning styles of the learners through the ‘feed in’ process.
z Second, the facilitator has to structure her ‘message’ so that it
fulfils the learning needs of the learners as far as possible. In this
facilitation process she has to consider what strategies will make
the learning process active rather than passive, and relevant to the
needs identified in the feed in process.
z Third, the facilitator has to find out whether she has fulfilled the
learning needs of the learners, through evaluation during the
‘feedback’ process.

Feed in

Sender Message Receiver


Encoding Channels Decoding
(Facilitator) (content) (learner)

Feed out

Feed back

Three-way communication

The meaning of the terms in the three-way communication model is


as follows:
z Feed in: Learners feed their profiles into the facilitator’s (the
sender’s) pool of essential knowledge (for example, through
group discussion). The facilitator estimates their knowledge
levels, learning capacities, learning styles and socio-cultural Unit 7
backgrounds.
z Encoding: The facilitator prepares the learning content of the
session in a form that is interesting, meaningful and
understandable to the learner (receiver). (Traditionally, this was
described in teacher education as the learning session’s ‘method’.)
z Message: The facilitator ensures that the full meaning of the
learning content is received by the learner. The facilitator controls
and monitors the processes she adopts, from start to finish of the
learning session. It includes greeting, talking, gesturing,
introducing learning activities, involvement in the learning
activities (leading, listening, commenting), to the final goodbyes.
Each act of the facilitator has an important effect on shaping the

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learning. Developing expertise at this is perhaps the most


important process a facilitator can learn.
z Channel(s): The facilitator uses a range of channels for learners
to engage with the message. People learn through all their senses
– seeing, hearing, touching, sensing, smelling and tasting, and
kinaesthetic. The more the senses are used appropriately, the
more effective the learning. So, a variety of learning activities
have to be planned to involve the learners actively in the learning
processes as whole persons who fully use their senses.
z Decoding: Learners must understand fully the content that they
are getting through the message and channels. However, for this
they need mental preparation. Their minds need to have in place
a set of schemata that they can use to assimilate or accommodate
the new material. The facilitator has to ensure that those are in
place – for example, during the feed-in session in various ways.
z Feed out: Learner responses to the message – appropriate learner
behaviours. The facilitator needs to prepare for these and to be
alert to whether she is getting them or not. Evaluating them is
often complex and this is an ability that needs to be developed
over a period.
z Feedback: The facilitator checks to find out whether the intended
message has been received as expected. This can be done orally,
in writing or by some kind of evaluative test. If the message is not
being properly received, the feedback loop should prompt the
facilitator to get better information at the feed-in stage and/or to
plan the feed-out more effectively.
The participation of learners is clearly required in the feed-in process
and the feed-back processes. However, this tends to be a simplification
of the actual facilitation process.
Now consider the following seven-step model of the facilitation
process (Ingalls, 1973):

Organisation Input

1 A climate for learning. 3 Needs, interests, values of


2 A structure for mutual learners.
planning, getting the
participation of learners
from steps 1 to 7.

Activity Output

4 Formulating objectives. 7 Shared evaluation of


5 Designing. results, leading to a
6 Implementation reassessment needs.

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As mentioned in Step 2 of the model, the facilitator has to find ways


and means of getting the participation of the learners in each of the
seven steps.
Read the following case study, then do Activity 7.1.

Case study 7.1


Facilitating learning in community education
A team of trainee graduate teachers, who were learning the concepts
of andragogy (helping adults to learn) and their relevance to
community education, went on a field trip (on foot) to a rural village.
Their assignment was to test whether learners’ needs and objectives
could be matched with the objectives of their institution. The
institution was interested in helping the rural communities to learn
basic literacy and numeracy skills.
As the team passed through a village, they saw a group of rural
mothers seated under a large tree close to the pre-school. The trainee
teachers asked them whether they would like to learn something
while they waited until the children finished school. When
questioned as to what they would like to learn, some said that they
wanted to learn ‘how to make flowers using paper tape.’ A few others
said that they wanted to learn how to make flowers using stockinettes.
Two of the mothers said, ‘We have a lot of left-over pieces of cloth at
home. We want to learn how to make table covers by joining those
pieces together.’
The team of trainee teachers thanked the mothers and promised them
to come back two days later to help them to learn what they had
mentioned. At the institute, they discussed their experience with their
facilitator. Fortunately, there were some trainee teachers who knew
how to make artificial flowers using paper and stockinettes. Most of
the female teachers knew how to stitch pieces of cloth. So they taught
each other and prepared for the mothers’ learning session collecting
whatever materials (like wires, sealing tape, stockinettes of different
colours etc.) they could find in the neighbouring town. Unit 7
When they discussed with their facilitator how they could help the
mothers’ group to learn letters, numbers, basic shapes, the names of
colours and so on, he helped them to find their own methods. There
were various suggestions: ‘Let’s take some foot rulers in our bags.
When we tell them that the wires have to be cut into lengths of five
inches, they want to know what inches are and what five is. Then we
will pull out rulers and show them how lengths are measured’. They
planned to help the mothers learn numbers up to five, and what
triangles, squares and rectangles were. They could do this when
cutting the pieces of cloth to stitch together to make table covers.
They took all the necessary precautions in going from the known to
the unknown.

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The learning session was a great success. They were so interested in


the learning process that they did not feel the time passing.
Immediately after the learning session, most of the mothers – even
the elderly women – blessed them, saying things like: ‘May God bless
you. You have taught us many things today. Please come tomorrow
also.’ ‘Now I can count to five. I want to count up to ten like my little
son.’ ‘You are very good teachers. Please come again.’ ‘We did not
think learning could be such fun.’

Activity 7.1
(about 30 minutes)
When you have read the case study, describe the ways in which
it matches (or doesn’t match) the seven-step model above.
Then answer the following question.
What learning strategies would you have planned to help the
mothers to learn the use of numerals from 1 to 5 and the use
of a ruler?
Discuss this with others (friends, co-workers and/or tutorial
group) and then make notes in your learning journal.

Facilitator as mentor
In Unit 6, we emphasised the importance of flexible teaching styles to
suit learning preferences. We also emphasised the importance of
learner participation in all aspects of the learning process, including
planning. The facilitator has to find ways of involving the learners in
the whole process so that the content, pace, intensity, application and
environment of learning are controlled by the ethos of the learning
group, rather than by the strength of the facilitator’s plan and force of
her personality.
Therefore, the role of the learning facilitator is ideally that of a
mentor.

What is a mentor?
In Homer’s long poem, The Odyssey, the Gods intervene throughout
the story of the return of the Greek lord and warrior Odysseus from
the war of the Greeks with the city of Troy, to his own island home
of Ithaca. Athena, the goddess of wisdom, takes the form of a
mentor for Odyssey’s son, Telemakhos. The mentor guides
Telemakhos in his search for his father. She joins him initially in the
first part of the adventure, appearing when she is needed and
disappearing when she is not. Athena re-enters the scene at the end of
the adventure to help with further advice for Telemakhos, his father

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and grandfather so that they can recapture their island home from
rival lords who had started to challenge for its ownership.
The mentor role is emphasised in the Kularnava Tanta, (an Indian
Vedic text) where six roles are assigned to a teacher. One of the six
roles is that of a ‘bodhaka’ – a person who lights a lamp in the mind
of the student. This suggests two main types of overlapping support
suggested for learners:
z Holding a lamp to illuminate the area of knowledge being
studied. This is in order to show learners the way if they cannot
find their own way through the learning material because they do
not have the appropriate mind set for it (the developed learning
schemata).
z Providing illumination, by way of examples and illustrations, so
that a light starts shining in the learner’s brain, making everything
that is to be learned very clear and assimilable as extensions to
their existing knowledge. This is the approach taken by the
mentor in Panchatantra, where this method was used in the
education of the five princes in The Arts of Stagecraft.

The facilitator as mentor has to be there whenever the group needs


them, but should not be continuously at their side. The mentor should
have a transitional role, helping adult learners to start out on an
independent road to achieve their own educational objectives. This
transitional role may in some cases have to last for longer because
learners vary in their readiness to take over an independent role.
During the ‘feed-in’ stage the facilitator/mentor has to find out what
the learning problem is, both as it is understood by the learners and as
it can be reconstructed into a manageable form with the help of the
mentor. Like Athena with Telemakhos, the mentor has the advantage
of being able to overview the problem in the broader learning context,
but also knows that that is of no value to the learners unless they can
also see it in the broader context from inside their own heads. So the
feed-in time is spent on this process of asking and listening, proposing
and checking – always with an eye to the way that the learners signal Unit 7
the level of their understanding.
You can pursue this process through a range of techniques.
z Whole group exploratory discussion is a principal way.
Exploratory talk is marked by an emphasis on listening on the
part of the participants, and a culture of presenting ideas
tentatively rather than forcefully – this takes time to develop with
a group.
z Having ‘buzz groups’, where the participants throw ideas at each
other as these pop into their heads; these ideas are written down
by a recorder and then evaluated for their usefulness half way
through the session.

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z Simple role-play can be tried for some human relationship areas.


This highlights the underlying issues and they can then be worked
on in discussion with perhaps more role-play and other clarifying
techniques.
z Finally, to establish what needs to be done to move to the
encoding process, you ask the questions: ‘What do we need to do
to solve the problem?’ and ‘What resources do we need to solve
the problem?’
This section has looked at the importance of communication and
participation in facilitating adult learning and the role of the
facilitator in this, especially in establishing learner needs at the feed-in
stage. In the next section, we move on to the design of the
programme.

Designing the programme

Developing objectives
You should now be able to generate a list of things that a group needs
to do. These can be written as general objectives for the group, then
converted into specific objectives that remind each learner what is
being aimed at. The next case study shows what this means.

Case study 7.2


General and specific objectives
This case study is about learning how to work for a recruiting
company under the best available conditions.
An important issue may be that the learners need ‘to develop
expertise in dealing with the personnel manager’ of a multinational
company. This company is setting up an oil storage and haulage
centre near their rural town, and offering jobs to the local population.
There is a shortage of jobs, but the company is known for not being
clear in its dealings with lower-level and middle-level personnel.
One of the general objectives developed in the group is: ‘We need to
be able to read and understand the employment contracts we are
asked to sign.’
From the point of view of the learners, that needs specifying much
more carefully if they are to understand what their contractual
obligations are. So it needs to be written in a more specific form with
the detail sketched in. This will generate several specific objectives.
One of these could be: ‘By the end of this training module, I will be
able, when given a written contract to read, to understand the
individual responsibility I carry, in national and company law, for any

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breach of safety within my area of work and within the whole storage
and haulage centre.’

Setting objectives is a key step in the learning process. Participation


of the learners in setting objectives and designing the learning
strategy is essential in adult learning, because the purpose is for them
to learn, not for you to teach.
Unfortunately, this part of the work can sometimes cause confusion
because the terms used overlap: ‘objectives’, ‘goals’, ‘aims’,
‘purposes’, ‘targets’, and ‘outcomes’, are terms that are often
interchanged. Knowles (1980) proposes the following as standard
definitions of different types of aims and objectives. These need to be
considered in planning.

Aim/objective Definition

General purposes or aims The social and institutional goals of


the programme.

Programme objectives The educational or operational


outcomes toward which a total
programme will be directed for a
prescribed period of time.

Learning objectives The specific behavioural outcomes


(or activity objectives) that an
identifiable individual or group of
individuals will be helped to seek in
a particular activity (such as a
course, a meeting or a tutorial
session).

As you may have noticed, this Diploma uses the term ‘learning
outcomes’. There are ‘module learning outcomes’ (equivalent to the
‘general objectives’ in the case study above) and ‘unit learning
outcomes’ (which are ‘specific objectives’ about what you will learn Unit 7
in any particular unit).
Knowles has also provided a set of guidelines to assist adult educators
in translating needs into ‘programme’ or ‘project objectives’.
z Organise the needs into a priority system and break them down
into operational and educational categories:
o operational – establish needs for physical facilities, time-
scheduling, budgeting; take practical decisions and accept
shared responsibility (the learning contract may be used here)
o educational – list the educational needs and work toward
consensus in decision-making and formulating priorities.

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z Screen the needs through selected filters:


o institutional – purposes and philosophy of education; try to
meet organisation and community needs and avoid
duplication of effort
o feasibility – ensure that the programme can be operated with
regard to time, cost, staffing constraints, etc.
z Include the interests of individuals – allow individuals to develop
their own plans and establish their own training needs.
z Translate the final set of needs into operational and educational
objectives:
o operational objectives – work towards practical decision
o educational (learning) objectives – work towards consensus
as to what these should be.

Self-help question 7.1


When you have read Section 3 in Reading 7 about SI theory,
turn back to Unit 1. Look at Case study 1.3 about the Brazilian
street children selling food in the streets of Sao Paolo, and at
Self-help question 1.4. Read them again carefully.
See if you can use the SI model to analyse the factors of
intelligence that the street children have developed and which
are strong, and the factors that are weak and need developing.
Use the model to see if you can suggest how they might be
taught to strengthen the weak factors.
Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the
unit.

Operational model
The operational five-step model that follows shows how programme
design can start once the objectives are mutually agreed upon. At this
stage, we have to concentrate on what the learners need (or want) to
learn rather than what we feel they should be taught. Adults learn
what they want to learn, and therefore the lessons and instructions
have to be planned in relation to the learners’ needs, interests and
values.
While sharing the planning process with the learners, you should also
bear in mind that some institutions or organisations may have their
own standards, controls, limitations and systems. They may require
the learning programme to be transmitted in a structured and
controlled manner. This has to be discussed with the learners so that
any ambiguities can be clarified, and a mutually agreed plan,
including the time-frame, can be drawn up.

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The model outlines the steps involved in participatory planning and


decision-making. It also suggests some of the methods that a
facilitator can use to encourage learner participation, and the kind of
helping and blocking behaviours that might occur in the process.

Steps: Methods: Helping Blocking


behaviour: behaviour:

1 Define the z problem z clarifying z ambiguity


problem. census z summarising z over-
z buzz groups z testing for generalising
z problem meaning. z over-
stating. simplifying.

2 Gathering z buzz groups z informing z stating


the z brainstorming z requesting attitudes too
information z discussion. information early
(ideas). z sharing z status threat
experiences z size of group
z collecting z mixing testing
information. and
production of
ideas.

3 Identify z discussion z reality testing z lack of


alternative z role-playing z implications experience
solutions z reality testing z summarising z too hasty
and set z harmonising decisions
goals. z clarifying. z straw voting
z attaching
ideas to
people.

4 Decision- z get consensus z summarising z voting


making. z voting. z testing z taking sides
consensus. z failure to test
z mixing policy Unit 7
and action
groups.

5 Action z team z initiating z failure to


planning. planning z informing. allocate
z committees responsibility
z workgroups z lack of
z individual involvement
work. z no mechanics
specified.

You should specify the knowledge, skills and attitudes components in


detail in your plan. You might need to break down the broad

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objectives into more specific aspects at this point, especially if they


are in the skills area.

Selecting learning strategies

You need to begin by categorising your learning objectives into the


three domains:
z knowledge
z skills
z attitudes.
You can then start to select what types of learning strategies or
methods are appropriate for each domain. You need to bear in mind
that most learning always involves all three domains, but that in each
domain the primary focus will usually be on one of them. Developing
learning activities should be done in relation to the learners’ existing
knowledge, skills and attitudes.
The main strategies are described in this section. (Other strategies are
covered in Reading 10, which you are asked to read later in this unit.)

Knowledge
The main strategies that are used to develop learning in the
‘knowledge domain’ are:
z lectures, talks and lessons
z discussions, seminars, colloquia, symposia.
z self-study methods.
Other useful strategies include:
z small-group study methods
z discovery learning through investigation and experiment
z examining case studies.

Lectures, talks and lessons


These usually take place in formal learning environments, but they
can be useful in transmitting knowledge to people who are already
very interested in the subject and want someone who can summarise
their field of interest or stimulate new thinking in that field. When
these methods are used in adult learning, they need to be more
participative and co-operative than formal talks. This can be managed
by preliminary discussion sessions that raise questions to be dealt

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with in the formal sessions. Also, the formal sessions need to be


accompanied or quickly followed by dialogue and discussion.
Such a talk can be made interesting and meaningful if the facilitator
plans and prepares the talk to include many open-ended questions
(Why? Who? When? What? Where? and How?). These can be used to
turn the talk into a logical and sequential quasi-discussion.
Remember that listener concentration starts to fall away quickly after
ten minutes, and needs restimulating by an injection of fresh material,
such as an anecdote or a new direction. One very good further
education lecturer, who teaches history, describes his lessons as
follows: ‘I try to make three interesting points, and punctuate them
with two stories and two jokes to keep their interest.’
With adults, a lecture or talk can and should be an active learning
experience and not in any way a period of passive listening.

Discussions, seminars, colloquia, symposia


These are all intrinsically more participative than talks and lectures.
Nevertheless they too should be well planned to make them fully
participative and active learning experiences. They should be
employed to optimise learner participation, rather than be allowed to
be dominated by any participant who conducts a monologue,
especially when presented in so-called ‘expert’ language that is
beyond the understanding of the learner.
Apart from using posters, video tapes or overhead projector slides,
imaginative facilitators use all sorts of things to aid learning. For
example in one excellent discussion group with young adults, a man
of Jamaican origin used his own hairstyle to introduce a discussion
on Rastafarianism. You will learn more about learning aids in the
section on resources later in this unit.

Unit 7

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Activity 7.2
(timing depends on how long you spend on your observations)
Observe three facilitator-initiated group discussions in any
setting, and report your observations in your learning journal
under the following headings.
Activity Facilitator’s Learners’ Remarks
participation participation
1.

2.

3.

Activity 7.3
(You will probably need to spend at least an hour on
preparation and 30 minutes writing up the evaluation. Then
there is the time you allow for the group discussion and follow-
up evaluation discussion.)
1 Plan a group discussion in relation to your programme
under the following headings:
z objectives of the discussion
z additional material to be provided (e.g. handouts)
z learners’ participation
z facilitator’s participation
z evaluation procedures and evaluation form.
2 Conduct the (planned) discussion with a group of people.
3 Evaluate the discussion with the group and then make
some notes in your learning journal.
4 Discuss with co-workers and/or tutorial group.

Self-study methods
Self-study methods are also a useful way to develop learning in the
knowledge domain.

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Many types of reading materials may be available for self-study:


textbooks, manuals, leaflets, brochures, study guides, programmed
texts, reprints, recycled lecture notes. In more recent times, computer
aided instruction (CAI) methods and packages have become
available, as well as great volumes of material (of variable quality) on
the internet.
Combined audio-visual materials can be used for self-study too. For
example:
z audio cassette – tape programmes
z video cassette – film
z DVD – filmed material.

Skills
A lot of skills learning, such as social skills, involves acquiring new
knowledge too, but this can be introduced incidentally along the way
or separately, while the focus is on the skill or skills to be learned.
The main strategies that enhance learning in the skills domain are:
z demonstration/observation
z practical activities and exercises
z practice.
Other useful strategies include:
z discovery
z role-play
z simulation
z practising the ‘inner game’.

Demonstrations/ observation
Demonstrations are where the facilitator shows how a task is
performed step-by-step, gets the learners to do it and corrects them if Unit 7
necessary. They are the primary strategy for teaching skills. The
demonstration can be of two kinds:
z a demonstration of the whole skill sequence in real time or a
series of separate parts of the skill, focusing on the gestalt of the
skill sequence
z a demonstration of the sequence of stimulus/response units from
the skill chain, emphasising the stimulus/response relationships.
Video demonstrations are also useful, especially because they can
easily be stopped, repeated and discussed.
Once the skills of the task are mastered, the learners are encouraged
to work independently, under the overall guidance of the facilitator,
until they reach the required skill standards, with frequent topping up.

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Practical activities and exercises


Practical activities and exercises can be done individually, or in small
groups to share learners’ knowledge, experience and expertise.
Exercises can be structured in such a way as to bring about pre-
determined behaviours.

Practice
Systematic practice is necessary to develop a skill to a required level
of competence. The nature and timing of this are important. For
some complex skills like acting, the practice is better when the
practice periods are widely spaced so that the learning has time to
become organised and stored by the brain. For simpler skills, where
precision matters greatly, such as potting snooker balls, it is better to
practise them intensively.
While practice can be take place in realistic settings, it can also be
acquired in quasi-realistic contexts. For example, many computer
games can be used to develop the fine muscular co-ordination and
timing needed to operate a computer skilfully, and for the sustained
experience necessary to become computer literate. The value of this is
that the skills learned are not experienced as chores: they are simply
acquired non-consciously, without the learner experiencing the strain
of being focused upon.

Attitudes
As with skills learning, acquiring attitudes also involves acquiring
new knowledge. This can be introduced incidentally, while the focus
is on other things, or focused on separately. For example, if your
group members want to move into non-traditional social roles, such
as when moving out of rural areas to work in urban settings, they
may need to adapt their attitudes to the behaviour of women. To
achieve this they will need to understand the social conditions of
women in urban settings and the way these conditions impose specific
demands on attitudes and behaviour. One of the ways this can be
treated is by the analysis and discussion of local television dramas
that highlight rural/urban clashes of values. This can then be
accompanied by role-plays and improvised sketches so that the
acquired attitudes develop around specific patterns of social
interaction.
The main strategies that enhance learning in the domain of attitudes
acquisition are:
z case studies
z drama (role-play, street drama, etc).
Other useful strategies include:
z simulations
z discussion

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z observation.

Case studies
You have been presented with case studies throughout this module.
The television dramas mentioned above are effectively case studies,
though we tend to define case studies as real examples of the
behaviours being studied. Essentially, they are narrations or detailed
descriptions of actual happenings, structured to expose the underlying
issues in a factual manner. The learners are readily provided with
excellent opportunities to develop problem-solving skills and their
own capacity for diagnosis and analysis. Case studies can be used for
individual and/or group study.
This is a method that has been in use from early times in the form of
community discussion of traditional stories such as Aesop’s Fables,
Jataka stories, the Panchatantra, the Holy Bible stories, stories and
incidents contained in the Holy Quoran, or the Arabian Nights.

Case study 7.3


Using case studies
A group of youth trainees received some materials related to cases of
problems experienced in the lives of a community leader, a drug user
and a factory worker.
All the cases were developed from real life examples by their
facilitator. The trainees were asked to go through them carefully and
to identify the reasons leading to the problematic behaviours
described.

This is an example of a facilitator using case studies to illustrate


something that he is teaching. Case studies can also be used to teach
research skills where the learners are asked to develop their own
method of researching the events in the case study. Learners may also
be asked to develop their own case studies. This method can then be Unit 7
analysed for its strengths and weaknesses. The facilitator can use this
analysis to explore basic methodological principles to develop sharper
methodological insight among the learners.

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Self-help question 7.2


(about 15 minutes)
1 Discuss the examples above of using case studies with
others (co-workers and/or tutorial group) and then
describe the role of the facilitator in this.
2 Make a list of skills that the learners would need to
develop satisfactory case studies.
Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the
unit.

