Unit-II

Faults and Over Current Protection

A composite power transmission systems / overhead lines (Feeders / Distribution lines and
Transmission lines) may use one or more of the following types of protection schemes.

1. Overcurrent Protection Scheme: It is used in feeders protection and it is protected by

. over-current relays.
Non-directional Overcurrent Protection Scheme

Time-graded scheme
Current-graded scheme
It is used in radial feeders.
Directional Overcurrent Protection Scheme

Time-graded scheme
Current-graded scheme
It is used in parallel feeders / ring mains systems.

2. Distance Protection Scheme: It is used in transmission lines and feeders.

3. Pilot Protection Scheme / Differential Pilot Protection Scheme: It is used
in feeders and transmission lines.
i.) Wire-pilot Protection Scheme
ii.) Carrier-pilot Protection Scheme
iii.) Microwave-pilot Protection Scheme

1. Overcurrent Protection Scheme:

I. Protection of Radial Feeders
➢ In a radial feeder, the power flows in one direction only, which is from source to load. This type
of feeders can be easily protected by using either definite time relays or inverse time relays
(IDMT relays).
➢ This protection scheme is very simple. The total line is divided into different sections and each
section is provided with either definite time relays or inverse time relays.

1.) Time-Graded Overcurrent Protection Scheme:

➢ In time-graded overcurrent protection scheme, the time setting of relays is graded such that
during fault, the smallest possible section of the system is isolated.
➢ This protection scheme is very simple. The total line is divided into different sections and each
section is provided with definite time relays. The relay nearest to the end of the line has minimum
time setting while time setting of other relays successively increased, towards the source.
For example, suppose there is a source at point A, in the figure below:
➢ At point D, the definite time relay R4 is installed with operation time 0.3 sec. Successively, at point
C another definite time relay R3 is installed with operation time 0.8 sec. The next definite time relay
R2 is installed at point B with operation time 1.3 sec. Finally at source end, at point A, the definite
time relay R1 is installed with operation time 1.8 sec.
➢ Now, assume a fault occurs at point F. Due to this fault, the faulty current flow through all the relays.
The relay R4 has the minimum operation time and will trip first to isolate the faulty section from
rest part of the line.
➢ In case due to any reason, R4 fails to trip, then next higher timed relay will operate. In this case, R3
will trip. If R3 also fails to trip, then next relay i.e., R2 will trip to isolate major portion of the line
and so on.

2.) Current-Graded Overcurrent Protection:

➢ The drawback in time-graded overcurrent protection scheme for feeder by definite time relays,
can easily be overcome by using inverse time relays. In inverse time relay the time of operation
is inversely proportional to fault current.
➢ This protection scheme is also simple. The total line is divided into different sections and each
section is provided with inverse time relays.

R1 R2 R3 R4

A B C D

➢ In the above figure, the overall time setting of relays at point D is minimum and successively this
time setting is increased for the relays associated with the points towards the point A.
➢ In case of any fault at point F, the R4 will be trip first. In case of failure R4, R3 will be operated
because the next minimum time setting for R3.
➢ Even though the relay nearest to the source has the longest setting, it will trip faster if a major fault
occurs near the source because its operation time is inversely proportional to the fault current.
II. Protection of Parallel Feeders
➢ For maintaining stability of the system, it is required to feed a load from source by two or more than
two feeders in parallel. If fault occurs in any of the feeders, only that faulty feeder should be isolated
from the system in order to maintain continuity of supply from source to load.
➢ The protection of parallel feeder requires to use directional relays and to grade the time setting of
relays for selective tripping.
➢ There are two feeders connected in parallel from source to load. Both of the feeders have non-
directional over current relay at source end. These relays should be inverse time relay. Also, both of
the feeders have directional relay (reverse power relay) at their load end.
➢ Now, suppose a fault occurs at point F, say the fault current is IF. This fault will get two parallel
paths from source, one through Relay R3 only and other via R1, feeder-1, R2, load bus and R4. This
is clearly shown in figure below, where IA and IB are current of fault shared by feeder-1 and feeder-
2 respectively.