Drama
The use of drama (in the form of role-plays, simulations, skits, or
reading and acting short plays) is a very powerful way of exposing
and demonstrating attitudes, and practising alternative behaviours.
Drama can be used to depict real life or hypothetical situations. The
two main uses of dramas of this sort are:
z socio-drama, where the focus is on the study of social
relationships learners may experience
z psycho-drama, where the focus is on the psychological issues
learners need to understand.
The learners themselves do most of the play-acting. Having described
and discussed a situation to be explored, the facilitator usually
prepares cards with notes for the learners who will play the acted
roles, and cards with observation notes for the observers who will
analyse what happens. After the role-play, the facilitator uses it as
data for an active discussion to highlight the learning points and
consolidate them in the minds of the learners. Any point that needs
extra exploration can be tackled by repeating bits of the role-play as
stimulus for new thinking.

Putting it all together


While there are learning strategies that relate to each of the learning
domains, they should be used as needed, within the overall
experiential approach. Working within a real, practical situation, for
example on a community project, provides plenty of opportunities for
learning (formally, non-formally and informally) the relevant
knowledge, skills and attitudes.

Real projects
These are real assignments, for example community development,
environmental or health projects. They provide opportunities for
participants to learn knowledge, skills and attitudes that are relevant

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to real tasks or jobs, and that are transferable to other situations, for
example employment. The learning strategies described above are
valuable for use alongside a project’s main activities to expose and
explore issues that are obscure in the project itself. That was one of
the main techniques used by Paolo Freire in Brazil, when his groups
of illiterate peasants made pictures or representations of their
economic plight, so that it could be worked on intellectually before
acting on it politically.

Hypothetical projects
These are models of the process of working on real projects. They
take the form of assignments that are given to learners to be
completed individually or in groups, in class, at home or in the field.
The learners have to use the model given to practice applying the
knowledge they already have. They find any other information
required from books, friends or peers, and report on their findings.
This process helps them to consolidate and refine their application of
knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Now turn to Reading 10: Learning strategies’, by Dr G.
Gunawardena.

Activity 7.4
(about 30 minutes)
This activity gives you the opportunity to apply what you have
just read about learning strategies and projects.
Describe briefly a real project you are familiar with. Identify
what opportunities it offered for participants to acquire
knowledge, skills and attitudes and list what you think they
learned through it. Can you think of ways of improving the
learning strategies used?
If you can’t think of a real life example you can invent a Unit 7
hypothetical project.
Make notes in your learning journal.

Resources

Adult learning facilitators can use a variety of resources to make their


programmes more effective. Such resources do not need to be
sophisticated or expensive. It is up to the facilitator to use resources
that are locally available at low cost and that are familiar to the
learners. The facilitator also has to be efficient in the use of the

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resources. If they are not properly planned for and appropriately


integrated into the learning sessions, they can become a distraction to
learning.
There are three types of resources:
z human
z environmental
z learning aids.

Human resources
The learners themselves, their family members, friends, and the
formal and informal leaders of a community can become valuable
human resources. The facilitator must develop skills in identifying
and utilising them. Adults have a wealth of experience and skills that
learning facilitators can use. Religious leaders, teachers, doctors,
lawyers, technicians, traders, craftsmen, artists, musicians, extension
agents and law enforcement officers can be human resources that can
be used in learning programmes.
They can provide organisational support, share experiences that
would be useful as learning material, and do many more things to
help the facilitator. The facilitator has to identify such resources, with
the help of the learners, at the needs identification and programme
design stages.

Environmental resources
The natural environment can be used as a resource to focus attention
on many social and psychological issues. It provides many features
and incidents that can draw out useful lessons that can change the
attitudes of the learners.
For example, a visit to a hilly clearing where soil erosion has taken
place can stimulate more learning about environmental problems
than a classroom lecture or discussion on soil erosion. Nevertheless,
you have to prepare carefully for such a visit or it is unlikely to focus
the learning sufficiently.

Case study 7.4


Defining ‘green’
A facilitator wanted an activity that would generate discussion among
learners, to help them realise the important fact that words mean
different things to different people. She collected fresh leaves of
different shades of green and took them to the learning session.
She gave a leaf to each learner and asked the question: ‘What is the
colour of a leaf ?’ All the learners replied ‘green’. Then she asked each
learner to show his leaf to the others and prove that his leaf was

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green and that the others were not. A very lively discussion ensued,
that explored thoroughly the nature of definitions.

The cultural environment can also be a useful resource. Folk music,


popular stories, historical legends, traditions, observations about the
weather and climate are very effective as discussion starters leading to
new learning. Again, you need to prepare how you will use this
material.

Learning aids
Learning aids (also sometimes called ‘engineered resources’) are
extremely useful in facilitating adult learning. They can be designed
to make learning a pleasant experience, if properly and appropriately
used. They can engage more than one sense, which enhances
learning. But facilitators need to ensure that learning aids are used to
make learning more effective, and that they don’t disturb or distract
the learner.
A large range of learning aids are available today, such as those listed
below.

Audio aids Visual aids

z audio cassettes z banners and flags


z CD players z chalk and whiteboards
z public address system or z cartoons
amplifier z diagrams
z radios z flannel boards
z records z flip charts
z record player z magazines
z tape recorders z maps
z models and objects
z pamphlets
z photocopier
z photos and pictures
Unit 7
z picture stories
z posters
z slide projector
z stencils
z text books
z transparencies

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Audio aids Visual aids

Audio-visual aids

z cinematic film
z computer packages
z DVD players
z film strip and tape
z interactive multimedia products
z online resources
z overhead projectors(with transparencies and presenter)
z PowerPoint
z slide presentations with presenter
z slide/tape combinations
z television
z video

Here is a checklist of things to think about when choosing and


preparing learning aids.
You will need to:
z select only relevant and appropriate learning aids that suit the
situation
z preview any videos and listen to any tapes or other recordings
z consider how any visuals are to be planned and developed:
o the context in which the aid is to be used
o the stage of learning and the environment where it is to be
used
o the sequence of presentation
o the organisation of information that you wish present on the
visual aid
o legibility and possible interpretation of material on the visual
aid
o how useful the material will be to focus the attention of the
learners on the learning elements, and the consolidation of
learning
o the cultural aspects of the learners (will any words or pictures
on the visual be culturally sensitive?)
o the accuracy of the information given
o the layout and the size of letters and pictures
z consider how easy equipment is to move, if it is to be taken from
place to place
z arrange storage and safekeeping after use.

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Before a learning session, you will need to:


z rehearse the session with the learning aids and make any
adjustments
z ensure that all aids (display boards, chalkboards, projection
screens etc.) are placed safely and properly so that all learners can
see.
During the session:
z only use the learning aids to support the learning process
z avoid:
o talking to visual aids
o covering visual aids
o talking while an audio aid is functioning
o mistaking the order of presentation
o blank and bright light on the screens
o moving the equipment while it is functioning
Take it slowly to allow all learners see and read what is on visual aids.
After the session:
z clean or dust the chalkboard, whiteboard or any other equipment
and materials that you have used
z arrange them in order
z keep them in a safe place until they are stored.
Many facilitators fidget with learning aids, and have all types of
distracting mannerisms when using them. The most common is
talking to the board or screen, so that the relationship with the
learners is broken. This happens particularly when the facilitator has
not rehearsed the session.
You should note that even the use of a chalkboard or whiteboard has
to be carefully planned. Otherwise the board will be used at random Unit 7
and the writing on it may be confusing for the learners to follow.

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Activity 7.5
(about 45 minutes)
1 Prepare a chalkboard or whiteboard plan (what you hope
to write on the board and where) for a session you hope to
conduct for your group of learners. In your plan, indicate
the topic of the session and the type of learners.
2 Assume that you have decided to prepare a poster on the
dangers of smoking, and that it will be used at a learning
session for a youth club. (For example, you could use the
picture of a burning cigarette placed over the lungs of a
person and use the words: ‘Burn yourself to death’.)
Prepare a sketch of the poster and show it to a friend or
co-worker to get his feedback.
3 Plan some open-ended questions to generate discussion
about a documentary video that you would like to show a
group of learners.
Make notes about your plans for these three tasks in your
learning journal. Add comments about whether you find this
kind of task easy or difficult.

Implementation

It has already been mentioned that adult learning programmes are


designed to fulfil the learning needs of the targeted adult learners.
This should be borne in mind during all the implementation stages of
such programmes. This section explains the main activities that are
involved, from initial arrangements to follow up.

Initial arrangements
Often, the designer or the facilitator of the learning programme may
not be the person in charge of implementing learning sessions. Others
will help in the physical arrangements, provision of learning
materials, provision of funds, enrolling of learners, selection of
resource people and many other activities. All of them should be
aware of the factors that facilitate adult learning.
You might be in the role of supporting someone else who is
implementing the programme. The self-help question that follows will
help you think about what this involves.

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Self-help question 7.3


(about 45 minutes)
Discuss the following scenarios with others (co-workers and/or
tutorial group).
1 Your youth club is planning to conduct a learning session to
help some of its members learn to take photos. What
arrangements would you make in the venue where the
learning session is to take place?
2 A resource person who is working with your group of young
people has told you that she hopes to use a video camera
to record some of the small group learning activities during
her session. She will play them back to the group later for
discussion. What facilities would you prepare for her?
3 Reflect on a learning situation that you have participated
in, and suggest ways it could have been improved through
better management and implementation strategies.
4 Assume that you have agreed to conduct a learning session
for a team of young adults, for them to learn how
dangerous drugs can ruin one’s health. Advise the person
who is making the arrangements what facilities you want
at the venue.
Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the
unit.

Before you begin


Preparation activities can consist of any or all of the following:
z choosing potential learners (in relation to the policies of the
institution or in relation to a specific programme)
Unit 7
z identifying and analysing the learners’ learning needs
z completing the enrolment procedures (registration, sending
invitation letters, follow up on responses, collection of fees, etc.)
z choosing resource people, informing them of the venues, times,
numbers and nature of the learners, obtaining learning materials
from them and following up
z arranging the venues and the facilitation aids as required by the
resource people
z printing/reproducing sufficient copies of learning materials
z arranging any field visits necessary

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z making arrangements to ensure that the remuneration/fees for


the resource people are paid promptly
z preparing budgets and getting the approval of the appropriate
authorities
z inviting guests for the opening /inauguration ceremonies, if any
z reminding the resource people about the learning sessions they
are expected to facilitate
z making alternative arrangements if any resource person is unable
to attend
z arranging transport for field trips and/or any other learning
activities
z ensuring that a power source is available if any electric/electronic
learning aids are to be used.

During the learning sessions or programme


Activities during the programme can consist of any or all of the
following:
z providing learning materials to the learners
z ensuring that learning aids work
z ensuring that the learning environment is conducive to learning
(this may include thinking about lighting, ventilation, seating
arrangements, arrangements for group work, toilet facilities,
refreshments, places to keep personal belongings, receipt of
visitors and messages, facilities for informal chats)
z providing support to the people who look are responsible for the
resources.

At the end of the sessions or programme


Activities at the end of sessions or programme can consist of any or
all of the following:
z conducting evaluations of the programme or sessions
z arranging for safe keeping of the learning aids
z paying learners, resource people and others who helped or
provided services to the programme
z preparing any reports required by the institution
z distributing certificates to learners
z follow-up work with the learners to ascertain that the learning
objectives have been fulfilled
z revising and redesigning the programme based on the evaluations
of the learners, observations during the programme, and the
follow-up work.

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Self-help question 7.4


(about 30 minutes)
You have planned to take a team of adult housewives on a field
trip. The purpose is to help them to learn how to prepare and
establish a home garden in order to obtain fresh fruits and
vegetables for home consumption.
What arrangements would you make prior to, during and after
the field visit?
Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the
unit.

This unit has taken you through a process from involving learners in
the initial feed-in stage, through programme design, with choice of
learning strategies and resources, to implementation. So by the end,
how do you know if you have done well? The next section looks at
evaluation.

Evaluation

Why evaluate?
Evaluation is the process of finding out whether the learning needs
have been fulfilled.
In formal teaching situations, evaluations tend to be done to find out
whether the student has learned what was taught. These take the
form of assessments rather than evaluations. In non-formal adult
learning programmes, evaluations are done to find out whether the
facilitators have functioned effectively and the programme has
achieved its objectives. Unit 7
Evaluations provide one form of feedback to the designers and
facilitators of the learning programme. The results of all feedback
must indicate whether the programme has been successful or not.
If it has not happened as intended, the designers and facilitators of
the programme have to analyse the feedback to find out when, why
and how things went wrong, with the participation of the learners.
They are the participants in the programme and therefore they are the
best people to indicate its usefulness, impact and effectiveness.
Evaluation activities also help the learners to think. They have to
think about themselves in terms of their response to the programme.
The whole programme itself should be evaluated as a total
experience, though any single learning unit could be used for a partial
evaluation.

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There may be other advantages that are not be measured by tests and
examinations, but that do emerge through the evaluation of
programmes.
For example the learners may:
z learn some useful skills, intended or not intended by the
facilitator
z learn to communicate more effectively with each other in small
groups
z overcome some insecurities (for example, shyness, stage fright,
failure to listen, tardiness, that would help them to become better
citizens)
z learn how to share problems and solve them using participatory
processes
z learn to relate to others in a positive manner.

Additionally, participation of learners in the process of evaluation


also helps:
z the facilitators to learn
z the learners to reflect on the changes that have taken place in
their knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
It gives the learners an added opportunity to enhance their skills of
formulating questions, responding to questions objectively, listening
to each other, working together and self-discovery.

When to evaluate
Evaluation should not be a series of tests given at regular intervals. It
can happen at any time in the programme, if the learners agree to
participate. It can happen:
z while the learning session is going on (for example, to find out
whether the arrangements are all right, or whether the words
used by the facilitator are clear, audible and easy to understand)
z at the end of a session through open responses to questions by
the facilitator or observations made by the learners on the
outcome of the learning activities and/or projects
z at the end of the programme as may be required by the institution
sponsoring or managing the programme
z after a period of time has elapsed as follow up evaluation to
measure how the learners are applying the results of the
programme.

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How to evaluate
Many sophisticated methods and instruments have been developed
for assessing formal learning, for example exams and questionnaires.
In non-formal participatory evaluation, however, simple and easy to
use methods have to be adopted.
Some such evaluation methods are:
z open responses from learners to pre-prepared questions
z open comments from learners
z learners testing themselves
z small group discussions
z suggestions from learners at the end of the session
z learners’ evaluation committee
z regular (daily, weekly, monthly) evaluation sessions
z checklists for self-evaluation
z follow-up visits to learners’ projects or homes.

Many aspects of non-formal learning can be used as indicators or


criteria for its evaluation. However, in participatory and self-
evaluation, the facilitator has to make decisions with the learners as
to what criteria should be used. In other words:
z what the learners want to know
z from whom
z at what stage of the learning
z how the results will be used
z what the purpose of the evaluation is
z who will be involved in the evaluation
Unit 7
z when the evaluation will take place
z how the results of the evaluation will be used
z whether some of the factors will have to be considered in
selecting the criteria.

Some of the more common questions asked as part of an evaluation


are:
z Did the session(s) fulfil the needs that were identified as
objectives?
z Did the facilitator cover all the intended objectives that were
planned?

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z Was the environment conducive to learning?


z Was a supportive atmosphere created and maintained during the
session(s)?
z What was the level of participation?
z If it was high, what features of the programme helped?
z If it was low, what features of the programme contributed to this?
z How was learning consolidated?
z How effective were the methods used?
z How relevant were the examples and exercises?
z What were the learning aids used? How effectively were they
handled?
z How useful would the learning be to enhance the quality of life
of the learners?
z In what ways can the programme/future sessions be made more
effective?

Self-help question 7.5


(about 20 minutes)
1 Suggest ways in which the involvement of the learners in
planning the evaluation process at the time of designing a
learning programme can become a learning opportunity for
the facilitator as well as the learners.
2 List ten differences between testing in formal teaching and
evaluation in non-formal learning.
Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the
unit.

At the end of this unit, which is the last unit in this module, it is time
to reflect and bring your learning together – to do a self-evaluation.
If you did not read Reading 9 ‘Principles that underpin the learning
on the Diploma’ at the start of this unit, read it now, before you do
the final activity.

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Activity 7.6
Look through your learning journal activities. Sum up how your
knowledge, skills and attitudes have changed since you began
the module. What have you learned that was surprising or
unexpected? What do you plan to do differently in future –
both as a youth development worker and as an adult learner
yourself, when you come to study further modules?
Make final notes in your learning journal.

Unit 7

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Unit summary

In this unit, you have covered the following main points:


z the importance of communication and participation in
facilitating adult learning
z what is involved in designing an adult learning programme
(including setting learning objectives, planning learning strategies
and choosing resources and learning aids appropriate to adult
learning that will make an adult learning programme more
effective)
z the process of evaluation in adult learning and the criteria to be
decided when designing the programme.

You have also reflected on your own learning during this module.
To check how you have got on, look back at the learning outcomes
for this unit and see if you can now do them. When you have done
this, look through your learning journal to remind yourself of what
you have learned and the ideas you have generated.

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Answers to self-help questions

Self-help question 7.1


An analysis of learning needs help in formulating learning objectives
because it tells you exactly what your learners need to do and to what
level.
An analysis of learners’ evaluation of your programme and/or results
provides feedback for improving or redesigning the learning
objectives. You need to be able to accept the constructive feedback the
learners give you, even though this may at times be painful.
Evaluation is also a way of checking the degree to which your
facilitation, and the methods you have used, have been successful. An
evaluation of results can also clearly tell you the extent to which the
learning objectives have been achieved.

Self-help question 7.2


1 The role of the facilitator in teaching learners to research their
own case studies is to guide, mentor and facilitate.
2 Learners need research skills, such as interviewing, questioning,
listening and hearing, observing, interpreting, analysing.

Self-help question 7.3


1 Preparations at the venue would include possibly hiring and
setting up the lighting, the background, a tripod, positioning the
camera, etc.
2 You would need to borrow or hire a video camera, unless the
resource person is bringing her own. You will also need to have a
VCR set up in the room for playback so that discussions can take
place around the recording. The room should have enough
lighting to optimise the quality of the video recording.
3 Your responses to this question will depend on your own Unit 7
particular situation.
4 Your response will depend on the strategies and learning aids that
you might want to use.

Self-help question 7.4


This is only a suggested answer. Your response will depend on your
particular circumstances.

Arrangement prior to the field trip


Discuss the idea of a field trip with the group of housewives at least a
couple of weeks before the date of the trip. Establish the number of
women who will be able to make the trip. Have each of these

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housewives prepare a plot of land for planting. Contact the institution


or farm that you will be visiting to get confirmation of the
arrangements, and also inform the farm manager of the purpose of
the field trip and who the group are. Confirm the time for the visit
and the expected number of women coming for the field trip. Remind
the housewives to wear clothes that are suitably comfortable for this
occasion. Make a request with the farm manager for seedlings and
cuttings of fruits and vegetables to be made available for the group.

During the field trip


Arrange prompt movement from one location to the next. Listen very
attentively to the person conducting the visit. Ask questions to get
more information on any areas you are unsure of. Collect seedlings or
cuttings of fruit trees and vegetables, if possible.

After the field trip


Have a group discussion as feedback on the trip. Distribute seedlings
and cuttings of fruits and vegetables for the women to plant in their
plots. Arrange for a meeting with the housewives after a month or
two to get a feedback of how their fruit trees and vegetable garden are
growing.

Self-help question 7.5


1 Learner participation in the evaluation process can help
facilitators to learn about the effectiveness of their programmes,
style and strategies. It also provides an opportunity to learners to
reflect on the changes that have taken place in their knowledge,
skills and attitudes. It gives the learners an added opportunity to
enhance their skills of formulating questions, responding to
questions objectively, listening to each other, working together
and self-discovery. The learners are the recipients of the
programme and therefore are the best people to indicate the
usefulness, impact and effectiveness of the processes adopted by
the designers and facilitators.
2 In formal education:
z tests are written
z tests are supervised and scheduled, e.g. time limits are set
z tests are graded or given a score
z the test is part of the students’ assessment
z certain topics are studied for the tests
z tests are administered regardless of whoever is present.
In non-formal settings:
z attainment targets are set for the learners to achieve

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z non-formal evaluation is more oriented towards skills and not


so much emphasis is on knowledge
z learners are able to see how they are progressing as they set
the evaluation criteria
z learners work at their own pace and can evaluate their own
work when they have completed certain tasks.

Unit 7

Unit 7: Facilitating adult learning 215


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References

Ingalls, J. D. (1973) A Trainers’ Guide to Andragogy: Its Concepts,


Experience and Application (rev. ed.), Social and Rehabilitation Service,
US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, US Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC
Knowles, M. (1980) The Modern Practice of Adult Education,
Association Press, New York

216 Unit 7: Facilitating adult learning


Summary

Module summary ......................................................219


Glossary....................................................................220
Further reading .........................................................226
Module 1: Learning Processes

Module summary

The aim of this module has been to introduce you to the theory and
processes of learning as they relate to adult learning and youth
development work. It has focused on your role as a youth
development worker and learning facilitator, capable of choosing the
appropriate strategies and techniques in your work.
If you have successfully completed this module, you should now be
able to:
z understand the probable nature of the learning process and be
able to relate relevant theories of learning to the kinds of learners
for whom you are a learning facilitator
z understand what is presently understood about the learning
processes of adults and be able confidently to address the issues
that affect adult learners
z discuss the philosophical and psychological perspectives of
‘education for all’ and the concepts of total development and
lifelong learning, and some of the different theories about how
learning takes place
z determine what kinds of factors are likely to help and hinder
learning and be able to help the learners deal with these factors
z support learners in their efforts to learn and/or train, in the light
of what can be determined about their modes of intelligence and
preferred learning styles
z use the knowledge and skills of informal education and
experiential learning that you have learned in this module to
prepare effective learning environments for adults.
We hope you have found this module interesting and useful as an
introduction to adult learning. Good luck with your assignment,
which draws on the work and activities that you have completed
during the module.
Summary

Summary 219
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Glossary

Adult learner Anyone who is in late adolescence or


older, who is enrolled in any course of
study, whether special or regular, to
develop new skills or qualifications or
to improve existing skills.

Affective domain The aspect of human experience that


pertains to emotions and
intrapersonal attitudes.

Agents of education Organisations/institutions/individuals


that provide education or learning
opportunities.

Analogy (use of) Explaining something by comparing it


with something similar.

Analyse Separate something into parts in


order to understand it.

Andragogy Theory of how adults learn most


effectively.

Anti-social Harmful to society.

Anxiety A troubled feeling that occurs


because of fear, frustration, etc.

Attitude Someone’s emotional and cognitive


orientation, which is assumed in order
to explain their behavioural tendency
to respond to given stimuli in a
specific manner. Attitudes can be
acquired or changed because of
learning.

Attributes Defining characteristics of things.

Behaviour A person’s response pattern, either


mental, physical or verbal.

Behaviourist theory Learning theory that only accepts


observable, measurable behaviour as
evidence.

Blocking behaviour Behaviour of facilitators and/or


learners that disturbs and prevents

220 Summary
Module 1: Learning Processes

learning.

Brainstorming Process of getting ideas from people


in an open, rapid and unstructured
manner.

Buzz groups Small groups discussing given topics


to foster mutual learning.

Case study Detailed description of a pattern of


events that occurs or might occur in a
real-world situation.

Chalkboard Board or other surface on which


letters, numerals and other symbols
are written with chalk.

Checklist List of items that will need to be


verified.

Climate setting Creating an environment (physical


and social) that is conducive to
learning.

Cognition Thinking, conceiving and reasoning.

Cognitive domain The area/field of learning limited to


thinking processes.

Collective learning People learning as a group and not


individually.

Co-operative learning Learning together and from each


other.

Cultural propriety Suitability to the culture of the


learner.

Competence Normally, this means the ability to


perform a given task or accomplish
something. Alternatively, through
linguistic theory, it has also come to
Summary

mean the underlying mental


structures that underpin a range of
performance abilities.

Decoding Converting written symbols into a


form familiar and comprehensible to
the learner.

Demonstration Showing how to do something.

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Developmental A series of changes


(physiological/psychological) that
occur with maturation.

Dynamic Energetic, forceful.

Encoding Putting ideas into verbal or written


symbols.

Evaluation Process of ascertaining whether the


intended learning needs and
objectives have been fulfilled.

Exercise (structured) Group or individual activity designed


to bring about specific behavioural
development in the learners.

Experiential learning Learning gained through experience.

Facilitator Person who helps learners to learn by


easing the process of learning for
them.

Facilitation strategy Methods and processes adopted to


make learning easier.

Feedback Process of finding out from the


learners how far the intended
learning has been acquired correctly.

Flip chart A single set of large sheets of paper


on which words and symbols are
written to serve as visual aids for
learning. These are ‘flipped over’,
one by one, by the facilitator as the
learning session progresses.

Formal education Education provided in an organised,


institutional setting.

Helping behaviour Behaviours of facilitators and/or


learners that help in making learning
more effective.

Holistic learning Learning in which the learner is


treated as a thinking, feeling and
social being, rather than just a
thinking being.

Imitation, modelling Mimicking or emulating the


behaviours of others.

222 Summary
Module 1: Learning Processes

Incident study Description of an incident for learning


purposes.

Informal education Learning that is neither organised nor


institutionalised.

Insight An aspect of problem-solving in which


a solution suddenly appears.

Interchange Communicate ideas and accept each


others’ viewpoints on a socially equal
basis.

Learning Process of mental change, usually


resulting in a change of behaviour
(expressed in the form of verbal or
physical activity).

Learning environment The physical, social and psychological


context in which learning takes place.

Learning style One’s preferences, patterns or


strategies of learning and thinking.

Lifelong education Learning that continues throughout


the lifespan, especially work-related
learning. Educational programmes
whose objectives assume that there is
no stage at which people need stop
learning.

Logical Reasoned out systematically, step by


step.

Memorisation Internalising the behaviours found to


be successful and repeating them.

Mentor Guide and supportive helper for the


learner.

Motivation A driving force within learners that


Summary

keeps them wanting to learn more.


Note its use in educational strategies
that enhance this drive.

Natural objects Things in the natural environment


that can be used to facilitate
learning.

Neurological Related to the nervous structure of


the brain and body.

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Non-formal education Education that may be organised but


not institutionalised.

Open responses Free answers to questions or free


comments about learning sessions.

Orientation The particular focus of interest which


motivates someone to undertake
learning.

Participatory learning Learning through participation in an


experience.

Perception The way that your brain interprets


the meaning of the world that is
presented to you, either through your
senses or through the explanations
given to you.

Performance The effectiveness of the way the


learner does a given task.

Prejudices Beliefs that find it difficult to accept


a challenge.

Programme Structured series of learning sessions.

Pro-social Beneficial to society.

Psychomotor domain Area/field pertaining to physical


movement, practical activity
locomotion, etc. guided by mental
awareness.

Readiness to learn Preparedness to learn determined by


mental and physical maturity; having
the pre-requisite attainments to
begin learning.

Reflection Thinking over your experience with a


view to discovering what it means and
what is significant.

Reinforcement Something which strengthens the


likelihood of repeating a behaviour,
usually in the form of a reward.

Resources Physical, environmental and other


materials and equipment that support
learning facilitation.

Resource person (i) A person who can be used as a

224 Summary
Module 1: Learning Processes

resource for learning, i.e. a


human resource.
(ii) A person who manages learning
resources – materials, equipment,
books, etc.

Self-directedness A process in which individuals take


the initiative in diagnosing their own
learning needs, formulating learning
goals and implementing appropriate
strategies to achieve their learning
goals.

Sequential Following a logical order (of time or


place).

Simulations Teaching techniques in which real-life


situations and values are copied and
used for practice, demonstration and
analysis.

Social role A form of recognisable social


behaviour, usually assumed to be
normal behaviour for designated
individuals belonging to various social
categories – such as husband, teacher,
politician, expert.

Socialisation The process of gradually learning how


to adapt to the normal behaviour
expected of you in society.

Survey of learning Research to find out what a group of


needs learners need to learn for their
current social roles.

Training style Preference of approach used in


bringing a person to a desired
standard of behaviour.

Unlearning Getting rid of what has been learned


Summary

before.

VCRs Video Cassette Recordings.

Whiteboard A smooth surface made out of a


painted wooden or metal or formica
sheet, on which letters and other
symbols can be written with special
markers.

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Further reading

This is a list of books and articles referred to in the module and


suggestions for exploring topics further. You are encouraged read as
widely as possible during and after the course.
We suggest you discuss further reading with your tutor. What is
available to you in libraries? Are there other books of particular
interest to you or your region? Can you use alternative resources, such
as newspapers and the internet?
Bandura, Albert (1989) ‘Social Cognitive Theory’ in Barnouw, Erik
(ed.) International Encyclopaedia of Communication, Oxford University
Press, London, pp. 92–96.
Bloom, B. (ed.) (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives – Book 1: The
Cognitive Domain, Longman, London.
Brookfield, S. (1983) Adult Learner, Adult Education and the Community,
Open University Press, Milton Keynes.
Brookfield, S. (1994) Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning,
Open University Press, Milton Keynes.
Buzan, Tony (1989) Use Both Sides of Your Brain, Penguin Books, New
York.
Buzan, T. (1995) The Mind Map Book, BBC Books, London.
Buzan, T. (2006) The Ultimate Book of Mind Maps, BBC Books,
London.
Dewey, J. (1938) Experience and Education, Collier Books, New York.
Entwistle, N. J. (1981) Styles of Learning and Teaching, Wiley, London.
Entwistle. H. (1989) ‘Ideologies in Adult Education’ in Titmus, C. J.
(ed.), Lifelong Education for Adults: An International Handbook,
Pergamon Press, Toronto.
Fanon, F. (1986) Black Skin, White Masks, Pluto, London.
Fanon, F. (1989) Studies in a Dying Colonialism, Earthscan, London.
Gagne, R. M. (1977) The Conditions of Learning, Rinehart and
Winston, New York.
Goleman, D. (1996) Emotional Intelligence, Bloomsbury, London.
Honey, P. and Mumford, A. (1986) The Manual of Learning Styles, 2nd
edition, Peter Honey Publications, Maidenhead, UK.
ILO (1985) An Introductory Course in Teaching and Training Methods for
Management Development, International Labour Office, Geneva.
Jarvis, P. (1987) Adult Learning in the Social Context, Croom Helm,
London.

226 Summary
Module 1: Learning Processes

Jarvis, P. (1995) Adult and Continuing Education – Theory and Practice,


Routledge, London and New York.
Jones, N. and Fredrickson, M. (eds.) (1990) Reusing Educational
Psychology, Redwood Burn, England.
Katz, Elihu (1989) ‘Mass Media Effects’ in Barnouw, Erik (ed.)
International Encyclopaedia of Communication, Oxford University Press,
London, pp. 492–497.
Knowles, M. (1975) Self Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and
Teachers, Association Press, New York.
Knowles, M. (1978) The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species, Gulf
Publishing Co., Houston, TX.
Knowles, M. (1980) The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From
pedagogy to andragogy (2nd edn.), Cambridge Books, New York.
Knowles, M. S. and Associates (1985) Andragogy in Action, Jossey-
Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Knox, A. B. (1977) Adult Development and Learning, Jossey-Bass, San
Francisco, CA.
Knox, A. B. (1986) Helping Adults Learn, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco,
CA.
Knox, A. B. (ed.) (1980) Teaching Adults Effectively, Jossey-Bass, San
Francisco, CA.
Kolb, D. A. (1976) The Learning Style Inventory Technical Manual,
McBer, Boston, MA.
Kolb, D. (1989) Experiential Learning, Prentice Hall, Engelwood Cliffs,
NJ.
Lawson, K. H. (1979) Philosophical Concepts and Values in Adult
Education, Open University Press, Milton Keynes.
Lovell, R. B. (1982) Adult Learning, Croom Helm, London.
Marsick, V. J. and Watkins, K. (1990) Informal and Incidental Learning
in the Workplace, Routledge, London.
National Institute of Health Sciences, Sri Lanka, How to Develop and
Use Training Aids, NIHS, Kalutara.
Summary

Riegel, K. F. (1976) ‘The Dialectics of Human Development’, in


American Psychologist, October.
Roberts, D. F. (1989) ‘Media Effects’, in Barnouw, Erik (ed.)
International Encyclopaedia of Communication, Vol. I, Oxford University
Press, London, pp. 270–274.
Rogers, A. (1986) Teaching Adults, Open University Press, Milton
Keynes.
Rogers, C. (1969) Freedom to Learn, Merrill, Columbus, OH.

Summary 227
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Rogers, C. R. (1980) A Way of Being, Houghton Mifflen Co., Boston,


MA.
Rogers, J. (1982) Adults Learning, Open University Press, Milton
Keynes.
Romiszowski, A .J. (1981) Designing Instructional Systems, Kogan Page,
London.
Ross, J. S. (1960) Groundwork of Educational Theory, George G. Harrap
and Co. Ltd., London.
Srinivasan, I. (1977) Perspectives on Non-formal Adult Learning, The Van
Dyck Printing Company, North Haven, CT.
Stephens, M. D. and Roderick, G. W. (1974) Teaching Techniques in
Adult Education, David and Charles, London.
UNESCO (1980) Young People and Cultural Institutions: A UNESCO
Survey, UNESCO, Paris.
Werner, D. and Bower, B. (1982) Helping Health Workers Learn,
Hesperian Foundation, Palo Alto, CA.

228 Summary
Module 1: Learning Processes

Assignments

Assignment 1

Assignment 1 consists of two parts and counts for 50 per cent towards
your final assessment in this module

Part A
Talk informally to a group of young people to find out about their
learning experiences (focusing specifically on factors that have
facilitated and hindered their learning), then write a short essay
(approximately 750 words) on your findings in the light of your
understanding after studying this module.

Part B
Work with the same group of young people to prepare an outline plan
(approximately 1,000 words) for a programme of experiential
learning.
1 Describe the situation.
2 Describe the participants.
3 Identify the needs.
4 Describe the broad aims and objectives of the
programme/project.
5 State some of the strategies you would use to encourage informal
learning, co-operation and participation in the exercise.
6 Develop an action plan.
Summary

7 Describe how you will evaluate the learning programme.


Note: You are not being asked to implement the project (although
you can if you want to). The goal is to develop an outline plan for a
programme of experiential learning, with the participation of the
learners.

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Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Assignment 2

You are expected to keep a learning journal throughout your work on


this module. You use this to record your thoughts and feelings as you
are learning and also to write your responses to the study guide
activities. The journal is worth 20 per cent of the final assessment.
(You are asked to record your answers to the self-help questions in
your learning journal, or you may use a separate notebook.)

Assignment 3

This assignment will consist of a written examination worth 30 per


cent of the final mark. The examination will be based on short-
answer and multiple-choice questions, to test your understanding of
the theories and concepts used in this module.
Note: We recommend that you discuss the assessment requirements
with your tutor before you begin, including how your learning journal
will be assessed.

230 Summary
Module 1: Learning Processes

Readings

The readings in this section will help you develop your understanding
of Module 1 Learning Processes. The reading numbers, their titles
and author(s) and the unit in which they appear are listed below.
1 ‘The automatic systems in the mind’
by Dr G. Gunawardena (Unit 1) ........................................233
2 ‘Scaffolding and the zone of proximal development’
by Dr G. Gunawardena (Unit 1) ........................................236
3 ‘Key learning theories’ by Dr G. Gunawardena
Revised 2007 by Lewis Owen (Unit 1) ...............................238
4 ‘The nature of knowledge’
by Dr G. Gunawardena (Unit 3) ........................................258
5 ‘Oral traditions and rules of evidence’
by G.Custred (Unit 4)........................................................263
6 ‘Learning styles’ by Clay Johnston and Carol J. Orwig)
(Unit 6) ............................................................................269
7 ‘Understanding intelligence: multiple intelligences and
the structure of intellect (SI) theory of intelligence’
by Dr G. Gunawardena (Unit 6) ........................................278
8 ‘Pacific perspectives on learning: Pacific thinking styles’
by Ana Maui Taufe’ulungaki (Unit 6) ...............................289
9 ‘Commonwealth Diploma in Youth in Development Work:
Tutor’s Manual’ (Unit 7) ...................................................292
10 ‘Learning strategies’ by Dr. G. Gunawardena (Unit 7) ........297
Readings

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Reading 1: The automatic systems in the mind

By Dr G. Gunawardena, Sri Lanka, for the Commonwealth Secretariat.

The automatic systems in the mind seem to be evident in the very


rapid learning that infants do when they learn to crawl and talk.

Learning to crawl
The infant learning to crawl is most interesting. This appears
superficially to be spontaneous, but if you look carefully at an infant
you can see a strong element of trial and error (which is almost
deliberate). What seems to happen is that the child has a neurological
pre-disposition to try out crawling in this way – it seems programmed
to do so.
When a certain amount of experience of crawling has taken place,
then it seems that an automatic system in the brain is switched on,
and all the movements from then on are absorbed into this system
and crawling becomes competent and unconscious. From the
moment that the automatic system is switched on, all the additional
crawling knowledge (skill) is acquired at lightning fast speed.

Learning to talk
The case of the infant learning to talk (or learning its mother tongue)
is surprisingly similar to the first example. We know that children
don’t actually learn what their parents tell them to say, but what their
parents, grandparents or carers say and do seem to cause children to
start experimenting with language.
What’s most interesting though is that the things they hear from their
parents seem to trigger off underlying patterns of grammar which are
different from the speech of the parents but very useful to the
children’s mastery of the principles of the adult language. Like the
crawling infant the newly talking infant seems to develop through a
series of experimental activities which have been triggered by a
perception of what’s going on around her.
Those experimental activities of making sounds, as with crawling,
seem to trigger off the development of a mental system, or grammar,
which, by the age of five, is effectively the skeleton and a lot of the
flesh of the complete language. Once the automatic language
acquisition system is activated, the grammar seems to develop very
rapidly, as long as the child is listening to language and preferably
engaged in conversations. This process seems to be lifelong, in that we
are always developing more and more aspects of our language.
The continued process of language acquisition seems to be paralleled
by the increased complexity of physical movement that we can do.
After about five or six, we can develop skills of dancing, football,

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Module 1: Learning Processes

playing a musical instrument. However, all of these depend on the


deep level grammar of movement that has built up in us semi-
automatically from birth.
The question that arises for educators is: So what? Are the automatic
systems important when we’re older? Do the automatic systems still
matter when we are older, and can we make use of the to help young
adults learn?

Automatic systems and adult learning


Ask yourself this question: Without an automatic system for
managing English, would I be able to read and grasp this material?
Even if English is your mother tongue, without an automatic mental
system that handles all the basic language and reading skills, you
would have difficulty following this material.
If English isn’t your mother tongue, you might follow the content
very painstakingly by translating it into your mother tongue, but it’s
enormously easier if you have developed an automatic system for
understanding written English.
We know that people can learn a completely new language such as
French or German in a couple of months by being surrounded by the
target language in a carefully organised environment. Sometimes
languages are taught in this way: the immersion or conversation
method.

The immersion method


The learner spends a few weeks working and talking with a native
speaker (the teacher) of the language they want to learn – the target
language.
The native speaker should:
z understand the mother tongue of the learner, but resist using it
z always talk in the target language, but somehow or other show
the learner what things mean (for example, by pointing to objects
being discussed or using gestures or drawings).
Both should talk about things they both know very well and where
there are shared bits of vocabulary. For example, both might be
interested in football and cooking and child-rearing. When they talk
together, the learner can speak in their mother tongue but the native
speaker must always speak in the target language. The learner must
try to understand without translating. They must try and understand
what is being said in terms of images. The learner doesn’t have to
Readings

speak in the target language until they feel that it’s not awkward to do
so.
What usually happens is that they start using the odd word or phrase
of the target language embedded in their natural speech. After a while
they start talking in a sort of ‘baby talk’, but soon that becomes fluent

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and natural, though maybe at first at quite a simple level. The basics
of the new language become more or less automatic. In other words,
the learner develops a natural mental grammar for the target language
and will be able to use it for thinking creatively, rather than translating
into mother tongue.
What happens when one learns through this method is probably
similar to what happens when we learn our mother tongue as a child.
We know it works as a method of acquiring a new language or a new
aspect of one’s own mother tongue (such as the language of
Sociology or the language of Business).

The automatic learning system is always at work


The automatic learning system is always at work. We don’t notice it
because we are concentrating on what we are saying not how we are
saying it. Think of the amounts of new vocabulary and factual
knowledge that we pick up all the time in this way, without
consciously choosing to do so, and often desiring not to do so.
But usually, when we learn a language formally, we switch off the
automatic system completely by concentrating on grammatical rules,
vocabulary and pronunciation. That makes it very difficult to acquire
the language. However, if the language teacher begins by building up
from what the students know already, it will help them begin to
understand the ways in which the new language works. The teacher
can give the learners enough understanding to give them the
confidence to start trying the new language out. And that also seems
to trigger off the automatic language acquisition system.

The relationship of conscious and unconscious learning


The human mind seems to work in every area by this combination of
perceiving a pattern, trying it out, consciously or unconsciously, until
the automatic systems are triggered.
The conscious learning process becomes prominent when we meet a
very different (unknown) aspect of what we are doing. We switch on
our conscious attention and seem to go through the initial process
once more until we have mastered the basic meaning of the new area
of knowledge, at which time the automatic system starts to take over
again.

An example of the inner game


The following is an example of how a technique called ‘the inner
game’ can be used to awaken or re-awaken knowledge or skills. We
will use football as an example. It works like this:
Ian Wright, one of England’s most effective goal-strikers, was
discussing football with his friend Stan Colleymore. Colleymore told
Wright that he was worried about losing his ability to get the ball in
the net. Wright advised Colleymore to watch videotapes of his
Colleymore’s) best goals for Nottingham Forest, and to watch them

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Module 1: Learning Processes

over and over, and the skill would come back. The skill is internalised
in the brain; it just needs re-awakening.
Ian Wright had suggested a way of tapping into the automatic
kinaesthetic system, which is driven by mental as much as physical
processes.
If you try and analyse very skilled technique too closely you can
confuse yourself, because it’s too complex to analyse fully. However,
once the overall pattern of a skill is clear, the automatic system will
be triggered.

Knowledge construction
The automatic system is a system of knowledge construction not a
system of knowledge recording. The mind constructs a system for
learning to crawl or talk because it understands the meaning of the
situation, and because it has an innate capacity for constructing a
learning system. The automatic systems of the human mind seem to
consist of rules (experienced as intuitions) that help us to build up a
picture or a structure to represent a particular idea, and each one of
us builds these up differently though we all use the same underlying
general rules.
What has been focused on here is the brain’s language-forming ability,
but obviously maths is similar. There is a good argument also that
music and the visual artistic sense are similar, and that social skills are
similar. The linguist Noam Chomsky argues as well that the brain
probably has a science-forming faculty.

Abilities tend to be mentally separate


Although these abilities may well work in the same way as each other,
these all tend to be mentally separated from each other, so that we
have to develop each one in a somewhat different way from the
others, though adhering probably to the same principles of learning.
And it certainly seems as if the brain puts walls round each aspect of
itself until different aspects have clear linkages. These cause learning
blocks, which is why accelerated learning programmes advise us to
use as many aspects of the brain as possible in a piece of learning.
Readings

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Reading 2: Scaffolding and the zone of proximal


development

By Dr G. Gunawardena, Sri Lanka, for the Commonwealth Secretariat.

Lev Vygotsky
In the 1920s, Lev Vygotsky discovered that, although the
development of language, once it’s begun, is automatic, it requires
human interaction or quasi-interaction for it to develop properly.
The nature of the interaction powerfully affects the surface form of
the spoken language (not the deep level rules), and the form of the
spoken language powerfully affects the development of thought.
Marx, with his concept of praxis, and Freire argued that thought and
practice must be closely interlinked for change to take place.

Scaffolding
Vygotsky’s ideas have been used to develop a model for this process;
we call it ‘scaffolding’. In other words a structure erected out of a lot
of small elements to support the building inside. In this case that
building is the mind, and the small elements are the words and
interactions of friends, teachers, family or whatever, which form a
supportive mental structure that allows the thought inside to be built
up to the next level of complexity.

The zone of proximal development


Vygotsky called that next level of complexity the ‘zone of proximal
development’. You can’t create that scaffolding by telling someone
what to think; for some reason they have to make that thinking step
themselves (that’s how the mind works). You can only do it by asking
the right sort of questions, or presenting something concrete to
represent a new concept, and then they make the jump of
understanding. The members of groups exploring ideas together have
this sort of effect on each other.

Exploratory talking
Douglas Barnes, from Leeds University, in his marvellous little book,
From Communication to Curriculum (Penguin, 1976), describes the
different ways in which educators can use group talking methods for
intellectual development. These methods are particularly valuable for
youths and adults especially in poorer countries because here, from
childhood people are usually well socialised into talking in groups
and have no uneasiness about it.

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Module 1: Learning Processes

What Barnes calls ‘exploratory talk’ is very powerful for developing


new understanding. The rules are that the members of the group all
have the aim of using the group to find things out rather than to show
off what they know. Of course some will know more than others, and
they will be expected to pool their knowledge, but always as part of a
collective effort to develop new understanding.

Readings

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Reading 3: Key learning theories

By Dr G Gunawardena. Revised (2007) by Lewis Owen.