➢ Now, IB is flowing through R3, IA is flowing through R4. As the direction of flow of R4 is reversed
it will trip first. But R2 will not trip as flow of current in this relay is not reversed. When R4 is tripped,
the fault current IA stops flowing through feeder. IB still continues to flow. Then because of over
current IB, R3 will trip. In this way, the faulty feeder is isolated from system.
III. Protection of Ring Mains Feeders / Systems
➢ Ring main feeder protection is used to ensure reliability of power supply to all consumers even
during fault in one path.
➢ The below figure shows the overcurrent protection scheme for the protection of a ring mains feeder.
There are four buses (sub-stations) A, B, C, and D, which are interconnected by alternate routes and
fed through one source, thus forming a closed ring.
➢ The bus-A is connected to a generating station and supplies power to buses B, C, and D. There are
six time-graded directional relays at both ends of the buses B, C, and D having their tripping
direction when an overload flows away from the bus.
➢ The relays at bus-A are non-directional definite time relays. Since at bus-A the power flow will be
only in one direction i.e., away from the bus bars.
➢ A fault in any section causes to trip CB only associated with that section and power flows from the
alternate path.
➢ If a fault occurs at F1, then the relays R5 and R6 will trip to isolate the faulty feeder. The relay R4 will
not trip since the fault current is not flowing in its tripping direction, though its operating time is the
same as that of R2. Similarly, if a fault at F2 occurs then the relays R7 and R8 will trip.
Relay Coordination in Ring Mains System:
Case 1: Open relay R8. Assume relay coordination delay time 0.5s.

Case 2: Open relay R1. Assume relay coordination delay time 0.5s.

Universal Torque Equation:

The universal torque equation is a general equation for all electromagnetic relay. It calculates the
operating torque for actuating element in the relay.
The universal torque equation of a relay is given by:
𝑻𝒐𝒑 = 𝑲𝟏 . |𝑰|𝟐 + 𝑲𝟐 . |𝑽|𝟐 + 𝑲𝟑 . |𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) − 𝑲𝟒
Where:
𝑻𝒐𝒑 = The net operating torque on the actuating element of the relay
𝑲𝟏 . |𝑰|𝟐 = The torque due to current fed to the relay current coil
𝑲𝟐 . |𝑽|𝟐 = The torque due to voltage applied to the relay pressure coil
𝑲𝟑 . |𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) = The torque due to the directional unit
𝜽 = The angle between voltage and current fed to the relay
𝝉 = The maximum torque angle for the directional unit
𝑲𝟒 = The torque due to spring
1) Operating condition for overcurrent relay:
Assume 𝑲𝟐 = 𝑲𝟑 = 0.
𝑻𝒐𝒑 = 𝑲𝟏 . |𝑰|𝟐 − 𝑲𝟒
The relay will trip. if 𝑻𝒐𝒑 > 𝟎
𝑲𝟏 . |𝑰|𝟐 > 𝑲𝟒
𝑲𝟒
|𝑰|𝟐 >
𝑲𝟏
𝑲𝟒
|𝑰| > √
𝑲𝟏

|𝑰| > 𝑰𝒑𝒊𝒄𝒌−𝒖𝒑

𝑲𝟒
Where: 𝑰𝒑𝒊𝒄𝒌−𝒖𝒑 = √𝑲 is the pick-up value for overcurrent relay
𝟏

2) Operating condition for overvoltage relay:

Assume 𝑲𝟏 = 𝑲𝟑 = 0.
𝑻𝒐𝒑 = 𝑲𝟐 . |𝑽|𝟐 − 𝑲𝟒
The relay will trip. if 𝑻𝒐𝒑 > 𝟎
𝑲𝟐 . |𝑽|𝟐 > 𝑲𝟒
𝑲𝟒
|𝑽|𝟐 >
𝑲𝟐
𝑲𝟒
|𝑽| > √
𝑲𝟐

|𝑽| > 𝑽𝒑𝒊𝒄𝒌−𝒖𝒑

𝑲𝟒
Where: 𝑽𝒑𝒊𝒄𝒌−𝒖𝒑 = √𝑲 is the pick-up value for overvoltage relay
𝟐

3) Operating condition for directional relay:

Assume 𝑲𝟏 = 𝑲𝟐 = 0.
𝑻𝒐𝒑 = 𝑲𝟑 . |𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) − 𝑲𝟒
The relay will trip. if 𝑻𝒐𝒑 > 𝟎
𝑲𝟑 . |𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) > 𝑲𝟒
𝑲𝟒
|𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) >
𝑲𝟑
2. Distance Protection Scheme:
Protection of Transmission Lines:
It is protected using distance relay. The impedance of the transmission line is proportional to the length
of the transmission line. By measuring impedance of the line, the length or distance of line can be
calculated. This principle is used in all the distance relay.
Classification of Distance Relay

Reactance Relay (Short Transmission Line)

Impedance Relay (Medium Transmission Line)

Mho /Admittance Relay (Long Transmission Line)