Behaviourist
Classical conditioning
In a behaviourist analysis of learning, the idea is that we learn
primarily by responding to external conditions.
Behaviourists (such as Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, John B.
Watson, Edwin Guthrie and Burrhus F. Skinner) didn’t really
consider what goes on inside the mind of the learner. Because they
felt that the inside workings of the learner’s mind couldn’t be seen or
known, they described it as a ‘black box’. They felt that they could
only infer what appears to take place when learning occurs.
Their main research into the basic building blocks of human learning
was based on the assumption that they must develop blocks in a very
similar way to that of learned behaviour in animals (i.e. around the
basic responses to their environment). When observed closely, they
found that these basic responses take place in small steps or units,
which soon become linked together into chains of continuous activity.
The responses are caused by stimuli in the environment which trigger
behavioural responses in an animal, for example, observable when
creatures such as rats move in small, rapid, jerky, movements when
they explore their environment. In many animals, movements are in
small, clearly marked steps. Around these response units, permanent
patterns of behaviour are formed (behaviourist theories are
sometimes called ‘stimulus-response theories’), as when rats convert
these units of movement into continuous running or fighting.

black box

Stimulus Response – Reinforcer

Behaviourists discovered by experimentation that, throughout the


animal kingdom, for stimulus-response learning to occur there must
be a response that a learner is capable of making and a stimulus to
which the learner will react. And in learning there must be a reward
for that piece of behaviour, if it is going to become part of the
organism’s behaviour.
The behaviourists conducted laboratory experiments using animals
such as chickens, rats and dogs to study how best to elicit desired
behaviours. For example, Ivan Pavlov conditioned dogs to associate
the sound of a bell with the smell of food, which elicited salivation in

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the dogs. Pavlov called the prospect of food the ‘unconditioned


stimulus’; the dog salivating the ‘unconditioned response’; and the
taste of the food (the reward) the ‘reinforcer’. All of this is perfectly
normal behaviour for a dog. However, Pavlov converted this into a
form of learned behaviour which is not at all normal for a dog. He
did so by getting the dog to associate the food with the sound of the
bell, so that the salivation response was at the stimulus of the sound
of the bell, reinforced by the food. He then took the food away so that
the dog was no longer salivating at the smell of the food but at the
sound of the bell only. The sound of the bell had become a
‘conditioned stimulus’ and the ‘conditioned response’ was salivation.
The reinforcement was now no longer necessary. His dogs soon
learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, and eventually at the
sound of ticking metronomes, when no food was present. Today, the
same techniques seem to be the basis for teaching rats and dogs to
find unexploded mines and terrorist bombs.
Developing this method into a technique of instrumental
conditioning, behaviourists were able to shape the behaviour of many
animals into remarkably complicated patterns, by teaching a
progressive small step at a time – a technique called ‘successive
approximation’. For example, horses have been trained to solve
problems by going through a sequence of learned steps. This
technique has frequently been used on simple computer-learning
programmes, where each small successive and successful step is
rewarded by someone saying ‘Well done’ or smiling. Their effect is
real but short-lived, and the later, more complex studies of
reinforcement patterns, or ‘schedules’, suggest that they have to be
much more carefully designed for learning in human beings.
Interestingly, any physical or behavioural skill can be broken down
into sequences or ‘chains’ of small steps, which can be increasingly
perfected by introducing some of the behaviourists’ insights. For
example in teaching dancing, there is usually a structure of relatively
small finite steps, and the learner can be helped, by reinforcement of
each of these small steps, to enhance the quality of her movement.
This is very valuable where there are weak spots that disturb the
whole sequence of the movement. Without analysing the chain of
stimulus-response units, it would be difficult to pick up and remedy
the problem. Learning works much better when the reinforcement is
‘intrinsic’ (i.e. the reward comes in the form of the improvement or
learning itself, rather than an outside reward), in this case, the reward
of experiencing the small step as more physically effective. Even so,
the instructor’s verbal stimulus and instant praise as a reward for each
step also encourages learning, especially initially.
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Operant conditioning
Among human beings, behaviourist learning techniques are usually
based on the principles of operant conditioning. Here, people are
essentially free to choose their behaviours. These behaviours are
emitted more spontaneously than in classical conditioning. Operant

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conditioning investigates how best to bring these naturally occurring


behaviours under control, using reinforcement schedules. (In
Skinner’s case, this was for idealistic reasons, in that, in common with
cognitive theorists, he believed that humans are capable of almost any
kind of learning if that learning is organised properly.)
Reinforcement schedules generally depend on extrinsic rewards for
appropriate behaviour and are widely used in the real world to shape
human activity (for example, gambling on machines or national
lotteries, playing computer games, working for bonuses and working
for the approval of youth leaders). One of the important findings here
is the ‘partial-reinforcement effect’. Here, a desired response (such as
performing good behaviour or putting more money into a ‘one-armed
bandit’) has been shown by a great deal of research to be far less
likely to disappear if rewards are given only part of the time and
irregularly. So powerful is this type of operant conditioning that it has
been strongly argued by psychiatric researchers that susceptible
people can be conditioned into gambling addiction by it.

A very positive example of this sort of reinforcement is found in a


psychology textbook by Robert A. Baron (1997).
A top-class high school footballer called Sam had notoriously bad
social behaviour. When accepted at a good university and arriving at
football coaching, he swore that he would soon ‘sort out the coach’.
The coach ignored this abuse, watched Sam practising for several
days, then omitted him from the college team at the next game. Sam
was extremely abusive, but the coach ignored this behaviour
completely. During the weeks that followed he continued to ignore
Sam’s bad behaviour, and often left him out of the team, but every so
often he would publicly praise something that Sam did well and when
he had been working hard. By the end of the season, Sam’s bad
outbursts had disappeared.
Think about why this happened before reading the next paragraph.
Baron makes the point that Sam changed his behaviour in response to
the consequences they produced. Sam learned to produce behaviours
that resulted in positive outcomes and avoided behaviours that
produced negative outcomes. In operant conditioning, the emphasis is
on using a combination of positive reinforcement (where organisms
learn to respond in ways that produce positive reinforcers such as
praise or getting picked for the team), negative reinforcement (where
they learn to respond in ways that enable them to escape from
negative reinforcers, like avoiding being left out of the team by
practising properly) and ‘omission training’ (where organisms learn to
stop responses that lead to the removal of pleasant consequences:
Sam’s ill manners became associated for him with being sidelined),
rather than punishment. It’s important to note here that the positive
reinforcement for Sam was irregular.

Learning methods derived from behaviourist theories tend to be


focused on the change and/or development of specific skills. They are

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often social-skill oriented and are product/outcome oriented. They


stress external motivation and accountability. One example that
demonstrates most of these traits is the use of learning contracts.
Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, behaviourists
continued to develop increasingly elaborate theories to account for
how learning took place. It was not difficult for them to give plausible
explanations for emotional responses and manual skills, such as
playing an instrument. The major limitation of behaviourist learning
theory is that it describes only observable behaviours and insists on
ignoring what is taking place inside the mind of the learner. However,
as Gleitman (2003) states: ‘modern investigators of animal learning
have shown that, at bottom, classical and instrumental conditioning
(and many other forms of learning too) depend on cognition.’
Gleitman argues that learning involves changes in the way that
neurons (nerve cells situated in and linked to the brain) function.
Learning requires neurons to be able to change the way they function
as a result of experience. This is likely to be true of all animals, as it is
of human beings. The psychologists who studied these processes early
on were powerfully influenced by biology, and by the assumption that
all the species in the animal kingdom, including humans, have
fundamentally similar conditions with which to contend, and
therefore the way that human neurons have adapted will be similar in
principle to the process in animals. Thus they felt that the basic
building blocks of learning in all of them are likely to be the same.
Therefore, by studying learning in simpler creatures, they believed
that they could understand the essential nature of learning in human
beings. This is a contentious issue, though undoubtedly models of
learning drawn from studies of animals do throw light on many
aspects of human learning.
It was through the early work of Wolfgang Kohler (1925) and others
on complex cognition in animals, and the difficulties experienced
later in explaining the higher order abilities in human beings, that
cognitivist theories of learning emerged. In moving to skills such as
language learning, concept learning, rule learning and problem-
solving, it became very much more difficult to apply adequate
behaviourist explanations.

Cognitivist learning
In contrast to the behaviourists, who were more concerned with how
learner’s behavioural responses to external conditions were
structured, cognitivist theorists (such as the German Gestalt
psychologists, the American Edward Chase Tolman and the Swiss
Jean Piaget) wanted to know more about the processes that go on in
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the mind of the learner.


To the cognitivist theorists, the processes of learning are more
important than behavioural changes (Goodwin, 2000).Their work
threw some light on what was going on in the ‘black box’ – the mind
of the learner.

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Gestalt theory
The essence of cognitive theories of learning is to be found in the
work of the German gestaltists on perception. These scientists
discovered that, when we are faced with a confusing environment full
of stimuli that is difficult to sort out, then there is an apparently
innate tendency of the brain to construct our perception into
relatively simple, well-ordered meaningful patterns (gestalts). Think
of your own experience of losing your sense of where you are on a
very dark night, and you will see how quickly you use your brain to
construct and establish a view of what is around you. You bring a
new order into your perception that allows you to balance your
responses and to act appropriately. You may of course construct an
inaccurate view and put yourself into difficulty. But you can’t help
performing this structuring. This is why gestaltists assumed that the
process is innate, though it may be that these structuring processes are
learned but on the basis of innate general tendencies. Nevertheless, it
argues that here is clear evidence of internal mental structure with
very deep roots in the formation of the brain.
Indeed, you will have realised that what has already been said so far
in this module assumes that much of our learning is guided by mental
strategies, constructed patterns, and hypotheses that we use to try out
our understanding, as well as by a recognition of (or a search for)
order and meaning in our experiences. These are the concerns of
cognitive psychology. As you will see from the rest of the module, we
advocate learning methods that, to a significant degree, derive from
this view: methods such as discovery learning, process-oriented
learning, relying on internal motivation, networked learning and
student choice. The mental events that learners need to be involved in
are thinking for themselves, developing tools for acquiring knowledge,
problem-solving and organising their knowledge.
In essence, cognitivist theories of learning look at three things:
z types of learning or knowledge
z information processing and memory
z metacognition (awareness of the self as a learner; capacity to
understand and monitor one’s own cognitive processes).

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Types of knowledge

Jean Piaget and genetic epistemology


Epistemology is the theory of the nature of knowledge. Piaget, who
centred his early work on the development of his own children, set
out to describe and explain the nature of children’s knowledge,
whether or not it was different at different stages of their
development, and whether it was genetically programmed. His view
is that the mechanism that drives the process of cognitive
development is an innate process, but that this actually enables open-
ended adaptation to the demands of the environment. This process of
adaptation takes place through inborn mechanisms for building an
enormous range of mental representations of the world – ‘schemata’.
Here, ‘mental representations’ refers to pictures, images and
structures of concepts. These build up in the child’s mind by her
direct interaction with the world around her: these representations
take the form of the schemata that we have already described. The
schemata are acquired by experience, even though the process that
drives their development is innate. Because they are innate, this
doesn’t mean that they are fixed or limited. What fixes or limits them
is experience.
As indicated above, there are two main processes by which these
schemata (systems of representation) are built up: ‘assimilation’,
which is the tendency to understand new information in terms of the
existing schemata, and ‘accommodation’, which is the modification
of existing schemata to absorb new information. Schemata are rich
and are built up slowly, and this needs to be understood and
respected. The model is very useful in helping us see how the
assimilation process might cause learners not to perceive important
differences between new information and old knowledge. They might
just assume that the new information, even when it’s really new, is an
example of what they already understand, therefore they will appear
to resist new ideas. You may find this among young men with a fixed
idea of what women are really like, rather than seeing their qualities
properly. In other words, they have chosen assimilation rather than
accommodation. The model also helps us to realise how important it
is to facilitate the accommodation process, as that may often be very
difficult. We may have to involve young men with fixed ideas about
women in a role-play where they play the part of a woman, to learn
how to empathise with them.
Piaget describes four different stages of cognitive development:
z birth to almost two
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z two to seven
z seven to twelve
z twelve onwards.

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Between the ages of seven and twelve, children develop the ability to
think logically and develop mental maps of their knowledge. This
knowledge is centred on the concrete features of the world, and
Piaget says that it consists of ‘concrete operations’. In other words,
they think in terms of real-world activities that can be observed. So
for example, learning arithmetic is best done by using actual objects,
such as coins and notes, or an abacus. Piaget argues that only in the
final stage, usually after the age of twelve, do full-scale ‘formal
operations’ develop, when children can master more abstract thought
and become able to think just in terms of concepts, rather than
concrete examples. This eventually grows into the ability to handle
deductive and propositional reasoning.
Modern theorists and investigators, while accepting the general value
of the model, have criticised it for its research methods, which failed
to discover the truth that children can in fact be far in advance of the
developmental stages that Piaget constructed, usually through the
quality of their social experience, which Vygotsky’s work shows to be
so crucial.
For youth development workers, it is important to realise that their
young clients may well not have developed their formal operations
very extensively and may well have to be allowed to think in concrete
operational terms – expressing all their ideas in concrete, real world
examples, and then using discussion and other representational
activities, such as drawing diagrams, to enable them to make the
transition to formal, abstract thinking. In fact, we ourselves, in some
areas of our work (such as writing difficult research reports) are not
fully operational in formal terms and have to think through our
material in concrete, real world terms. And we assume that this may
well be true for you, and would encourage you to represent what you
think in terms that make sense to you.

Cognitive domains
In the period after the second world war, cognitivist interest not only
concerned itself with epistemological issues but with using the
essential insights of the field in programmes of instruction and
education. Underpinning much of this work was a similar vision to
that of the behaviourists: that human learning could be massively
improved if educators could understand how best to organise the
learning process.
This culminated in a 1971 study by James Block et al of Bloom’s
Mastery Learning:
“Mastery Learning (Bloom 1968) offers a powerful new
approach to student learning … It proposes that all or almost all
students can master what they are taught ... it suggests
procedures whereby each student’s instruction and learning can
be so managed within the context of ordinary, group-based
instruction and learning … Mastery learning enables 75 to 90
per cent of the students to learn to the same high levels as the

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top 25 per cent learning under typical … instructional methods.


(p.3)”
The essential methods used depend on a detailed breakdown of the
subject to be learned into a learning structure, where all the parts of
the subject are analysed and described in terms of their specific
difficulty and the nature of the particular knowledge involved, and
their relationship with other parts of the learning structure. Specific
objectives are established, aimed at ensuring that all parts of this
structure are taught and tested diagnostically at intervals. The method
acknowledges that each learner has a unique pattern of learning style
and learned abilities, so the learners who fail any part of the frequent
‘phase tests’ are given one or more alternative methods of re-learning
that same material – verbal and oral instructional material, films or
tape/slide sequences, computer programmes, short films, small peer
syndicate discussion and so on. The emphasis is on achieving mastery
of all the elements of the course rather than on the time allowed for
the course of instruction, so people are allowed to take varying
lengths of time.
The successes achieved with this programme around the world were
claimed by the researchers to be remarkable. While the pure
programme as such has not been fully utilised in the UK, the basic
ideas of the method drive the British National Vocational
Qualification (NVQ) system of qualifications, also the Business and
Technician Education Council (BTEC) programmes of professional
technician training and even influence the examining and teaching of
many of the General Certificate of Education (GCE) Advanced Level
science and technology subjects. It is in this way a liberating and
practical model. It does not have to stay within the theoretical field
that it came from, but can equally be adapted to more creative and
humanistic fields by imaginatively adapting the principles.
Although you are unlikely to have the resources to set up formal
mastery learning programmes, you can to an extent adapt the
principles. You can break down whatever is being learned into its
essential structure of concepts and skills. Make sure that you have a
method of finding out where exactly clients are failing to master the
material. You should then find some alternative ways in which they
can tackle that same material so that it can be learned properly. Also,
try to ensure that clients do master the material, rather than rushing
them through a programme. Speed is not the important criterion with
this method.

Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives


Benjamin Bloom (1956) was head of a committee of colleges
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examining the nature of different kinds of educational activity. He


initially identified three domains:
z cognitive behaviour – to do with knowledge, thinking and
problem-solving

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z affective understanding and skill – emotional and social


understanding and skill
z psychomotor behaviour – physical skills that require controlled
muscular movements.
Bloom himself worked only on the first two domains, showing that
they contained several levels of increasing complexity. The cognitive
domain, at its lowest level, begins with knowledge of facts (usually
simply memory), then comprehension (or understanding) of facts and
material, then application of knowledge to solve real problems, then
the ability to analyse learning problems, following that the ability to
synthesise (discover the relationships among) disparate materials and
(at the top of the hierarchy) the ability to evaluate the knowledge. For
a long period, many school and college examination subjects in the
UK have been specified in this way, with different proportions of
marks being awarded for the different levels of objectives.
Bloom did not develop the affective domain as far as this, but at its
lowest level he specified ‘receiving’ – the ability to recognise and cope
with emotional and interpersonal data, followed by the ability to
respond to that material, then to value it (evaluate it in terms of
oneself), following that the ability to organise and conceptualise
emotional and relational experience, and finally the ability to
characterise it in terms of a broad value system.
He did not deal with the psychomotor domain, though others have.
Clearly, we do need some system, in any kind of assessment of
manual and bodily activity, for judging the relative worth of the
activity observed. A great footballer, for example, is operating at a
higher level of mastery of physical abilities and the deployment of
those abilities on the field than many other footballers. From a
coaching viewpoint, that needs describing in some reasonably
objective way for development purposes and demonstration effects.
A system such as this is valuable for directing the youth worker’s
attention to the kinds and levels of abilities of her clients and to the
areas into which she might help them develop.

Learning hierarchies
If you have ever found yourself trying to tackle a learning problem
and realising that you don’t have one or more of the basic tools for
the job, then you will appreciate the ideas of Robert Gagne. In his
book The Conditions for Learning (1977), in the tradition of Bloom
and others, he argued that there were five major categories of
learning:
z verbal information
z intellectual skills
z cognitive strategies
z motor skills

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z attitudes.
Each type of learning should take place under its own ideal
instructional conditions. However, his major contribution to our
understanding of learning was not so much the classification of
learning types, but the identification of interdependency between
different levels of learning. It was this that led to his work on learning
hierarchies.
The real significance of learning hierarchies is that they demonstrate
the basis for the sequencing of learning. The hierarchy represents
increasing levels of complexity. To facilitate the learning at each level
the teacher needs to identify what is needed before learners can tackle
that level.
To identify the prerequisites at each level requires the teacher to do a
task analysis of the section of teaching that is to take place, then to
arrange the instruction in the following order:
1 Focus learners’ attention.
2 Explain the learning objectives.
3 Ask them to recall prior learning.
4 Present a new learning stimulus.
5 Provide learning guidance.
6 Get the learners to do the learning task.
7 Give them feedback on their efforts.
8 Assess what they’ve done.
9 Find a way to make sure that they will retain that knowledge and
be able to transfer it to some new situation.
This approach is obviously well suited to the instructional
programmes in the armed services, where Gagne worked for a time. It
can also be employed in aspects of formal teaching in youth
development work. It may at times be applied to formal learning
situations. However, the principles should also be kept in mind in the
informal learning environments, as it is a systematic way of
preventing learners being asked to master something for which they
lack the underlying learning tools.

Information-processing and memory


One of the basic models of cognitive psychology describes the learner
as an information-processing and storage system. It is from this
model that cognitivists explored the cognitive processes involved in
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learning. Computers present a useful analogy or metaphor for this


model, which includes three levels or types of memory or storage:
z sensory memory
z short-term memory

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z long-term memory.
These levels are a considerable simplification. When behaviourism
was in its heyday, the study of memory was relatively straightforward.
But it has long been realised that memory is a single word for a
number of very complex and seemingly specialised mental processes,
to judge by the range of titles of the subjects that have been
investigated and established in this area. In every one of these, the
definition of memory being used is powerfully affected by the nature
of the material being stored in the mind and by what the person
storing the material is intending to do. For example, if we are trying
to learn a sequence of technical words so that they are available to us
when we want to describe a process, it is possible to learn them as we
would learn a sequence of telephone numbers. If we want to use the
memory process to gain a deeper understanding of that process, then
we might store the words in terms of their etymological relationship
to the process. These two processes are clearly very different in some
way. This suggests that perhaps memory is not as generic a
phenomenon as we imply in the use of that word.

Sensory memory and short term memory (STM)


Sensory memory, or ‘sensory information store’, is where we detect
features and recognise patterns of objects and events around us. This
processing of information takes place through our five senses. As
soon as our attention is engaged, the information is processed into
short-term memory (working memory), or STM, which is where we
hold, for example, a telephone number while we dial it (Boulton-
Lewis, 1997). Without rehearsal of the information, it disappears
from short-term memory within 15–20 seconds. Short-term memory
also appears to be limited to seven (plus or minus two) discrete items.
However, its absolute capacity can be quite large in view of the fact
that each of these seven items might consist of a significant ‘chunk’
of related information.
The tendency of STM to erode so quickly suggests that learning
facilitators can only rely on presenting sense stimuli very briefly to
capture the interest and attention of the learners before switching to
relevant material that the learners already know or that they can
make connections with. The new learning (the unknown) can then be
linked to previous learning (the known).

Long-term memory (LTM)


This refers to the memory for information that has been well-
processed (interpreted) and integrated into our general knowledge.
Almost everything a person knows is stored in the long-term memory
(Boulton-Lewis, 1998) and the capacity of the LTM appears to be
unbounded. Relevant material is transferred from short-term to long-
term memory through a process called ‘encoding’. This process is
called encoding because it involves transforming the new material
into a code that our minds can easily handle. This code is based on
what we already know and the way that is coded and stored in our

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minds. Encoding therefore involves the mental processes we use to


abstract general points from the new information and convert them
into a form that enables us to derive meaning from them.
Short-term Long-term
memory memory

Words, names
maintained by
Sensor Impression or Encoding Concepts,
Attention rehearsal
memory Sensation meaning
(working
memory)
Decoding

Forgotten Forgotten

The extent and duration of memory result from the degree and level
to which information is processed in this way. Thus, we are not
conscious of material that is not processed, and it remains in sensory
storage for only a fraction of a second. Material that is attended to
and rehearsed is held in short-term storage for several seconds; and
material that is fully encoded finds its way into long-term memory.
This is why it’s so important to discuss thoroughly the new ideas that
are being studied: this enables the learner to encode or conceptualise
them in terms she understands, and that puts them into LTM.

Encoding
Encoding of information (for example linguistic information) might
occur at a superficial level (‘lexical memory’: noting and
remembering only the pattern or structure of a word, for example); or
at a deeper level (taking into account the meaning of a word –
‘semantic memory’).
A traditional model of memory portrays the mind simply as a
catalogue or movie-like recording of sequences of experiences,
perhaps organised around stimulus/response chains. Children at
school used to be taught to learn poetry like this – perhaps as a
sequence of rhyming couplets supported by a sequence of visual
images. This can be done without paying much attention to deeper
insights into what a poem is saying. Memorising a poem by attending
to the pattern of insights around which it is structured is very
different.
Several contemporary models of long-term memory are associative,
including cognitivist ‘associationism’. This assumes that the memory
is structured in the form of patterns of propositions (structures of
ideas). If we can associate new knowledge in some way with one of
these propositions, then this enables the mind to link up the new
knowledge with related ideas: this also allows it to call up specific
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details in that field of knowledge. It is astonishing how effective the


understanding of the deeper structures of a piece of knowledge is in
enabling us to remember the detailed nature of that knowledge.
In this way, cognitive associationists hold that material in memory is
organised according to relationships among propositions – and that

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everything in memory can be associated with something else. As a


youth development worker it will help you to be able to make links
between whatever young people say and the connections between that
and deeper level ideas, because you can use that awareness to lead on
their development in ways that might otherwise be impossible.
For the learner, the practical idea derived from this is that, if you
consciously organise your stored material in a logical structure of
related ideas, you can very easily trace any part of that structure from
memory, including detailed material, like dates in history or
equations in maths, because they are given meaningfulness by the
structure of ideas in which they are embedded.
Memory can be improved by repeated and varied use of this
structure, recalling items of information (decoding) by the process of
piecing together the associations in the pattern of ideas. This
reinforces the associations. The neuronal connections are
strengthened by repeated recall, and by using the material to transfer
the ideas to new situations, which creates a richer web of
connections.