I. Reactance Relay:
A reactance relay is a distance relay used in power systems. It operates based on the reactance measured
from the relay location to the fault point. When the reactance falls below a set value, the relay generates
trip signal and indicating the fault. This relay combines voltage and current signals to determine the
|𝑽|
reactance 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽)for detecting faults in short transmission lines.
|𝑰|
Tripping Zone for Reactance Relay Using Universal Torque Equation:
Consider the general torque equation:
𝑻𝒐𝒑 = 𝑲𝟏 . |𝑰|𝟐 + 𝑲𝟐 . |𝑽|𝟐 + 𝑲𝟑 . |𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) − 𝑲𝟒
Where:
𝑻𝒐𝒑 = The net operating torque on the actuating element of the relay
𝑲𝟏 . |𝑰|𝟐 = The torque due to current fed to the relay current coil
𝑲𝟐 . |𝑽|𝟐 = The torque due to voltage applied to the relay pressure coil
𝑲𝟑 . |𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) = The torque due to the directional unit
𝜽 = The angle between voltage and current fed to the relay
𝝉 = The maximum torque angle for the directional unit
𝑲𝟒 = The torque due to spring
Assume 𝑲𝟏 = positive, 𝑲𝟑 = negative, 𝑲𝟐 = 𝑲𝟒 = 0.
𝑻𝒐𝒑 = 𝑲𝟏 . |𝑰|𝟐 − 𝑲𝟑 . |𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉)
The relay will trip. if 𝑻𝒐𝒑 > 𝟎
𝑲𝟏 . |𝑰|𝟐 > 𝑲𝟑 . |𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉)
𝑲𝟑 . |𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) < 𝑲𝟏 . |𝑰|𝟐
|𝑽| 𝑲𝟏
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) <
|𝑰| 𝑲𝟑
𝑲𝟏
𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) <
𝑲𝟑
If 𝝉 = 𝟗𝟎°
𝑲𝟏
𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) <
𝑲𝟑
𝑿𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 /𝑿𝒂𝒑𝒑 < 𝑿𝒔𝒆𝒕
 |𝑽|
Where: 𝑿𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 /𝑿𝒂𝒑𝒑 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) is the magnitude of the apparent reactance seen by the relay.
|𝑰|

𝑲
𝑿𝒔𝒆𝒕 = 𝑲𝟏 is the value of reactance setting for the reactance relay
𝟑

If 𝑿𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 /𝑿𝒂𝒑𝒑 < 𝑿𝒔𝒆𝒕 trip, else block

II. Impedance Relay:

➢ An impedance relay is a distance relay used in power systems. It operates based on the impedance
measured from the relay location to the fault point. When the impedance falls below a set value, the
relay generates trip signal and indicating the fault. This relay combines voltage and current signals
to determine the impedance for detecting faults in transmission lines. It ensures quick and accurate
fault detection, minimizing damage and enhancing system reliability. Impedance relays are
commonly used in transmission and distribution networks to protect against line faults.
Tripping Zone for Impedance Relay Using Universal Torque Equation:
Consider the general torque equation:
𝑻𝒐𝒑 = 𝑲𝟏 . |𝑰|𝟐 + 𝑲𝟐 . |𝑽|𝟐 + 𝑲𝟑 . |𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) − 𝑲𝟒
Assume 𝑲𝟏 = positive, 𝑲𝟐 = negative, 𝑲𝟑 = 𝑲𝟒 = 0.
𝑻𝒐𝒑 = 𝑲𝟏 . |𝑰|𝟐 − 𝑲𝟐 . |𝑽|𝟐
The relay will trip. if 𝑻𝒐𝒑 > 𝟎
𝑲𝟏 . |𝑰|𝟐 > 𝑲𝟐 . |𝑽|𝟐
𝑲𝟐 . |𝑽|𝟐 < 𝑲𝟏 . |𝑰|𝟐
|𝑽| 𝑲𝟏
<√
|𝑰| 𝑲𝟐

𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 /𝒁𝒂𝒑𝒑 < 𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒕

|𝑽|
Where: 𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 /𝒁𝒂𝒑𝒑 = is the magnitude of the apparent impedance seen by the relay.
|𝑰|

𝑲
𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒕 = √𝑲𝟏 is the value of impedance setting for the impedance relay
𝟐
 If 𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 /𝒁𝒂𝒑𝒑 < 𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒕 trip, else block