Mental organisation
Terms such as ‘node’, ‘frame’, or ‘schema’ are metaphors for the
mental organisation of knowledge (or alternatively for the
organisation of memory). Associationists argue that, because of the
way information is organised in propositional structures in the long-
term memory, visual representations of this information (for example
flowcharts, cluster plans and mind maps) are very useful aids to
memory.
Tony Buzan (1995) is the most famous proponent of mind maps. He
shows how the learner can listen to a lecture, read a book or watch a
videotape and note down key words and phrases that summarise the
points or propositions that are made by the expert. As the expert’s
argument develops, the learner can begin to draw pencilled lines
relating these key word and phrases, so that eventually a cognitive
map (or propositional structure) has been drawn of the whole session.
The map probably will need to be refined or redrawn to enhance the
clarity of the argument, but can then be stored away and used
whenever needed to stimulate memory, perhaps before another talk
that the learner listens to or a talk that she gives, or as preparation for
an interview. The method really works very effectively, and some
people still refer to mind maps that they made twenty years before.
However, you have to realise that the long-term memory does not
simply reproduce events or images as a photograph does, but instead
the mind reconstructs the propositional material, as a painter does. It
often distorts events that have happened, and it sometimes even
recalls events that have not. Providing that you are aware of this, you
can use it creatively to develop your own thinking.

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Three important cognitive processes are involved in capturing a


sensory impression and holding it in consciousness, then encoding it
for long-term storage:
z rehearsal (repetition or practice),
z elaboration (extending the impression),
z organisation (sorting, relating, classifying, categorising).

Metacognition
Cognitivists are not only interested in what we learn and how we
process information, but also how we learn about the process of
learning itself. When we become accustomed to learning new things
skilfully in a field of knowledge, then this teaches us what we should
be doing when learning more new things, so that we can speed the
learning process up. Our awareness of the precise nature of our
knowledge and ability to understand, to monitor and control our
cognitive processes is referred to as ‘metacognition’. The skills of
metacognition are usually divided into two types:
z self-assessment – which refers to our ability to remember and
understand what we know and to access that knowledge and the
skills that are part of it
z self-management – the ability to manage our own cognitive
development – to judge when we should be learning something
new, and how we should go about it. As adult learners, we
employ a range of metacognition skills.
‘Cognitive strategy’ is a label for the concept of a method of thinking
and learning. When educators teach learners how to learn (as
opposed to teaching them the content of the learning) they teach
cognitive strategies. As a facilitator you should try to enhance the
learner’s cognitive strategies (thinking skills) because learners with
good cognitive strategies (metacognitive skills) are better able to
monitor and direct their own learning processes: the self-management
of their own learning. In the developed world, many jobs require the
job-holders to retrain frequently. For them, possessing good
metacognitive skills is essential. In the developing world, good
metacognitive skills will facilitate the modernisation process.
The term ‘learning/thinking strategy’ emphasises that identifiable
and teachable strategies are involved in thinking as well as in
learning. Weinstein and Mayer (1986) describe eight classes of
learning/thinking strategies. These can all be developed and taught by
you as facilitator, so that your learners can acquire them to control
their learning and develop themselves.
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The first six are:


z rehearsal at a basic level, such as repeating the names of items

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z rehearsal at a more complex level, for example, repeating


extended material aloud, taking selective notes or underlining
material we are reading
z elaboration at a basic level, for example creating mental images
or descriptions of a piece of learning
z elaboration at a complex level, for example paraphrasing,
summarising or describing how new information relates to older
knowledge
z organisational strategies for basic problems, such as grouping,
clustering or putting items in order
z organisational strategies for complex problems , for example
creating a hierarchy of ideas and their relationships, generalising,
classifying and sequencing.
The last two are comprehension-monitoring strategies:
z self-monitoring as a strategy of metacognition: problem
identification, self-questioning, self-reinforcement, checking for
comprehension failures
z affective (motivational) strategies: learning to monitor our
relaxation skills, to focus our attention, manage performance
anxiety, manage our time.

How do people become thinkers?


Cognitivists ask how people become thinkers. How can we make
better, more critical, more creative thinkers of them? Part of its
answer is – by making them aware of themselves as learners and
information processors (metacognitive skills), and by teaching them
specific cognitive strategies (for example, how to rehearse, organise,
monitor; and so on).

Forgetting
In contemporary information-processing models of memory,
forgetting is felt to mean simply ‘failure to retrieve’, the notion being
that the memory is still somewhere in the brain, but has become
inaccessible. The assumption is that the organisation of part of the
LTM has been disrupted, and that access to memories has been
compromised by disturbances to the underlying structure of the
representations: in cognitivist terms, disturbances in the
‘propositional structures’. Theories of forgetting maintain that
information is forgotten if it is unused, distorted, suppressed, or
interfered with, or because the individual has not developed an
effective retrieval system as part of her metacognitive training.
Theories of forgetting suggest that to minimise interference with
accurate encoding and to maximise transfer, educators should
emphasise:
z distinct and important aspects of situations

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z similarities and differences.


Mnemonic devices include rhymes, patterns, and acronyms. There
are also more complex mnemonic techniques (the link system, the
‘loci’ system and the ‘phonetic’ system), which you can follow up in
books on memory techniques if you are interested in this aspect of
learning.
More complex techniques are based on the principle that visual
imagery is an extremely powerful aid to memory, because it reflects
how we believe information is stored in long term memory. Again,
read Buzan (1995) on this.
Note: If you would like to know more about cognitivist theory, you
could start by studying Encyclopaedia Britannica and/or internet
references to the work of Robert Gagne, David Ausubel, Jerome
Bruner, Benjamin Bloom, Noam Chomsky and Lev Vygotsky.

Humanistic
Everything we have looked at so far is centred on the cognitive
processes that enable us to learn, but it will be obvious to you, when
you consider it, that your feelings and self awareness are extremely
important in determining your ability to utilise your cognitive
processes. If for any reason you do not feel relaxed and confident
enough, then it becomes a real struggle to get your cognitive processes
in full flow. Your mental balance is powerfully influenced by the
feelings you have about yourself and the quality of your social
relationships. This is especially true for young people like your clients,
whose confidence may have been damaged by previous social failures
and by unemployment.
One of the major domains of social psychology is called ‘social
influence theory’, in which a series of social experiments, such as the
Stanley Milgram experiments in obedience and the Philip Zimbardo
role-play experiment in simulated prison conditions (1971), have
shown how the social roles we play powerfully influence our
behaviour and self expectations, in the short term at least, and often
our long-term development. There is a clear link between this and the
findings of labelling theory, where the labels that people assign to
themselves or have assigned to them, providing they are reinforced on
a random and repeated basis, tend to stick and partly determine their
behaviour. In this way, many people can be labelled and can role-play
themselves into incompetence (‘learned helplessness’) and failure.
Equally however, the same mechanisms can be reversed and they can
role-play themselves into intelligent and effective behaviour and
therefore into long-term intelligence and social effectiveness. This
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presumably is an aspect of how the ‘inner game’ works in sport. This


is really perhaps the primary aspect of learning facilitation that youth
workers do.
As a youth development worker, you should have high but practical
expectations of your clients, label them as potential achievers, and

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help them step by step to attain goals near to them and then to extend
their reach. You should also use learning situations that give them
experience of role playing competent performance. The later units in
this module spell out the methods for achieving this.
The humanistic models of learning have various perspectives but are
all concerned with the uniqueness, the individuality and dignity of
each learner and the right to self-determination. Humanistic theories
emphasise:
z the inborn and powerful human desire to learn
z the importance of the educator’s concern for the perceptions,
needs and feelings of the learner
z the desirability of self-determination: the need for the learner to
have a strong measure of control over the learning process
z the need for the teacher to be a facilitator, rather than an
‘authority’.
Although both humanistic and behaviouristic theories emphasise the
belief in people’s ability to learn and develop, many aspects of their
approaches are in ideological conflict. While the behaviourist
emphasis is on ‘outcomes’ and ‘performance’, the humanistic
emphasis is on the development of the social and emotional self,
which is seen as the key supporting framework for underlying
competence.
Three of the major early influences were the work of Carl Rogers,
John Holt and Paulo Freire. In later modules you will encounter the
‘conscientisation’ model of youth development work pioneered by the
Brazilian educationalist, Freire; this has considerable overlap with
other humanistic models but also has a radical political dimension,
influenced by the work of Karl Marx.

Motivation
Theories about motivation talk about two kinds:
z extrinsic or external, for example praise from a parent, teacher or
mentor (or the risk of disapproval if a goal is not achieved)
z intrinsic or internal – the human urge to grow, excel, to fulfil
one’s potential or to self-actualise.
Humanists are interested in developing a person’s awareness of
intrinsic motivators, such as feeling competent, creative and
empowered. This is in contrast with the behaviourist emphasis on
extrinsic motivators, such as those relating to rewards and
punishments.

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Maslow’s ‘hierarchy of needs’


Humanist psychology’s concern with the individual’s needs is well-
reflected in the writings of Abraham Maslow. Maslow proposes two
general needs systems:
z basic needs
z higher-level (meta) needs.
The essential humanistic standpoint for educators is that for learning
to take place, then the ordinary emotional and interpersonal needs
must be satisfied for learners. What is more, the nature of the
learning demands attention to the particular needs that must be
satisfied while it is taking place. There are various models of these
needs, including, for example, Eric Berne’s ‘recognition hunger’ and
‘structure hunger’ (where people engineer patterns of human
interaction in order to get a recognition response from others – the
equivalent of the baby being ‘stroked’ by its mother), and Maslow’s
humanistic hierarchical model of the needs that motivate personal
growth.
In Maslow’s model, our physiological needs are the most basic (the
need for food, for warmth, security and shelter). Educators working
in disaster zones know very well the primary need for food and
shelter for the young people they are working with. We have
experience of designing educational programmes even for schools in
Lesotho where the first consideration was how to feed the children. It
may well be crucial for you to become an expert in providing basic
nutrition and protection from the weather, and finding well-defended
positions in disputed areas, before you can run development
programmes.
What is more, Maslow argues for the importance of psychological
safety. This will be particularly relevant in areas where there is
military action, where there has been a natural disaster, or where
there are high levels of criminal activity. But the need for
psychological reassurance is there for anyone who enters an
unfamiliar learning environment, particularly for the first time. The
famous British study ‘Hightown Grammar’ describes how the
uncertainties of the first year of secondary education caused some
dysfunctional relationships to develop, which determined the failure
of some children throughout their school careers.
This need for psychological security overlaps Maslow’s more complex
and next higher category of need – the need to feel that you belong,
that you are liked and even loved. One of the finest educators we
know, Mrs Muriel Pyrah, once said in a television production, that
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the child who gave the most trouble and was often the least obviously
likeable was usually the one that needed love the most. In her
remarkably powerful and effective teaching she transformed such
children by giving them attention and respect, and really ‘listening’ to
them. One of your major tasks in leading a group will be to create an
atmosphere where people listen to each other and ‘hear’ each other,

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where respect and consideration are the basic affective scaffolding for
learning.
You can create this in the group by practising it yourself. In this
environment, self-esteem and self-belief will flourish. Of course, the
patterns for achieving this will vary from culture to culture.
Sometimes, the highest respect is given to people with high social
status, and you will of course have to act within the norms of your
culture, but always with the underlying aim of promoting self-esteem
and group solidarity.
Maslow’s model says that these first-level needs have to be met before
progression to the learning needs of which education is most aware –
the cognitive and aesthetic needs, the ‘meta’ needs. The highest need
in Maslow’s system is that of self-actualisation – the unfolding and
fulfilment of the self or reaching one’s higher potential. This shows
itself in spurts of growth, where the cognitive and affective schemata
become clearly richer and more effective.
Self-actualisation

(G
DS

RO
EE

WT
Aesthetic
-N

goodness,beauty
H
TA

truth, justice
NE
ME

Cognitive ED
knowledge, symmetry S)

Self-esteem
competence, approval, recognition
(D
EF
S

Belongings and love


ED

IC

affiliation, acceptance, affection


NE

IE
NC
SIC

Y
BA

NE

Safety
ED

security, psychological safety


S)

Physiological
food, drink

Maslow’s basic needs are also called ‘deficiency needs’ because they
become motivators when a person has a deficiency with respect to a
need: for example, a lack of food or water will motivate the activity to
look for these things.
The great Russian educator Anton Makerenko, was given the task of
gathering up the bands of homeless, penniless, wild young people
wandering through post-revolutionary Russia (described in his novel
The Road to Life – an Epic of Education, 1955). The model he
developed in his remarkably successful programme was based on the
group having goals. He describes how the crucial point was

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establishing motivation, and the first motivation was for his hungry
band to find food and make a meal, satisfying the most basic need of
all. He used that goal to establish the next highest motive of creating
and collectively rebuilding a barn into a hostel, which developed the
group’s sense of solidarity and their need for each other. He converted
the achievement of these goals into establishing a new and higher
level of meta needs, the goal of eventually writing and performing
plays for the local peasants so that the young people might become
loved and respected by society. The goal of performing the play was
the establishing of a meta need. Meta needs are also called ‘growth
needs’: they motivate, not because of fulfilling a deficiency, but
because of our need to grow and to be self-fulfilled.

References
Ausubel, D. (1963) The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning,
Grune and Stratton (New York)
Berne, E. (1996) Games People Play, Ballantine Books
Baron, Robert A. (1997) Psychology, Allyn and Bacon
Block, J. H. (ed.) (1971) Mastery Learning: Theory and Practice, Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, London
Bloom, B. (ed.) (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Longman
London
Boulton-Lewis, G. (1997) ‘Information processing, memory, age and
adult learning’ in P. Sutherland (ed.) Adult Learning: a reader, Kogan
Page, London
Buzan, T. (1995) The Mind Map Book, BBC Books, London
Gagne, R. M. (1977) The Conditions of Learning, Rinehart and
Winston, New York
Gleitman, H., Friedlund, A .J and Reisberg, D. (2003) Psychology, W.
W. Norton, New York
Weinstein, C. E. and Mayer, R. E. (1986) ‘The teaching of learning
strategies.’ in M. Wittrock (ed.) Handbook of Research on Teaching, (pp.
315–327) Macmillan, New York
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Reading 4: The nature of knowledge

By Dr G. Gunawardena, Sri Lanka, for the Commonwealth Secretariat.

As a youth development worker you will sometimes be a teacher,


more often a facilitator of learning. We have looked so far at some of
the important things to know about the ‘process’ of learning itself.
We must now look a little deeper at the nature of knowledge.
Dealt with properly, this is a huge and controversial subject, a major
branch of philosophy called ‘epistemology’. It deals however with
some very practical issues for facilitators of learning, because they
need to understand how the type of knowledge being dealt with
develops most effectively in the mind.
I have already talked about the ways in which the mind tends to work
in compartments. There may well be very good reasons for this,
because it helps the conscious processes to focus, without any
distractions from the volume of detailed information that the
automatic systems look after.
Take language development as an example. If, when you discuss
youth work, you have to concentrate on grammatical structures, voice
rhythms, the roots of words, use of gesture, rules for taking turns to
speak etc., you would never be able to deal with it all. So what
happens is that you concentrate on two things – what you want to say,
and the best way to get the communication going between yourself
and whoever is with you. All the rest is looked after by the automatic
system.

Does the mind always operate in compartments,


or is that just at the conscious level?
In fact, in all learning processes there are all sorts of information
(conscious and unconscious) acting together as if it’s all one thing –
but we are only aware of the conscious part. In fact, however, though
we may be concentrating on ideas, our emotions are always involved,
our bodies usually and of course the spirit and the sense of self.
So, as a rough attempt to acknowledge the complexity of the learning
process, about forty years ago a team of American educationists led
by Benjamin Bloom realised that it was helpful to be conscious of the
different sorts of learning they were really testing. It would help
everyone concerned to know what the teaching was trying to achieve;
in other words what the teaching objectives should be.

Bloom’s learning domains


Bloom, in his Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, identifies three
general types (domains) of learning:

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z cognitive
z affective, and
z psychomotor.
Learning as a form of change of behaviour can take place in all of
these three domains.
Though they usually occur together, the emphasis is usually on one at
any one time.

The cognitive domain


In the cognitive domain, Bloom was really looking at the different
ways we process ideas. He sensibly claims that some of these ideas
are more complicated than others, and that it is important to know
what we are really asking learners to do. This is because we should be
teaching and assessing the harder skills in a different way from the
easier ones.
He said that he had identified six types of processing of ideas. In
order of information processing difficulty these are:
z knowledge (by which he means the easy recall of factual
information)
z comprehension (by which he means understanding the meaning
of something)
z application (here he argues that it’s harder to use a piece of
knowledge to solve a problem by applying it in a new area, than it
is to explain it, because extra steps of thinking are involved)
z analysis (this is more difficult because you have to be able to
break something down into its constituent parts)
z synthesis (he feels that this is harder still, because it involves the
learner putting together a lot of different elements to make
something new)
z evaluation (again this is very hard because you’ve got to know a
lot about something, and you’ve got to be able to analyse and
compare it with other similar things to judge whether it’s better or
worse than something, or how good it is for the task it has to do).
When we assess someone’s quality of mind all we’ve got to judge this
by is what they write or say or do, and what we’ve got to do is to try
and analyse the underlying processes by asking: What quality of
thinking is really going on under the surface?
The cognitive part of the taxonomy is one device for doing this.
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The affective domain


Interests and attitudes play an important role in learning. Without a
positive attitude and deep interest one finds it difficult to engage in

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learning. The success of learning depends on interests and attitudes


to learning.
Interests and attitudes are formed and developed in young children
either as a result of inborn drives and aptitudes or due to the pressure
and guidance from parents or elders. In the case of adults they
develop interests according to decisions taken on what they need to
achieve and what is most suited to them. These decisions are very
much dependent on life situations (see Unit 4 on the role of Informal
Learning). For example, a person whose chosen occupation is
agriculture, is likely to develop an interest in his occupation and
develop positive attitudes towards it. Similarly a teacher or a
craftsman, provided the job is not imposed on him/her, will have
similar attitudes.

Social skills
However, the affective domain means much more than this. Think of
the importance of emotions in relation to your social skills with
friends and acquaintances and family. If you lack skill in the affective
domain (or emotional intelligence) your relationships will probably
break down with perhaps devastating consequences. Young people
who have gaps in their emotional intelligence, may need help from
the youth worker to fill those gaps, or in other words to get rid of
those emotional blocks to new affective learning.
The affective domain is the domain where the automatic systems are
most powerfully at work and this makes it hard to teach emotional
intelligence unless you tap directly into its deep structure and make it
accessible to analysis. This is of course the domain of the
psychotherapist and psychoanalyst when emotional intelligence has
become badly damaged and blocked.
For youth development workers it is important to recognise when
emotional damage is so bad that they should refer their client to
specialised help.

Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers, a US psychiatrist and humanistic psychologist,
discovered from his psychotherapy experience that when certain
conditions are present in the counsellor/client relationship, even quite
bad cases of damaged emotional intelligence improve enormously.
These conditions are:
z that the counsellor has an unconditional positive acceptance and
respect for the client as a person, no matter what the client has
done, even though the counsellor may deeply disapprove of what
has been done
z that the counsellor is always authentic and not playing a role or
game with the client

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z that the counsellor is always honest about her or his feelings and
accepts the feelings of the client
z that the counsellor does not put words into the mouth of the
client but listens very carefully and reflects back to the client what
she thinks the client has said in order to check out the client’s
feelings.
What is very interesting is that when these methods were applied in
education they had a very dramatic positive effect on pupils’ attitudes,
self-concepts and learning achievements. Now this was tested in
various countries, always with similar results, so it may well be of
universal relevance.
We can develop emotional intelligence through taking these
conditions as a model and thus touching the deep structure of young
people’s emotional intelligence, without them necessarily realising
what is going on. When we have an open conflict with a young
person that is a good opportunity to explore feelings openly,
providing we don’t get ourselves emotionally upset. By the sort of
insight and acceptance Rogers talks about we can have a huge effect.
Case studies and role play are useful methods for developing
emotional insight. Helping youths to deal with problems of family,
community, authorities and so on should be at least partly directed at
emotional blocks and gaps.
If you are interested in this issue of emotional intelligence and
emotional learning I recommend you to read Daniel Goleman,
Emotional Intelligence (Bloomsbury, London, 1996, ISBN 0–745–
2830–6). It’s meant for the general reader and is very approachable.
Karen F. Stone and Harold Q. Dillehunt (Goleman, 1996) have
suggested the following list of areas of emotional skill and
intelligence, which they teach as the Self Science Curriculum:
z self-awareness
z personal decision-making
z managing feelings
z handling stress
z empathy
z effective communications
z self-disclosure
z insight into your own emotions
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z self-acceptance
z taking personal responsibility
z assertiveness
z working effectively in groups

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z conflict resolution.

The psychomotor domain


This is the domain of the body. It includes any form of physical
ability and kinaesthetic awareness, and it’s quite crucial in any form
of manual skill or skill requiring bodily movement. It’s important to
the carpenter, the labourer, the surgeon, the artist and of course to
anyone interacting with other people. Like all the other abilities it has
surface aspects and deep structures.
The surface aspects can be observed with care and then analysed and
taught, but the deep structures are those where the automatic systems
of the mind are in charge, and they need to be tapped in a different
way. The inner game mentioned earlier is one such way. A deep level
knowledge of the meaning and purpose of the physical actions is very
important. Think of the surgeon who needs the sharpest possible
understanding of exactly what she’s trying to do and what needs to be
done to get there.
Robert Pirsig (Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance) talks
about the mechanic’s feel for the engineering components he’s
working with, his sense of the tolerance of the metal to stress. This is
a deep level sense of the meaning of what he’s doing. And this
triggers the automatic system.
Psychomotor skills learning requires certain pre-requisites:
1 a need and motive to learn
2 a certain level of muscular maturity (which is already present in
adults)
3 regular practice
4 most importantly an interior model of what the skill looks and
feels like
5 evaluation of performance (self-evaluation or evaluation by
facilitator).
It is important to stress the point that, even though Bloom identified
these as three areas of learning (‘knowing’, ‘feeling’ and ‘doing’), they
are merely different ways of thinking about experience which is one
and indivisible.

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Reading 5: Oral traditions and rules of evidence

By Glen Custred.

The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act


(NAGPRA), which mandates the transfer of Native American
remains to an ‘affiliated’ indigenous tribe, allows the use of several
lines of evidence in establishing cultural affiliation. One of them is
‘folkloric and oral traditional evidence.’ This is entirely appropriate,
given the nature of the problem and the fact that oral traditions, if
appropriately weighed and carefully evaluated, can sometimes prove
valuable in retrieving historical facts. But it is not only reasonable, it is
imperative that any program for implementing NAGPRA specify
protocols governing the rules of evidence pertaining to oral traditions.
This is by no means virgin territory, for scholars have long grappled
with the problem of extracting historical fact from oral traditions.
Historian and folklorist Richard Dorson tells of a contract he received
in 1961 from the Indian Land Claims Commission of the
Department of Justice to determine how much credence the
government should place in arguments made by Indian claimants
based entirely on oral tradition. In the course of his research, Dorson
found that ‘a host of scholarly disciplines had fought bitter
interdisciplinary battles’ over the issue of the historical validity in oral
traditions. Besides folklorists and mythologists, they included
‘archaeologists, anthropologists, classicists, geologists, historians of
every hue, students of religions, Africanists, the medievalists, the
Celticist.’
Especially concerned with this issue are historians of Africa, who
deal with a paucity of written sources from African societies but an
abundance of oral traditions. Moreover, scholars in various fields
have long been interested in how memory produces tradition and in
how tradition is changed by oral transmission and by the nature of
oral cultures.
It isn’t possible here to summarize such a rich and vast literature, nor
can we apply it to specific questions raised by cultural affiliation
under NAGPRA. Instead, we will try to illustrate what this body of
scholarship has to offer, suggest some rules of evidence that might
emerge from it, and conclude with Kennewick Man as a case study to
show why such rules are sorely needed.

Folklore and oral traditions


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Perhaps the best place to start is by defining ‘folklore and oral


tradition.’ Jan Brunwald defines folklore as:
“those materials in culture that circulate traditionally among
members of any group in different versions, whether in oral

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form or by means of customary example, as well as the process


of traditional performance and communication.”
Oral, as opposed to written material, and tradition, knowledge and
skills handed down over the generations, are central to every
definition of folklore. Note, however, the difference between oral
tradition and oral history. Oral history refers to knowledge from
experience or living memory that is transcribed and becomes part of
the written record. Oral traditions are those narratives that are passed
down by word of mouth from one generation to the next and
therefore become transformed over time.
Oral tradition, as the term is used in NAGPRA, usually refers to oral
folklore, also described as oral literature, and is divided into genres
defined by different forms and functions. Epics, ballads, and lyrics
appear in verse and are usually sung. The epic relates great events of
the past and the action of great personages. The ballad, shorter and
more prosaic, tells a story. The lyric evokes a mood or a feeling. Prose
narrative in oral literature is divided into tales, legends, and myth.
Tales are highly structured, purely fictional narratives exemplified in
European tradition by such stories as Snow White and the Seven
Dwarfs and Cinderella. Legends, on the other hand, are often told in
less tightly structured narratives whose themes may also appear in
other genres such as the ballad and the epic.
Unlike folktales, legends may bear some relationship to the truth; that
is, they are believed to be true accounts of historical fact by at least
some of those who relate them. Tales are the short stories of oral
societies; legends are their history. Myths, on the other hand, are
sacred narratives, believed to be true by those who relate them, that
deal with the broader meaning of life, the cosmos and human
morality. Every culture has its own classification of oral traditions;
however, all cultures distinguish between those stories that are
fictional and those that are true, roughly in the way defined by
folklore scholars.
Scholars have been intrigued by strikingly similar themes, patterns,
and narrative elements that recur in the folklore of unrelated societies
around the world. Vladimir Propp and Levi-Strauss, among others,
describe basic structures of folk narratives. Recurring narrative
elements called motifs have been catalogued; useful in analyzing
folktales, they are especially valuable in determining the historical
validity of oral traditions.
Different kinds of evidence can be retrieved from different genres of
oral traditions. Even folktales, regarded as pure fiction, can
sometimes reveal information about past cultural or social aspects.
Their reach into the past, however, is probably not much earlier than
the latter part of the nineteenth century. The most fertile sources of
retrievable historical facts, however, are narratives about the historical
past, epics and legends that people believe to be true.

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The process of oral transmission


Knowledge transmitted solely by word of mouth undergoes
substantial changes in the course of a few generations, because, as
Marcel Detienne points out, each person ‘selects ‘facts’ and produces
an account in terms of the way in which his social sphere organizes
spoken memory.’ Memory, selection, and the cultural context of a
body of oral tradition alter accounts of events over time. Moreover, a
storyteller often embellishes and redacts for purely narrative purposes;
thus aesthetic and dramatic motives also alter content.
To illustrate how oral transmission shapes content, we will examine
three processes:
z ‘omission’ and thus the loss of information
z ‘addition’ through diffusion
z ‘fusion of elements’ within a narrative, also called ‘telescoping’.
Omission of events or personages from a body of oral traditions can
lead to loss of information from folk memory. Robert Lowie
illustrates this point in the case of the Assiniboines of the Canadian
Plains, who adopted the horse in the eighteenth century, only a
century and a half before Lowie’s study. Although the horse
profoundly changed their way of life, their oral traditions do not
mention its introduction. Nez Perce traditions, on the other hand,
retain in folk memory the first appearance of the horse. Differing
instances like these lead Lowie to object to the use of oral traditions
in history. Jan Vansina, however, says that omissions of this kind can
be explained by the cultural context of the oral traditions. The horse
may not have appeared significant to the Assiniboine when it was
introduced; therefore the event itself was not remembered. But after
three generations they couldn’t imagine a time without the horse, and
they accounted for its origin not in legend but in a myth of Creation.
The horse had a less transforming affect on the Nez Perce, which is
why Vansina believes they retained its introduction in historical time.
Vansina gives another example of omission, in this case how a great
event was lost while a minor one was retained. The oral traditions of
the Kuba of the Congo retain the memory of the first white man to
appear among them, but there is no mention of the second white
man, who wrought vast changes in life in the Congo. The first white
man, a merchant, was a novelty and thus retained in tradition. The
ultimate importance of the second, however, was unknown at the
time; thus he didn’t become a part of folk memory. The consensus of
the community about what is important or interesting therefore
determines what will be retained or lost. It may be possible to account
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for the absence of an important historical fact in oral tradition


without calling into question retained information that may truly
reflect past events.
Diffusion of motifs or themes from one tradition to another,
sometimes over long distances and across linguistic barriers, is

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another feature of oral tradition that may alter or distort the memory
of past events. This process was explored in detail by earlier scholars.
The way new elements are borrowed and absorbed depends on the
influence of the source tradition, on the interests of the borrowers,
and on the part the borrowed elements play in the pre-existing
tradition. For example, an image expressed in a motif may reinforce a
theme in the borrowing culture, thus making it more concrete. Or an
innovation may fill out an earlier traditional account, as in the case
Vansina relates of the Kuba, who say their ancestors came to their
present homeland by river. When traders, whom they encountered
from the eighteenth century on, told them about the marvels of the
sea, ‘it fleshed out the image of their points of origin’ and was thus
incorporated into their body of oral traditions.
Fusion of different elements into a single unit is another shaping
process in oral tradition whereby multiple historical figures may be
fused into a single hero, several battles fused into one battle, historic
events fused with mythic themes. Omission, borrowing, and fusion
regularly occur in oral tradition and can be taken into account if the
researcher understands the cultural and historical context of
transmission. Researchers can discard elements that do not reflect
historical fact and earmark elements of questionable historical
accuracy. Final validation, however, requires corroborating external
evidence like written documents and archaeological and other kinds
of data.
Oral traditions can actually be more credible than written accounts
when contradictions occur in written records. Vansina cites as an
example the Abenaki in Maine, whose oral traditions tell about events
in 1759 during the French and Indian War. When their oral history
was written down over a hundred years later and compared with
French and English written versions of the same event, the oral
tradition not only confirmed both written versions, it also resolved a
contradiction between them.
But we can’t expect to find the same degree of validity in myths as in
legends, since the function of mythic lore is very different from that
of other kinds of oral traditions.
Archaic myth, as it is sometimes called, is the living myth of oral
societies such as those found in America at the time of European
contact. This kind of myth deals not with historic time but with the
distant past. It addresses the questions of how things became
accomplished, how they came to be. Mythic narratives frequently
include bizarre elements – monsters, figures that are both animal and
human at the same time, shape-shifters, magical transformations, and
incestuous relationships. Nonetheless, they are believed to be true
accounts by those who relate them, ‘a reality of a wholly different
order from nature,’ as Mircea Elide puts it. Myth often has a moral
dimension; it explains in moral terms why things happened, how the
landscape was configured, why plants and animals are the way they
are. The significance of myth lies in the cultural and psychological
realm, not in historical fact.

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Since myths, like all folk narratives, reflect the experiences and
societies of those who tell them, such great events as migrations and
invasions may be telescoped in time in the shift from the historic to
the mythic past. Borrowing may occur when ideas spread from one
religion to another, filling in or reinforcing earlier narratives or
introducing new elements into the mythic narrative. The most striking
change comes about when a myth is created to reinforce a new
religious movement. The Ghost Dance is an example of a
revitalization movement that originated in one North American tribe
and spread in various forms to other tribes. Although the roots of a
myth may lie in the distant past, some of its elements may be of more
recent origin.

Rules of evidence and oral traditions


All oral traditions have their limitations, says Vansina, meaning that
they have varying degrees of reliability. Before attempting to retrieve
historical information from an oral tradition, we must first define
rules of historical evidence, a task to which Vansina applied himself
in the two books he wrote on history and oral traditions. ‘The rules of
evidence form a body, a logical train of thought,’ he cautions. ‘One
cannot apply some and neglect others. They are of a single whole.’
Rules of historical evidence must perform as a minimum these
functions:
z Validate sources. This involves ascertaining the relationship of
the collector to his informants and the collector’s competence and
knowledge of the native culture.
z Define the kinds of shaping processes at work in oral
transmission and how they can be identified.
z Examine all variations of the tradition within the relevant
geographic area and within the folk community.
z Identify widespread themes and motifs (to detect fusion of
historical fact with recurrent folk patterns) and cultural contacts
and revitalization movements (to identify new myths or diffused
elements that may be of more recent origin).
These are only a few of the standards we must demand of protocols
for determining cultural affiliation under the provisions of NAGPRA.
The need for rigorous standards is evident in the government’s
handling of the case of Kennewick Man.

The case of Kennewick Man


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The Department of the Interior has attempted to establish the cultural


affiliation of the 9,300-year-old remains of Kennewick Man with a
coalition of local tribes. Since there are gaps in the archaeological and
mortuary records, affiliation cannot be established by physical
evidence. The government has based their case on the geographic
proximity of contemporary tribes and the site where the ancient

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remains were discovered, and on linguistic evidence and oral


tradition.
The linguistic evidence is thin and inconclusive and based in part on
controversial assumptions.
The evidence from oral traditions is equally unconvincing. Recorded
myths were examined in search of ancestors of the contemporary
tribes that lived in the area 9,000 to 10,000 years ago. Although there
are no migration motifs in the body of myth, there are references to
earlier inhabitants, the ‘Stick People,’ and to invaders. Note that
absence of a migration motif does not disallow the possibility that
extant tribes migrated into the region they now inhabit; moreover, the
mention of outsiders and former inhabitants suggests pre-contact
population movement in that area. Oral traditions, like the physical
evidence, fail to establish probable continuity.
The entire Plateau, like many other native regions, was the scene of
revitalization movements in the nineteenth century, some associated
with the Ghost Dance. Christian ideas and later Christian
missionaries also played an important part in shaping the cultural
changes taking place at that time. In evaluating myth for its possible
antiquity, the historical context should be taken into account when
sifting folk narrative for elements that may be of more recent origin.
This wasn’t done in the case of Kennewick Man. The mention in the
mythic narratives of natural catastrophes such as floods and volcanic
eruptions, especially periods of cold weather, was emphasized. The
conclusion was drawn that references to extreme cold verified the
presence of living people in the Plateau at the time of the Ice Age.
But the geology of the region yields prima facie proof that great
temperature fluctuations have occurred since then. Concluding that a
population inhabited a region in antiquity merely because their oral
traditions mention cold weather is pure speculation. This aspect of
their oral traditions should be ruled inadmissible as evidence.
Legitimate rules of evidence reveal that oral traditions give no
verifiable proof whatever about when the Plateau tribes first inhabited
the area. In order to eliminate faulty evidence in future NAGPRA
litigation, scholars and jurists must define incontestable protocols for
evaluating oral traditions.
From: ‘Mammoth Trumpet’, Volume 16, Number 3 (June 2001)

________________________________________
How to contact the author of this article:
Glynn Custred
Department of Anthropology
California State University
Hayward, CA 94542–3039
e-mail: [email protected]

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Reading 6: Learning styles

Adapted by the author from ‘Discovering your learning style’ by Clay


Johnston and Carol J. Orwig, Summer Institute of Linguistics,
International Linguistics Centre, Dallas, Texas, (www.sil.org).
There are many different learning styles. Identifying your preferred
learning style leads to meta cognition or self-awareness about how
you learn. Your preferred learning style is like your favourite food: it
is what you like to try first. But your favourite food is not always
appropriate for the situation, so you may have to try something
different.
There is no absolutely right or wrong learning style, although you
may prefer one style over another, and/or a style may be
inappropriate for a particular learning task. Preferences develop like
muscles: the more they are used, the stronger they become. Successful
learners have flexible and integrated learning styles.
Researchers and practitioners agree that:
z learning styles stem from a nature/nurture combination
z students of all styles can be successful learners
z students are more successful when using their style strengths
z diverse teaching styles are essential to accommodate individuals
within a group.
The challenge for learning facilitators today is to assess the learning
styles preferred by each student and to provide learning opportunities
that are compatible with those styles. If you can manage this, it is
likely to result in improved attitudes toward learning and an increase
in productivity, achievement, and creativity.

Personality types
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is one of several inventories
that are used to identify and describe an individual’s personality type.
Psychologists use it to create a psychological or personality profile
based on Carl Jung’s typology of conscious functioning (archetypes).
Jung constructed three measures for evaluating personality types, to
which Myers and Briggs added a fourth:
z introversion – extroversion
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z thinking – feeling
z intuition – sensing
z judging – perceiving.

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The MBTI attempts to address the interpersonal and affective


dimensions of a person’s psyche. Its results have been applied to
learning. The following are general descriptions of personality types
and the ways that the learning modes of people with these
typifications are affected: you should keep in mind, however, that
individuals may display characteristics of more than one type.
z Extroversion – characterised by seeking and enjoying interaction
with others and having interest in people and events outside the
self. The extrovert may be willing to take risks in learning, but
depends on outside stimulation and interaction to engage in
learning.
z Introversion – characterised by being drawn to solitary activities
and limited interpersonal interaction, and engaging mainly with
issues in one’s own inner life and thinking processes: this
promotes concentration and self-sufficiency. The introvert takes a
while to process information before trying to put it into practice.
Not a risk-taker, this learner may avoid taking necessary chances.
z Thinking – characterised by judgements based on impersonal
and/or objective criteria: this helps with analysis, self-discipline
and motivation. A thinking type may be overly anxious because
self-esteem is connected to achievement; may seek support from
preferring controlled situations.
z Feeling – characterised by making judgements based on issues of
personality and sociality, taking into account one’s own feelings
and the feelings of others involved. This generates motivation
towards integration with others, a bonding with teachers and
classmates, and such interpersonal relationships can lead to a
good sense of self-esteem. Needs to feel ‘appreciated’, and tries to
avoid tense social situations.
z Sensing – characterised by an emphasis on information gathering
through one’s own five senses and dealing with the world in
practical or factual terms. It encourages one to work
systematically, paying attention to detail and observing
phenomena closely. Requires clear sequencing of materials,
clearly stated goals and lots of structure.
z Intuition – characterised by being tuned into relationships and
relying on having a feeling for things of possible value; drawn to
innovative and theoretical pursuits. It gathers inferences and
makes judgements by making guesses based on the context; can
structure his/her own training, conceptualises well and builds
good models from which to work. The intuitive individual is not
concerned with accuracy and may miss important details.
z Judging – characterised by being apt to lead a planned, organised
and well-controlled lifestyle; works systematically and gets the job
done. The judge is rigid and intolerant of ambiguity.
z Perceiving – characterised by a tendency towards spontaneity,
freedom and autonomy. It allows for the openness and flexibility

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so needed in language instruction and lets one be adaptable to


change and new experiences, all of which language learning
entails. Lack of persistence or consistency may hamper
performance.

Brain dominance
The brain dominance theory examines learning style in terms of
which side of the brain a person tends to use most for processing
information. Brain scanning research shows that people use different
sides of their brains to process different kinds of information and this
tends to cause different patterns of brain dominance.
All people use both sides of their brains holistically, but most
individuals tend to prefer learning strategies associated with one side
or the other. Such individuals are considered to be left-brain dominant
or right-brain dominant. Some have about even preferences and are
considered to have ‘bilateral dominance’.
The left side of the brain:
z processes verbal, abstract, analytical information in a linear,
sequential manner,
z looks at differences and contrasts in information, noting the small
signs that represent the whole pattern,
z concerns itself with reasoning abilities embodied in as maths and
language.
The right side of the brain:
z processes non-verbal, concrete, and spatial information,
z looks at similarities in patterns, forming a whole picture of any
information, and processing parts in relationship to the whole,
z concerns itself with artistic abilities such as music and graphics.

The development of cerebral dominance


At age four, the two hemispheres of the brain begin to specialise,
developing learning preferences based on the functional differences
between hemispheres. Each side develops strengths in different
cognitive functions. At age five, lateral integration (lateralisation)
begins – the two sides of the brain begin to interact to process
information. This is usually completed by age nine. Children are not
ready to handle abstract information until about 3rd grade.

Sensory learning modalities


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We all seem to have a learning mode preference based on our sensory


intake of information. As babies, our preferred mode is based on our
senses of touch and taste, evident in the fact that everything to be
explored goes into a baby’s mouth. As we grow older, the learning

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modality develops around the visual, tactile/kinaesthetic and


auditory receptors.
In most schools the (a) visual processes are the most used; next the (b)
auditory and last the (c) tactile and kinaesthetic. Some disciplines of
course favour the visual less than the other two: for example, music
students must have an enhanced auditory ability and students of
Dance or Physical Education are expected to be more kinaesthetically
dominant than average.
The modern university tends to focus on theoretical learning which
places a definite emphasis on visual/cognitive links. This is, of
course, an effect of the change from an oral to a print culture. Current
learning theory does not give priority to any one of the three sensory
styles. Rather, the idea is to use a learner’s favoured style as a point of
entry into engaging with a specific content area, but then
strengthening the learning and extending the intelligence of the
learner by the use of the other styles to deepen and reinforce the
learning.
This multiple sensory approach assumes that:
1 Personal thinking styles can be expanded and learners can
become more intellectually adept through multiplicity.
2 Learning is reinforced by recourse to several inputs and multiple
neurological (or synaptic) connections.

Auditory
Thirty percent of people are auditory learners, who learn by listening.
They tend to:
z learn from verbal instruction
z enjoy plays
z write with light pressure and not always legibly
z talk while they write
z remember names and forget faces
z be distracted by noise
z remember by listening, especially when there is music
z find games and pictures annoying and distracting.

Visual
Forty percent are visual learners, who learn by seeing and writing.
They tend to:
z be verbal (see words) or pictorial (see pictures)
z remember faces but not names
z have vivid imaginations

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z think in pictures
z show their emotions
z use colour.

Kinaesthetic
Kinaesthetic learners use their whole bodies to learn. They tend to:
z learn by doing
z not be avid readers
z be poor spellers
z remember what was done, not seen or talked about
z not hear as well as others
z use touch
z attack things physically
z be impulsive
z enjoy games.
Note: All children are very kinaesthetic to age six.

Overall learning style


Your overall learning style is a composite of these various factors.
Each person has a unique pattern, so it is impossible to make general
predictions about exactly how learning style preferences are going to
interact, and which factors will be more important than others.
Nevertheless, certain composites of learning style factors tend to co-
occur more frequently than others. People who exhibit the classic
correlations will exhibit clearly marked overall learning styles.
You may be one of those who does not exhibit all the expected
correlations. This probably means that you are able to learn happily
in a variety of ways and settings.

Common correlations
Here are some of the correlations that may occur to produce the four
main, very different, overall learning styles:
z relational
z analytical
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z structured
z energetic.

The relational learner


Motivations to learn:

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z a chance to develop relationships and understand people and


ideas
z a chance to embrace variety
z a chance to help other people develop
z a chance for personal development and growth
z a chance to understand underlying meanings.
Strengths:
z is intuitive, thus good at grasping systems
z is adaptable to different situations and cultures
z is empathetic with others
z is good at judging other people’s reactions.
Potential pitfalls:
z may be overly sensitive to rejection
z may be so adaptable that personal identity is lost
z may be easily distressed by lack of harmony
z may have a short attention span if the subject or person does not
engage interest.
Preferred learning environments:
z Learning while living in a community of people who are
accepting and open to relationships and to letting the learner be
involved in their activities and lives.
z Learning activities that allow the learner to observe and
understand people and their culture.
z Classroom setting that allows the learner to have lots of variety,
creativity, group-work and communicative activities.
Difficult learning environments:
z Possible cultural or psychological barriers to spending time with
people; as when people are naturally reserved or xenophobic.
z Repetitive, unvarying tasks or activities.

The analytical learner


Motivations:
z Opportunities to work independently
z Opportunities to integrate data into theoretical models
z Opportunities to solve problems
z Opportunities for intellectual freedom.
Strengths:

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z Good analytical ability


z Intuition, allowing the grasp of overall systems
z Critical thinking which can help to solve problems
z Good self-evaluation.
Potential pitfalls:
z May be unable to meet high personal standards and become
discouraged.
z May spend too much time at the desk or computer and not relate
to people.
z May be unwilling to speak because of fear of making mistakes or
dislike of making mistakes.
Preferred learning environments:
z Can work independently and at own pace.
z Seeks the intellectually stimulating that involves problem-solving,
reading and research.
z Enjoys a classroom where the teacher’s intellectual ability and
command of the subject matter is perceived as superior and
worthy of respect.
Difficult learning environments:
z Traditional classroom situations that call for doing things in a
rote or mechanical way.
z Classes that call for a lot of unrehearsed activities.
z Unstructured and disorganised environments.

The structured learner


Motivations:
z Enjoys a systematic and organised approach to learning
z Enjoys a chance to apply concepts in a practical way
z Accuracy
z Hands-on activities
z Practical solutions to problems.
Strengths:
z Perseverance
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z Good planning
z Thorough and painstaking
z Systematic and careful.
Potential pitfalls:

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z May be more concerned with problems or tasks than with people.


z May be so concerned with accuracy they are inhibited from
talking.
z May find learning a language in its natural context too chaotic for
personal taste.
z May block out input in an uncontrolled way, thus making it
difficult to catch the gist of a conversation.
Preferred learning environments:
z A typical classroom setting, with a well-ordered syllabus, clearly
presented materials, and clear instructions.
z Hands-on activities.
z Problem-solving activities.
z Exercises and drills.
Difficult learning environments:
z Unstructured, disorganised, or chaotic environments.
z Situations with diverse activities and lots of interpersonal
interaction.
z Language learning in natural communication settings.

The energetic learner


Motivations:
z Lots of activity
z A chance to do things with people
z Variety
z Adventure and risk
z Personal involvement in activities
z Hands-on activities.
Strengths:
z Adaptability
z Willingness to get out into the community and get involved
z Desire to interact with people
z Willingness to take risks.
Potential pitfalls:
z May ignore accuracy.
z May act too quickly.
z May be unwilling to take time to plan a program.

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z May be satisfied with speaking incorrectly, as long as the message


gets across.
z May have gaps in knowledge because of unsystematic language
learning.
Preferred learning environments:
z Community language setting with opportunity for involvement in
their activities.
z Learning activities that can be linked to other enjoyable activities.
z Classroom settings that allow for lots of variety, flexibility, action,
group work and field trips.
Difficult learning environments:
z Traditional classroom situations that require spending time alone,
doing repetitive exercises, and working with pencil and paper.
z Any program that is rigidly structured and does not allow for
variety and spontaneity.
z Possible cultural or psychological barriers to joining in activities
with people; as when people are naturally reserved or
xenophobic.
Note: Kinaesthetically-oriented people learn best while moving.

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Reading 7 Understanding intelligence: multiple


intelligences and the structure of intellect theory

By Dr G Gunawardena; Section 3 by Lewis Owen.

1 Intelligence testing
There is an enormous range of variation in the observed skilfulness
and capability of human beings. The desire to find the underlying
causes of this is deep-seated in anyone who manages other human
beings – teachers, government ministers, the heads of enterprises.
Because if we can pinpoint the causes, it is assumed that we can
deploy our human resources more efficiently, either by (a) tracking
people into career paths suitable for their human potential (such as
giving them only basic education if they don’t have high intellectual
potential), or (b) giving them appropriate training to enhance their
underlying potential (such as special remedial and developmental
training).
The history of intelligence testing and related subjects like neuro-
imaging and neuro-endocrinology is part of the history of the attempt
to do this. An example of this is The Female Brain by Louann
Brizendine (2006). Brizendine’s aims are praiseworthy:
“I believe that women actually perceive the world differently
from men. If women attend to those differences they can make
better decisions about how to manage their lives.”
But the difficulties involved in interpreting the evidence of test
performance and even the best images of the human brain are such
that we need to be extremely careful about the generalisations that we
make. Professor Steve Jones, a geneticist and author of Y: The
Descent of Man (2003) has pointed out that there is absolutely no
consensus about the science of these differences. He makes this point:
“That doesn’t mean that there are no differences between the
brains of the sexes, but we should take care not to exaggerate
them.”
This sort of approach has been aimed at finding genetic differences in
potential intelligence between different ethnic groups and different
social castes and classes. We should be extremely wary of all of this if
only because those who design the tests are likely already to be
among the elite groups and they naturally design tests based on their
own mental habits. Nevertheless, if we can find anything that will
help young people’s development from this material, we should use it.
What is crucial is that we should not use anything which says that the
limits of their development are known. Tony Buzan (1995) has
described the unlimited potential of all human brains. It’s that we
should focus on.

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The intelligence testing tradition is based on the idea that our ability
to deal with problems in the real world depends on underlying
general abilities in perception and reasoning, and testers have devised
sophisticated systems for showing how they believe that this can be
done. However, these intelligence tests are inevitably produced by the
preconceptions of the test designers. One of the things intelligence
test designers have omitted is testing for emotional intelligence,
though there are now sophisticated ways of doing so, because it
doesn’t fit the IQ model. You have already read about ‘emotional
intelligence’ in this module, and the identification of that as a
separable mode of processing knowledge has emerged from extensive
experience in areas such as modern management studies. In
management studies the ability to handle human interaction is
understood to depend on possessing underlying general ‘people
abilities’. It’s evident from management research that people can have
very high people intelligence and yet be relatively low achievers in
other areas in IQ testing. People abilities, or ‘people intelligence’ are
nevertheless clearly extremely important in determining one’s ability
to deal with problems in the real world.
One of the problems with traditional intelligence tests is the
assumption that there is a single, underlying universal factor, a
‘general intelligence’ that drives all of someone’s intelligent
behaviour. The psychologist Charles Spearman labelled this as g,
which stands at the top of a hierarchy of less important and more
specific factors of intelligence such as numerical ability or verbal
ability and so on. What this theory says is that you may have a high
level of skills in some of these specific factors and a low level in
others, but, by analysing your results statistically, testers can work out
just how high your general intelligence is (your IQ or Intelligence
Quotient), and this can then be compared with everybody else’s. They
claim that this measured intelligence will determine your intellectual
development for the rest of your life. Psychologists who support this
view accept that the environment has some influence on this
development (about 20 per cent). But they argue that g, the general
intelligence factor, which they say underpins and controls the level of
all the other factors, is 80 per cent determined by the genes that you
inherit from your parents.
You will probably have realised by now that the writers of this
module do not accept this traditional view of the nature of
intelligence. The reason for this is that traditional models of
intelligence, because they insist that your intelligence is determined by
your genes, are particularly negative about the possibility of raising
the level of thinking of people who do badly on traditional
intelligence tests. Perhaps the most vivid way to illustrate the inherent
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bias of such testing is to remind you that Muhammad Ali failed this
type of intelligence test badly but then went on, in the special
circumstances of the Vietnam War, to become one of the most
intelligent, admired and respected spokespeople of the twentieth
century. In fact our own experience of working with young people is
that you should not label them in any way. As Tony Buzan points out

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(1995), their potential is enormous and multi-faceted. The job of the


youth leader is to tune in to that potential which reveals itself all the
time if you are looking for it and are attentive to it.
Spearman defined intelligence very narrowly, as g or ‘the ability to
educe relationships and correlates’ (the ability to work out that things
that look different actually have close links, combined with the ability
to see patterns of relationships across a range of situations or
materials). In the words of another IQ tester, Arthur Jensen, ‘these
are essentially the processes of abstraction and conceptualisation’.
Jensen was notorious for writing what was widely claimed to be a
racist article in the Harvard Educational Review (1969). In that article
he claimed to have proved by IQ testing the intellectual inferiority of
Afro-Americans compared with white Americans.
IQ tests do not measure people intelligence, yet those who are high in
people intelligence are bound to be very good at recognising the
relationship between patterns of social behaviour and the effects of
the social situations where these occur. For example, when public
order officials have to interpret crowd behaviour and act when an
urban riot occurs following a triumphal public meeting. That is
obviously a form of conceptualising the close links between different
sorts of phenomena. This certainly meets even Spearman’s
description of essential intelligence. However, testing a person to
evaluate this using an IQ test might well produce a very low level
result because the IQ test has to be written in symbols rather than
behavioural interactions. By insisting that IQ testing is the only way
to test intelligence, psychologists such as Jensen must simply be
assuming that ‘people intelligence’ is not ‘actual intelligence’.

2 Multiple intelligences
There are theories and models of intelligence that are much closer to
the rich and complex abilities of young people than the IQ model.
Howard Gardner (1983) argues that our experience of the real world
tells us that intelligence is not unitary but multiple. Even lay people
use the unitary term, ‘common sense’ e.g. ‘I don’t like discussing
things with her, she’s got no common sense’. This lay person’s phrase
clearly suggests a unitary view of intelligence. But the commonsense
of a subsistence farmer is clearly quite different from the
commonsense of a gold miner or the common sense of a computer
programmer. The differences in each situation require very different
spectra of abilities. When we develop the capacities of young people
through project work, we need to be able to analyse how well they
adapt their thinking and behaviour to the tasks that face them in order
to know how to help them. A unitary view of intelligence is not
helpful for that, whereas a multiple intelligences model is.
Intelligence is the mental process by which we understand the
situation we are in and deal with it. Gardner argues that:
z research shows that each of us has available for use seven (or
more) quite different kinds of intelligence (as we use each one its

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differences from the others influence our pattern of thinking, so


that each one tends to generate a different learning style)
z all of these intelligences are intrinsically valuable so they all need
to be equally valued
z the level we can reach in each of these intelligences is not fixed,
so they can all be taught, nurtured and strengthened
z where schools focus primarily on the linguistic and
logical/mathematical intelligences and learning styles, this has a
bad effect on a lot of children because it does not allow them to
link what they are already good at to what is new
z everyone learns in different ways, at different rates, for different
reasons, and this should be catered for in schools
z when you have strengths in certain intelligences and weaknesses
in others then you should use the stronger intelligences to awaken
and strengthen the weaker ones
z in any of these multiple intelligences, the ways a high level of
ability shows itself can be very diverse, therefore we can’t get
anything conclusive from testing to find out how clever someone
is in that type of intelligence; so we should really be finding out
instead the particular ways that individuals make use of that type
of intelligence. The central assessment question then becomes
‘How are you smart?’ not ‘How smart are you?’
Different kinds of intelligences are described below.
1 Visual/spatial intelligence involves being able to deal
intellectually with visual problems and to look at other problems
and create mental images to analyse them. It’s especially valuable
with visual arts, navigation, architecture and certain games such
as chess, where the logical structures of the game are overlaid by
powerful visual patterns.
2 Verbal/linguistic intelligence relates to words and language. We
use this intelligence to formulate our understanding of situations
in listening, speaking, reading and writing.
3 Musical/rhythmic intelligence includes the ability to recognise
and create tonal and rhythmic patterns and structures, and to
formulate their expression in musical notation. It includes
mentally processing environmental sounds, the human voice and
musical instruments.
4 Logical/mathematical intelligence deals with the analysis and
construction of patterns of symbolic information, using
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propositional thought patterns.


5 Bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence is the ability to use the body so
that it expresses emotion(s) and ideas, plays sports, and deploys
the ability to interpret and invoke effective body language. It deals
primarily with physical activities and kinaesthetic learning
experiences.

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6 Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand and


manipulate person-to-person relationships. It includes the ability
to communicate with others and to participate in group activities.
7 Intrapersonal intelligence is based on understanding and
managing the self. With respect to learning facilitation, it
concerns the attention needed by a person who is engaged in
independent study rather than group study or group work.
8 Naturalist intelligence consists of the underlying general
intellectual abilities that are embodied in the work of the farmer,
countryman and so on. It enables human beings to recognise,
categorise and utilise the natural environment. Gardner (1999:48)
uses the concept to mean a combination of ‘the core abilities with
a characterization of the role….’.
Smith (2002), taking a critical view of the multiple intelligences
model, says:
“In essence, Howard Gardner argues that he was making two
essential claims about multiple intelligences. That the theory is
an account of human cognition in its fullness. The intelligences
provided “a new definition of human nature, cognitively
speaking” (Gardner 1999: 44). Human beings are organisms
who possess a basic set of intelligences.”
“People have a unique blend of intelligences. Gardner argues
that the big challenge facing the deployment of human
resources “is how to best take advantage of the uniqueness
conferred on us as a species exhibiting several intelligences”
(ibid.: 45).”
“These intelligences, according to Howard Gardner, are amoral
– they can be put to constructive or destructive use.”
Smith (2002) raises several criticisms related to the work of Howard
Gardner. Below is a summary:
z A common criticism made of Howard Gardner’s work is that his
theories derive rather more strongly from his own intuitions and
reasoning than from empirical research.
z Smith argues that the criteria employed by Gardner are
judgemental and subjective. For example, it can be argued that
musical intelligence and bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence are better
approached as ‘talents’. (Smith, 2002).
z According to Smith, Gardner himself has noted that there is an
element of subjective judgement involved.
z Smith also cites John White (1998) who has questioned the
reliability of Gardner’s criteria, given that some of the
intelligences Gardner describes involve manipulating symbols
and others do not involve manipulating symbols. These very
different kinds of intelligence are being treated in exactly the
same way: so they are being compared using epistemically

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different kinds of criteria. White has also raised questions about


how Gardner’s criteria can be applied rigorously, and about the
reasons Gardner gives for their relevance.
z Smith notes that those researchers and scholars who have
traditionally viewed intelligence simply as whatever is measured
by intelligence tests, will find Howard Gardner’s work
problematic (but see below), as they will with more recent
research on intelligence (for example, Robert Sternberg, 1996)
which has focused more on the componential, experiential and
contextual facets of intelligence, rather than on the particular
informational material that the person is processing.

3 The Structure of Intellect (SI) Theory of


Intelligence
The criticisms of Gardner, summarised by Smith, come from
psychologists strongly influenced by the traditional intelligence testing
community (the IQ theorists). In fact, the IQ theorists, whose ideas
are summarised above, have themselves come under considerable
criticism over the last forty years (Richardson, 2000). It has been
argued very thoroughly that the choice of questions to test the
underlying intelligence of subjects in traditional intelligence testing
has always been based on the verbal and symbolising norms of the
people who devise the tests – inevitably, middle-class, white men from
the metropolitan countries working in the academic professions, used
to assessing middle-class students in order to classify their degrees.
Also, it has been argued that these tests could not possibly give proper
weight to the abilities of those who come from social classes and
cultures and occupations where the norms are very different.
While the IQ theorists appear to dominate this academic field, the
psychological theories that rely on a central controlling factor called
‘general intelligence’ are by no means the only types of theoretical
accounts of intelligence available. Multi-modal theories of
intelligence (multiple intelligences models like Gardner’s and multi-
factor models like that of J. P. Guilford) seem to us far more useful in
youth in development work. Despite the claims of traditional
intelligence testing, the concept of human intelligence as consisting
primarily of one general factor that drives all the specific factors is not
by any means definitively supported in the history of intelligence
testing. While multiple intelligences theory possibly does need to be
developed and refined, Guilford’s Structure of Intellect (SI), multi-
factor theory of intelligence has undergone an enormous amount of
testing, within the accepted scientific norms of traditional testing, and
come up with totally different results from the IQ theorists. Guilford
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puts it this way:


“Unfortunately, the most telling evidence against a universal
factor in tests of intellectual performance is the decisive number
of zero correlations that have been found when tests have been
sufficiently varied in kind and have been constructed with good

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experimental control and when other experimental controls


have been exercised in testing operations.”
(J. P. Guilford, 1967).

What Guilford means by this is that his testing found that very large
numbers of individuals could be extremely high performers on some
ability recognised by IQ theorists as showing the ability to ‘educe
correlates and correlations’ (as required by Charles Spearman), but
showed extremely low ability on the other abilities recognised as
relevant by IQ theorists.
The Structure of Intellect Theory of Intelligence (SI Theory) is a
multi-factor theory of intelligence developed by Professor J. P.
Guilford (The Nature of Human Intelligence, 1967). This is of
considerably older origin than Gardner’s theory. Guilford’s model
was not based on subjective notions in any form, but on intellectual
categories derived from systematic and sustained testing of Second
World War recruits in order to give them the most appropriate rapid
training for combat in the European and Pacific wars. Guilford
researched and developed a wide variety of intelligence tests, very
much in the way that the IQ testers had done, but he came up with
very different conclusions from them, because he had to achieve
extremely accurate, valid and reliable results, results that might
determine the lives of fighting men and women and the outcome of a
world war. Instead of finding one general underlying, determining
intelligence factor, his SI model found 120 separate general factors.
Though it was a model devised originally to solve the problems faced
in personnel allocation and training during the Second World War, it
is today widely used in education and in personnel selection and
placement. It is used widely because it enables learning facilitators to
analyse what the intellectual abilities essential to a piece of teaching
are, and appropriate preparation can be made to ensure that the
learners are able to access these before teaching. It is also used
because it is an excellent diagnostic tool for specifying what aspect of
thinking is blocking the learner’s thought processes and showing how
that can be overcome. It seems to me a very much stronger and more
coherent model than any that I have seen from the rest of the
intelligence testing community.
Guilford’s view, as appeared in New Education (September 1965),
was:
“The multi-factor view, which seems to be making substantial
headway at present, assumes that, on the contrary, there are
numerous unique intellectual abilities (but not an enormously
large number) that collectively can be regarded as composing
intelligence…..and with respect to the nature-nurture issue,
there are, moreover, some indications that learning may well
make substantial contributions to those abilities.”
Today, the model describes 150 separate factors of intelligence,
developed out of the original 120 factors as a result of repeated

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testing over a long period of time: the extra 30 factors are more finely
related to the actual performances on the tests. When Guilford had
first got to the point of creating a theory to describe what he had
discovered in his military testing, he developed the tentative SI model
and tested the model using a wide range of psychometric tests. These
gave him operational definitions of the various abilities proposed by
the theory, and he used factor analysis to decide which tests seemed
to measure which abilities. When he had found a battery of tests that
factor analysis indicated were valid measures of each ability, he was
able to refine them and check their reliability.
Each of these 150 factors can be separate enough to block your
thinking if it is a crucial step in a learning process and you haven’t
developed it properly. For example, if you have a weakness in one of
these units, visually recognising quite basic behavioural information
such as the way someone smiles (as a researcher I know with
Asperger’s syndrome does), then that means your evaluation of their
interpersonal behaviour is blocked and may cause serious problems
with behavioural or people relationships. On the other hand you may
have a particular strength in several others of these factors, which you
can use to help solve that problem. An actual example I have used is
to exploit the fact that the person with the Asperger’s problem was
very highly developed in qualitative social research techniques
(conversation analysis and so on). When this process of him
interacting with research subjects in one to one conversations was
filmed, the facial expressions of the interviewees could be correlated
with the conversation, and slowly the investigator built up some skills
in recognising what visual expressions mean. This is one of the
reasons why the model is used so widely in education, because it
enables learners’ information processing weaknesses to be identified
and remedied.
For simplification purposes, Guilford structured his findings in the
form of a cube.
Contents
Visual
Auditory
Symbolic
Semantic
Behavioural
Products
Units
Classes
Relations
Systems
Transformation
Implications

Operations
Evaluation
Convergent production
Divergent production
Memory
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Cognition

In the SI theory, intelligence is viewed as comprising five types of


mental processing that he calls ‘operations’: these are ‘cognition’
(which is really ‘awareness’ or ‘recognition’), memory, generative or
creative thinking, which he calls ‘divergent production’, ‘thinking

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logically and in a linear manner’ which he calls ‘convergent


production’, and evaluation.
The type of intellectual material with which the mind works he called
‘contents’. There are five categories here:
z visual information and auditory information (these two he
originally categorised as one type called ‘figural’ content)
z symbolic information, such as numbers or musical notation
z semantic information, which is information carried in forms of
language whose meaning has to be processed
z and behavioural knowledge, which is where he locates social and
emotional intelligence.
So the learner may be operating in any one or more of the five areas
of knowledge and may be processing the information by one or more
of five types of thinking. The learner’s ability to do so will depend on
underlying abilities to deal with what Guilford has classified into six
kinds of products: units, classes, relations, systems, transformations
and implications.
To give a behavioural example: assuming that the learner is managing
a children’s play group, among other things, she will be using her
behavioural intelligence.
1 If she is good at recognising sudden changes of children’s
movement then that is based on the cognition of behavioural
units because they are single items of behavioural content.
2 If she realises that this is part of a typical pattern of movements,
then she is good at the cognition of behavioural classes.
3 If she observes a sequence of activities among the children and
works out how one thing leads to the others, she is evaluating
behavioural relations, which means understanding how units of
behaviour generate other units.
4 She will have to deal with the group as a whole, and there may be
lots of personality types and lots of different activities, but in any
group of people behaving together, there is an overall pattern
where all things influence each other; if she is able to analyse this
overall pattern, this is her ability at evaluation of a behavioural
system.
5 Supposing the group’s behaviour becomes rather ragged and ill-
tempered, and she then knows how to turn things around so that
the group starts to act differently and productively. If so, she is
probably good at the convergent and/or divergent production of
behavioural transformations, at least in this sort of situation. Her
youth leader can show her how to transfer this ability to groups
of older children, even adults.
6 The ability to spot in advance that a pattern of interaction could
lead to serious disruption of the group, is the convergent

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evaluation of behavioural implications, which is the last of


Guilford’s units.
Since all these behavioural products are linked at one level, we
assume they are all part of the same general behavioural intelligence,
but Guilford’s work has shown that they are separate abilities, that
ideally become linked up into a rich behavioural intelligence. Even
someone good at analysing behavioural implications may not be
particularly good at recognising specific units of behaviour. Since
each of these dimensions can be independent, there are theoretically
150 different components of intelligence. Guilford’s earlier version
was 120 factors. Treating this statistically, it was found that:
“Supposing only 4 of the 120 factors are completely
independent, of significance intellectually, and determined
independently genetically (this is deliberately taking a very
cautious view), then, ignoring genetic accidents such as
mongolism and perinatal and environmental effects, it would
follow that only one person in sixteen, or less than 7 per cent,
would be below average in all of these abilities; or put another
way, over 93 per cent of people would be above average in one
or more of these 120 abilities.”
(Owen and Stoneman, in Rubinstein and Stoneman, 1970).

My own preference is actually for the earlier version of 120 factors of


intelligence (that conflated visual and auditory contents into figural
content, which seems to me better because it can be used to describe
kinesthetic intelligence as well). When Guilford wrote the 1967 study,
he reckoned that his analyses had shown that only 8 of the 120
factors of intelligence were covered by the g concept, and that his
analysis of the then recently revised Stanford-Binet intelligence test
showed that only 28 of the SI factors were being tested by the
Stanford-Binet test.
The 1970 quotation from Education for Democracy was written
when the issues of genetics were much less well understood than
today. Today I would argue that, although genetic inheritance
undoubtedly has some part to play in determining the basis of our
intelligence, there is no evidence that it sets definable limits to our
intelligence. It may influence our early intellectual preferences and
affect our interests, but we should use whatever evidence we find of
our thinking and build the new thinking we need onto that. The
methods of even the best intelligence tests or models are very crude in
understanding the intellectual power we have, in the way Tony Buzan
describes it. We should be much more concerned with using
psychological and physiological insights to generate strategies that
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will raise people’s intelligence to a high level. The SI model tells us


that even if only one of these factors is at all developed (it may be an
apparently very minor factor) we can use that factor to connect up
with other factors, to raise the level of the whole information
processing structure of the intellect.

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Owen, L. and Stoneman, C. (1970 and 1972). ‘Education and the


Nature of Intelligence’ in Education for Democracy by Rubinstein,
D. and Stoneman, C (eds.) Penguin Books.

References
Guilford, J. P. (1967) The Nature of Human Intelligence, McGraw-Hill
(New York)
Richardson, K. (2000) The Making of Intelligence, Columbia University
Press
Smith, M. K. (2002) ‘Howard Gardner and Multiple Intelligences’ in
The Encyclopedia of Informal Education, available from
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm.
White, J. (1998) Do Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences add up?
Institute of Education, University of London

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Reading 8: Pacific perspectives on learning:


Pacific thinking styles

(Excerpt from ‘Vernacular Languages and Classroom Interactions in the Pacific’ by


Ana Maui Taufe’ulungaki, in Thaman K. H. (ed) 2003. ‘Educational Ideas from
Oceania’. IOE, USP, Fiji. pp 13–35.)

In Pacific cultures, which value respect, generosity, loyalty,


cooperation, sharing, humility and fulfilment of mutual obligations,
among others, the nature, forms and structure of knowledge are
perceived differently, which in turn gives rise to different speech rules
and communicative behaviour and consequently teaching and
learning strategies. The thinking of Pacific Islanders is said to be
right-brain oriented, which tends to be:
z creative, holistic and spatial
z divergent instead of linear logical
z interpersonal, which favours group activities, spoken over written
language, and demonstration and doing rather than verbal
direction; and
z kinaesthetic, which lends itself to physical activities.
Such thinking styles are manifested in a number of ways. The
Aborigines (the Yolingu) of Milingimbi in Arnhem Land, for
example, have certain beliefs about knowledge: that it is a closed
system and a valuable commodity, and knowing is a privilege
reserved for those with appropriate status within the community.
Speech is used mainly as a means of developing and maintaining
social relationships rather than for the organization of activities and
for giving instructions. It is characterized by extended silence, little
eye contact, and little use of personal names and formal greetings.
There is a verbal sense of equality in that it is little modified when
addressing persons of different ages. In this cultural context, the key
learning strategies are:
z observation and imitation rather than oral or written instruction
z personal trial and error rather than oral instruction and
demonstration
z performance in real life rather than practice in contrived settings
z mastery of context – specific skills rather than learning
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decontextualised and generalisable principles;


z person-oriented, which relies more on the nature of the
relationship between participants in the learning process than on
the nature of the knowledge being learned (Harris, 1980, as
reported in Ninnes, 1991).

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Polynesian knowledge systems


Some cultures such as Tongan make a clear distinction between
knowledge (ilo) which is acquired through learning (ako) and wisdom
(poto) which is the ‘beneficial use of ‘ilo’ or ‘knowledge’ (Thaman,
1988). Clearly, knowledge is not expected to be achieved for its own
sake, only if it is worthwhile and benefits others. Three basic contexts
have been identified for informal learning in Polynesia:
z the desire for social cohesion through the maintenance of good
relationships, which takes the form of cooperation
z the closed knowledge system, which affects the way knowledge is
viewed, and linguistic rules for knowledge transfer and the use of
questions and answers
z the significant role of peer groups in fostering learning.
These contexts give rise to certain learning strategies: observation,
participation and imitation (Ritchie and Ritchie, 1979; Jordan et al,
1981). Lesa (1995), for example, in his study of the learning styles of
Samoan students, reported that:
“62% identified with the participant learning style and another
21% identified with the collaborative learning style.”
Both of these styles characterise ‘group’ learning. …. Thomas found,
for example, that there is a high degree of sensitivity to social cues
and the emotional tone of the interaction; low intensity of
communication between parents and children, as parents were less
involved in looking after children, and a high degree of interaction
between family members beside mother and father. While pakeha
(European) children were predominantly individualistic and
competitive, Pacific Island children demonstrated more sharing and
cooperative behaviour.
Similar findings were reported by Ninnes (1991) in the Western
Province of Solomon Islands where knowledge systems are closed
and new knowledge arises from and is validated by external sources
such as ancestors and dreams. The common learning strategies that
emerge from these specific cultural contexts are: observation,
imitation, listening, participation and asking. The questions are of the
information-seeking type and to obtain technical advice.
In the Pacific then, where behaviour is mostly governed by the need
to maintain group harmony, the values of cooperation, good
relationships, consensus and respect lead naturally to congruent
learning strategies, such as the preference for working in groups,
interacting with peers, and learning through observation, imitation
and doing. These are in stark contrast to classrooms where the stress
is on teacher – directed individual achievement, competition,
curiosity, extended verbal interactions and decontextualised pupil
participation.

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References
Harris, S. (1980) Culture and Learning: Tradition and Education in North
East Arnhem Land, Department of Education, Darwin
Jordan, C., Hu-Pei Au, K. and Joesting A. K (1981) ‘Patterns of
Classroom Interaction with Pacific Islands Children: The Importance
of Cultural Differences’. Paper prepared for the National Centre for
Bilingual Research, Los Alamitos, California, September 1981.
Sponsored by the National Institute of Education (Washington, DC)
Lesa, R. F. (1995) Learning Styles of Samoan Students, University
Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michigan
Ninnes, P. M. (1991) Culture and Learning in Western Province, Solomon
Islands, unpublished MA thesis, Flinders University, South Australia
Ritchie, J. and Ritchie, J. (1979) Growing Up in Polynesia, Allen and
Unwin, Auckland
Thaman, K. H. (1998) Ako and Faiako: cultural values, educational ideas
and teacher role perceptions in Tonga, Ph D thesis, University of the
South Pacific, Suva
Thomas, David. R. (1978) ‘Cooperation and competition among
children in the Pacific Islands and New Zealand; the school as an
agent of social changes’ in Journal of Research and Development in
Education

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Reading 9: Principles that underpin the learning


on this Diploma

(Adapted 2007 by Lewis Owen, from the first Draft Commonwealth Diploma in
Youth in Development Work Tutor’s Manual.)

Reflective practice
The concept of reflective practice is important to the work of the
Diploma. We tend to favour Paolo Freire’s version of this, as
suggested in The Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1972). Freire was very
influenced by the humanistic aspects of Marxist theory. Marxism sees
human beings as agents who continually construct the world anew
around what they find there and around their understanding of what
is possible. In doing so, they at the same time construct themselves
and their abilities anew. To do this they have to be organised into a
social structure, and that structure is sometimes hostile to the changes
that people would like, so conflict arises between those social classes
that are moving forward and those that are controlling the present
system for their own benefit. Marx saw no real limits to human
development other than the potential of the material world’s
resources. But he did see how powerfully reactionary social classes
controlled the ideas and actions of the progressive classes.
Freire’s mode of development of literacy among poor peasant
communities was through the world of action (or practice). His
peasants learned to read and write because reading and writing were
essential tools that allowed them to understand what actions to take
in order to change their oppressive conditions. Freire’s method was to
get his subjects to ‘name the world’ as the first step, because, he
argued, once you name something and understand what you mean by
the name, you then have some power to change it.
The method of assigning names is quite important, because the
names need to be both precise in meaning and yet open to the
meaning being changed: this change is caused by the way that our
understanding of the ideas is affected by our actions. He made use of
important named ideas that he called ‘generative themes’. He had
identified these ideas as the key themes for understanding what was
causing the poor peasants to be oppressed and how to reverse this.
Such themes might be, for example, around the price paid to small
farmers for their coffee by middlemen.
He began by making a representation of such issues in the real world
in some concrete form, such as a picture or drawing, or an actual bag
of coffee beans. Words were then attached to these representations as
labels. He established with them that these written forms were based
on basic elements of meaning that could be broken down and
recombined in different ways to produce different meanings. By doing

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this to the concrete representations of the generative themes, he


showed how reality and language in combination could be used to
demonstrate how the real world could be changed. In the case of the
price of coffee beans, he could show from analysing the concept of
price and its associated terms – market, trade, competition, value,
how a local market monopoly could accentuate and exploit
competitive tendencies among farmers, and they could see, from the
detailed nature of the representation, what elements of the situation
might be altered and brought under their own collective control, while
also realising the importance of keeping that company afloat if
possible. At the same time, they were using this to learn to read and
write. This was one of the forces that eventually led to ‘fair trade’
types of arrangements for selling coffee, as humanitarian European
entrepreneurs have also come to understand the issues. He puts it like
this in The Pedagogy of the Oppressed:
“To exist humanly is to name the world, to change it. Once
named the world in its turn reappears to the namers as a
problem, and requires a new naming. Men are not built in
silence, but in words, in work, in ‘action/reflection’.”

The cultural principles that underpin the learning


on the Diploma
Dialogical learning methods
Freire distinguishes between what he called the ‘banking model of
learning’, where you put a piece of learning away in your mental
bank without your schemata accommodating it first, and the
‘dialogical mode of learning’, where student and tutor engage in the
exploration of ideas as equals in a learning dialogue in order that the
learning is properly understood and used and your schemata
accommodate it.
Of course the tutor may well be an authority in the field under
discussion, but a dialogical relationship requires that the tutor is not
in authority. It is well accepted in applied linguistics that presenting
an idea to yourself in words deeply affects that idea. For example, the
memory of real events can be distorted by the way we encode them in
words, through what psycholinguists call the mechanisms of
‘levelling’, ‘sharpening’ and ‘assimilation’. In psychological studies it
has been found that in delayed response experiments of any kind,
verbal coding allows research subjects to delay their responses
indefinitely, because they can invent a verbal rule to guide their
performance.
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Although the quality of your language experiences does not


determine your mental processing of the real world, it influences it
powerfully. The relationships controlling learning dialogues are
crucial in their influence on the quality of learners’ linguistic
experiences and therefore of their learning experiences.

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A cognitive apprenticeship
When you acquire any kind of knowledge, the nature of what you
have acquired is deeply influenced by the culture of the situation in
which you acquired it. The way the thirteen modules have been
designed is such that you will be expected to become quasi-
practitioners of the various disciplines in the Diploma course. And
that involves quite a penetrating grasp of the principles of the content
outlined in the modules, if you are going to apply these in facilitating
the development of young people. However, it doesn’t in any sense
require that you get a thorough knowledge of the scope and detailed
methods of the disciplines concerned.
To achieve the Cognitive Outcomes of the module on
Commonwealth Values, you do not require a course in political
philosophy, but you do require a basic grasp of the sort of questions
political philosophers ask, and the ways in which political
philosophers tend to construct explanations of how to analyse and
tackle political problems in the real world.
What we are asking is that the subject matter of the various modules
be treated not as ‘bodies of knowledge’ but as ‘practices’. We are
hoping to facilitate for course members the practices of the
sociological thinker, the planner and the environmental activist in
order to extend your competence as developers of the skills of youth
development. Of course, that involves acquiring some of the content
in those fields, but only enough to facilitate the growth of the
practical skills and modes of thinking involved. We can probably
agree that all forms of inquiry begin with the basic questions typical
of the specific area of knowledge being employed: sociologists ask
certain types of questions about issues in the social world,
psychologists other questions, planners different questions. These
come from the typical ‘angle of approach’ taken by the various types
of practitioners.
These questions relate of course to theories of various kinds typical
of the particular disciplines concerned; important as these theories
are, however, they should be viewed as part of the practices of the
various disciplines, rather than ends in themselves. Because the
theories are the most obvious part of these disciplines, it is tempting
for you to put your main effort into studying the theory as an end in
itself. Theoretical knowledge is of course a profoundly important part
of competence, but the key issue is the role that knowledge plays in
the ‘practice’ of the subject. If it does not influence the way you
actually see the deep level issues in the problem that confronts you,
nor helps you to focus on the steps necessary for successful action,
then it is what A. N. Whitehead in The Aims of Education (1929)
called ‘inert’ knowledge – knowledge that you have put away in your
knowledge bank.

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Active and inert ideas


Whitehead’s view was that teachers should cover only a relatively few
key ideas in a subject, but that we should teach them in as challenging
and open-ended way as possible; they should be combined in all sorts
of different combinations so that they become ‘active’ ideas, full of
potential for new thinking. We feel it important for you to focus on
each module in this way. That reduces information overload and
should give you considerable control over the material in a module, so
that anything new you might encounter in that field becomes
relatively easy to manage.
As course developers, we have assumed that a crucial aspect of the
action knowledge that course members must acquire are the basic
questions practitioners ask in the fields represented by the modules. It
is clear from cognitive theory and research and from studies of
perception that the key to all learning is ‘meaningfulness’. Where a
new experience is made meaningful either by being assimilated into
some knowledge the learner already has, or where that knowledge is
made to accommodate the new experience in a meaningful way, then
the learner will understand it.
The approach to a module will normally be problem-based, and we
have aimed to help you to address these problems by posing the
questions in a way that we hope is meaningful to yourselves but also
germane to the field being studied in the module. Having formulated
tentative answers to these questions by accessing some of the research
and theory in that field, each participant must then develop well-
structured ideas to support practical actions to deal with the problem.
We feel that these well-structured ideas are best built up inductively
from your real experience and from your practical understanding of
the theory and research. They will then form a deductive framework,
enabling you to tackle problems on a principled basis.

Andragogy not pedagogy


The important first step in developing a rationale for youth and
community development work is to stress that the approach to young
people should be andragogical rather than pedagogical. In other
words, the approach is based on what theory and research normally
agree to be those learning methods most suitable for adult learners.
There is plenty of evidence that even young children learn best by
reorganising what they already know in the light of new experiences.
In the case of adults, who have vastly greater stores of knowledge and
experience, andragogical studies indicate that the process of learning
must not only be based on adult relationships but also on the accepted
understanding of the way adults acquire new knowledge. The
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implications for the work of the Diploma suggested by this are that,
though there is a lot of what will to most course participants be new
knowledge, the teaching of that material should generally be based on
helping you to reorganise what you already know, in the light of new
insights.

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References
Freire, P. (1972) Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Penguin
Whitehead A. N. (1929 ) The Aims of Education and other essays,
Macmillan, New York

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Reading 10: Learning strategies

By Dr G. Gunawardena, Sri Lanka, for the Commonwealth Secretariat

This reading explores some of the strategies or methods that


facilitators can use to enhance the knowledge, skills and attitudes of
adult learners.
The following strategies are discussed:
z small group discussions
z skills analysis methods of instruction
z demonstrations and practice sessions
z problem-solving
z role-play and simulations
z project work
z case studies.

Small group discussions


Although learning is an individual internal change, most of us
actually learn in groups. One to one teaching and learning is not
possible in many adult education programmes due to lack of
resources (money, time and human resources). Therefore, in the
majority of situations, teaching of adults takes place in groups.
There are two types of discussions that can be practised with adult
learners. The role of the trainer and learners may change according to
the type of discussion selected for a particular occasion.

Trainer-initiated group discussions


In trainer-initiated group discussions, the trainer plays a leading role.
S/he selects topics for discussion, prepares plans, guides, manipulates
and dominates proceedings and finally engages in evaluation to see
whether the group has achieved the intended objectives.
Learners do take part in such discussions but the communication will
be a two way process; from trainer to learner and learner to trainer.
Therefore, learners will hardly get a chance to talk with others.
However, trainer initiated discussions are popular in many adult
education programmes. The main advantage is that the group can
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easily be directed towards an intended goal within the least possible


time available.
When looking at trainer-initiated discussions from the point of view
of the trainer, s/he can get a much better understanding of the
learners and of their problems. Distortions and misunderstandings in

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learners’ perceptions can be identified and corrected. A close


interaction between trainer and learners, and learners and learners
can develop.
Trainer initiated discussions, however, also have weaknesses. Such
discussions ignore the view that adult learners are capable of making
valuable contributions to the teaching-learning process.

Free-group discussions
Free-group discussions will solve some of the above problems. With
this method, the trainer is no longer the sole source of information.
Peers become a potent source of learning.
The group must have a constant flow of new ideas and information to
make such discussions a worth while experience. Text books, stories,
poems, dramas, audio visual material, photographs etc., can be used
to facilitate free group discussions. Read the following example:
“The Humanities Curriculum Project of The Schools Council
and The Nuffield Foundation (Heineman, 1970) developed a
battery of evidence (films, tapes, photographs) to supplement
the teacher. According to the findings of this project, the only
tenable position for a teacher to adopt was a value-neutral
position. The value neutral teacher participates in group
discussion, but, being aware of the limitations of her/his
participation, will not take sides in it.”
(From J. Rogers (1982) Adults Learning)

Interaction with the other members of a group can improve self-


confidence. In addition this type of discussion provides opportunities
for ‘collaborative reflections on the meaning of group members’
experiences’ (Lindeman, 1930), and ‘development of thinking skills
and natural relationship patterns’ (Brookfield, 1994). Group
discussions are used as the chief teaching medium in Danish Folk
High Schools, Swedish Study Circles, and the Canadian Farm Forum
(Brookfield. 1994).

Do all members of a group benefit from group


discussion?
There may be variations of benefit in relation to the individual
differences among your group members. For example, those who are
very talkative may dominate the discussion, perhaps leaving others in
a frustrated situation. Some refuse to take part in discussions in the
belief that ‘others know much more than me’. Some may think that
they cannot gain anything by talking with others.
Since trainer-initiated as well as free-group discussions have their own
strengths and weaknesses, to overcome problems trainers are
encouraged to use a combined approach wherever possible.
Here are some suggestions for the improvement of group discussions:

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z Create a friendly informal atmosphere to reduce the tensions and


fears of learners and to keep them at ease.
z Try to match topics with what you know about the characteristics
and needs of the learners.
z Use small groups to allow each member to make enough
contributions.
z Practice a variety of techniques (trainer-initiated, leader-initiated,
free group).

The skills analysis method of instruction


Skills develop with experience and practice. A person can be highly
skilled or not so highly skilled in performing a particular task. Skill
analysis identifies the gap between required performance (what it
should be) and the existing performance of learners or trainers. Skills
analysis is particularly suited to complex semi-skilled operations in
industry if they are of a repetitive nature: In such operations, a novice
will perform so much worse than an experienced worker. However,
with analysis based training the novice will usually quickly master the
necessary skill.
Romiszowski, A. J. (1986) explains how skills analysis can be carried
out in relation to small tasks. The tasks involved in the very simple
skill of opening a can involve more steps than you might think, but
can be broken down to the following:
1 Grasp the can.
2 Rotate the ring into correct position.
3 Lift the ring.
4 Pull the ring.
Once the analysis has identified the chief sources of the difference
between master and novice performance, a procedure can be
implemented. Given below is one example taken from the TWI
approach, a seven step method of instructions (McCord, 1976,
highlighted in Romiszowski, 1986).
1 Demonstrate to workers how to do it.
2 Explain key points.
3 Let them watch you do it again.
4 Let them do the simple parts of the job.
5 Help them do the whole job.
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6 Let them to do the whole job but watch them.


7 Put them on their own.

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Work place situations make use of the skills analysis method both
formally and informally. The facilitator has a central role to play in
relation to skills analysis method.

Demonstrations and practical sessions


Demonstrations and practical sessions are widely used in adult
education even though they provide limited opportunities for active
participation.

How do demonstrations differ from lectures?


In a lecture, nothing is asked of students other than the appearance of
polite attention. In demonstrations, learners will either observe the
material or process demonstrated by the teacher or sometimes
actively take part in the process.

How can a trainer facilitate learning by using


demonstrations and practical sessions?
When demonstrations are carefully planned, the knowledge and skills
objectives can be easily transmitted to learners. However, when the
restructuring of the attitudes of adult learners is needed,
demonstrations are more difficult to use. Case studies might be a
better strategy.
A skilful trainer can facilitate learning by:
z selecting suitable audio-visual material to be presented (the
appropriateness will depend on the subject, group and available
resources)
z using them in the appropriate manner and time
z providing opportunities for learners to practice immediately after
the presentation
z and making very short and clear presentations.

Problem-solving
Learners are asked to solve everyday problems in small peer groups or
individually. As they are actively engaged in the problem-solving
process, there is no need for them to make special efforts to memorise
concepts or principles. The knowledge and skills acquired by solving
problems should have a direct relevance to their everyday lives.
Learners should follow a systematic process which involves five
important stages to find a solution to a problem:
1 Identify the problem.
2 Formulate objectives.
3 Prepare data-collecting instruments.
4 Collect and analyse data.

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5 Make conclusions and recommendations.

Identify the problem


The simplest way is to present a problem orally or in writing, with all
the necessary instructions to be followed. In addition to that, the
facilitator can direct learners to identify different problems in the light
of carefully selected or developed material, such as case studies, films,
photography, maps, charts etc.
In order to do that, the facilitator should have a clear understanding
of the characteristics of the learners. Learners can be encouraged to
identify a problem of interest to them and related to their immediate
surroundings.

Formulate objectives
Objectives should be clearly defined either by the facilitator, or by
learners under the guidance of the facilitator. They will provide a
clear direction to learners to identify possible solutions.

Prepare data-collecting instruments


The decisions regarding the data collecting instruments (e.g.
questionnaires, interviews, surveys etc.) will depend on the objectives
of the problem solving process. Learners should be given some
direction on a number of possible avenues to explore in order to come
to satisfactory conclusions. The facilitator can help them in
identifying:
z what questions need to be raised
z how the information could be explored
z whether there is a need for more data.

Collect and analyse data


The facilitator should help learners to organise data in a meaningful
way, to identify possible relationships of the factors with the present
problem, to explore underlying issues etc.

Make conclusions and recommendations


This can be done orally or in writing, and may in fact lead to another
round of problem-solving, or further action.

Role-play and simulations


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Teachers in primary grades often use role play and simulations to


transfer necessary skills and information or to develop positive
attitudes in children. There, the teacher may take the initiative by
performing different characters in front of the class, by guiding
students to practice selected roles in an appropriate manner and also

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by initiating discussions after role-play activities have taken place.


However trainers of adult students must act in a different way.
The trainer needs to explain the objectives of using role play or
simulations with the group. In other words, the learners should have a
clear understanding of why they are doing the activity.
Following are some of the advantages of role play and simulations:
z Role plays and simulations encourage active participation which
is very important in adult learning.
z We all make mistakes in real-life situations. Some are very
expensive and cannot be modified. By participating in role plays
which are close to real-life situations, the adult can find answers
as to why mistakes have been made and what should be done to
avoid those mistakes.
z Role play or simulations are an excellent way of motivating
people who find it difficult to learn in other ways.
z Role play or simulations are excellent methods for kinaesthetic
learners, as both can involve a total body response.
z These methods are suitable for classes with a range of learning
preferences. Characters can be selected according to the
individual differences in the group.
z These methods improve social skills such as leadership skills,
communication skills.
There is no ideal way of preparing and carrying out role plays or
simulations. It mostly depends on the objectives of the lesson,
competencies of the trainer and characteristics of the student group
involved in this task. Some role plays are very simple and hardly need
any preparation at all. However, we must not forget that the group of
learners should be informed about the role plays well in advance. If
not, it may become a waste of learners’ and trainers’ time.

Projects
“Project work usually involves groups leaving the cocoon of the
classroom and venturing out to seek raw materials from local
people, records or conditions... The result of the project, its end
product, has often been in a form which involved offering
something to the community.”
Rogers J. (1982:188)

The passage highlights some of the basic characteristics of a project.


These are that:
z learning occurs in an informal setting
z resources to be used are plentiful
z something new will be contributed to the community at the end
of a project.

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In addition, the following characteristics should be taken into


consideration to get a clearer picture. They are that:
z projects emphasise the personal commitment of learners
z learning is something that is directly related to the context of
learners’ own experiences and skills
z individual differences can be treated in an effective, individualised
manner.
Therefore projects can be regarded as a means of learning by doing
and teaching by investigation. This necessitates a change in the role
of the trainer. APPS’s explanation (1979) about the role of the
facilitator seems to be much more relevant in this context.
According to APPS, the trainer should perform the roles of a trainer,
conditioner, model, resource and a guide in individual, group or
community setting.

How could a trainer facilitate learning by using projects?


The most popular form of projects involves all members of a group.
Apart from that, small groups can be formed to work independently
under different projects or parts of a project. When forming small
groups, the trainer must be aware of the social relationships among
learners. When people are encouraged to work with their friends, they
perform best. Therefore, the trainer as a facilitator should not try to
encourage new relationships. That will slow down their participation,
thereby weakening the effectiveness of the project.
The facilitator should be able to get the maximum benefit of having a
group with varied learning modalities, by directing them towards a
variety of end products. For example, those who are competent in
writing could be directed towards producing comprehensive written
documents, while encouraging some to present their work in other
formats, for example AV productions, drama, art or photography.
The least experienced people should be guided and trained to identify
links between materials in a meaningful way. On the other hand,
opportunities can be provided for utilising old skills as well as
developing new skills of the members for the benefit of the group.
The growing sense of fellowship and group feeling should be
improved.

Case studies
Case studies represent real life situations that can be used for
discussion, problem-solving, or simply to illustrate concepts that are
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being presented. They are useful also for illustrating attitudinal


aspects of a situation.
Case studies can be presented in print, audio, video or other modes. It
will depend on the facilities available and the characteristics of the
group of learners involved in the learning process.

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Trainers should be careful not to include confusing and conflicting


details in case studies. Some trainers use case studies to stimulate
interest and motivation.
Directing learners to gather information for their own lengthy, formal
case studies is another strategy a trainer could use.
Creating this kind of case study can be a complex process of:
z selecting a suitable case for study
z collecting data by using relevant instruments
z analysing and interpreting data collected
z drawing conclusions and making suggestions.
By conducting a case study, learners are expected to develop
important research skills such as interviewing, questioning, observing,
interpreting etc. In the initial stage of training, case studies make
considerable demands on the trainer, not only because of the time
and skill demanded for preparation, but also the trainer’s ability to
train the group to draw general points from specific examples.
Case studies involve a fundamental change in the trainer’s role. The
traditional role of giving information to learners is not encouraged in
this process. Therefore, the emphasis will be on the quality and nature
of the resources used and the valuable contributions the learners are
able to make with the trainer’s encouragement and guidance.

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