III. Mho / Admittance Relay:

➢ It is a directional impedance relay, also known as Mho / admittance relay. It's characteristic on the
R-X diagram is a circle whose circumference passes through the origin as illustrated in the figure
showing below that the relay is inherently directional and it only operates for faults in the forward
direction.
Tripping Zone for Impedance Relay Using Universal Torque Equation:
Consider the general torque equation:
𝑻𝒐𝒑 = 𝑲𝟏 . |𝑰|𝟐 + 𝑲𝟐 . |𝑽|𝟐 + 𝑲𝟑 . |𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) − 𝑲𝟒
Assume 𝑲𝟐 = negative, 𝑲𝟑 = positive, 𝑲𝟏 = 𝑲𝟒 = 0.
𝑻𝒐𝒑 = 𝑲𝟑 . |𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) − 𝑲𝟐 . |𝑽|𝟐
The relay will trip. if 𝑻𝒐𝒑 > 𝟎
𝑲𝟑 . |𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) > 𝑲𝟐 . |𝑽|𝟐
𝑲𝟐 . |𝑽|𝟐 < 𝑲𝟑 . |𝑽|. |𝑰|. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉)
|𝑽| 𝑲𝟑
< 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉)
|𝑰| 𝑲𝟐
𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 /𝒁𝒂𝒑𝒑 < 𝒁𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉)
|𝑽|
Where: 𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 /𝒁𝒂𝒑𝒑 = is the magnitude of the apparent impedance seen by the relay.
|𝑰|

𝑲
𝒁𝒏 = 𝑲𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) is the value of impedance setting for the Mho relay
𝟐

If 𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 /𝒁𝒂𝒑𝒑 < 𝒁𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝝉) trip, else block

Where: 𝜽 is the phase angle between the voltage and current fed to the relay.
Basic Terminology Used in Distance Relay:
1) Reach: If the length of the line covered or protected by the distance relay is called reach of the
relay.
2) Under-reach: If the distance relay fails to identify the fault within its zone reach is called
under-reach of the relay.
3) Over-reach: If the distance relay able to identify the fault within its zone reach and also in the
adjacent reach is called over-reach of the relay.

Three-zone of Protection / Three-stepped of Protection:

Zone1
80%AB

➢ In case of transmission lines (high voltage), the three-zone / three-stepped of protection system is
used in which distance relays are kept at both ends of the transmission lines. Each relay internally
consisting of three-zones.
➢ Zone-1 covers 80-90% of line length to be protected (operating time = 40 msec. to 60 msec.). Zone-
2 covers 100% of first line length and 20-50% of second line length (operating time = 80 msec. to
100 msec.). Zone-3 covers 100% of first line length and 100% of second line length and 20% of
third line length (operating time = 140 msec. to 160 msec.).
3. Pilot Protection Scheme / Differential Pilot Protection Scheme:
1) Wire-pilot Protection Scheme / Differential Wire-pilot Protection Scheme /
Merz Price Protection Scheme / Translay Scheme:
➢ In this scheme, identical CTs are connected to both ends of the line. The polarity of the CTs is same.
The pilot wire is used to connect both CT secondary and both relay coil as shown figure.
➢ Now, from the figure it is quite clear that when the system is under normal condition, there would
not be any current flowing through the loop as the secondary current of one CT will cancel out
secondary current of other CT.
➢ Now, if any fault occurs in the portion of the line between these two CTs, the secondary current of
one CT will no longer equal and opposite of secondary current of other CT. Hence there would be
a resultant circulating current in the loop.
➢ Due to this circulating current, the coil of both relays will close the trip circuit of CB. Hence, the
faulty line will be isolated from both ends.

Wire-pilot Protection Scheme for Three-phase System:

2) Carrier-pilot Protection Scheme and Microwave-pilot Protection Scheme:
In this scheme, the power line itself is used as the channel for carrying information between the two ends
of the transmission line. Currently, two types of communication channels are Carrier-current and
Microwave. Carrier-pilot protection are commonly used for the protection of transmission lines.
Microwave-pilot protection has similar relaying equipment and operating principles as the Carrier-pilot
protection except the channel used for communication.
(a) Carrier-current Channel: High frequency signals (50kHz - 400kHz known as carrier) are
transmitted through the power line. To inject the carrier signal and to restrict it within the protected
section of the line suitable coupling apparatus and line traps are employed at both ends of line. It is used
in high voltage transmission lines for supervisory control and relaying.
(b) Microwave Channel: Ultra-high frequency signals (450 MHz - 10,000 MHz) are transmitted
through the power line, and transmitter-receiver system for connecting the relaying equipment are
located at both ends of the line. To inject the carrier signal and to restrict it within the protected section
of the line suitable coupling apparatus and line traps are employed at both ends of line.
Advantages of Carrier-current Channel:
➢ No separate wires are needed for signalling, as the power lines themselves carry power as well as
communication signals. Hence the capital and running costs are lower.

Carrier Equipment: The main elements of the carrier channel are: (i) Transmitter, (ii) Receiver, (iii)
Coupling equipment, and (iv) Line trap.

1. Transmitter:
➢ The transmitter consists of an oscillator and an amplifier. The oscillator generates a frequency
signal within 50-500 kHz.
➢ The amplifier provides sufficient radio frequency power (5-40 W) at the operating frequency
to overcome losses in the transmission channel.
2. Receiver:
➢ The receiver usually consists of an attenuator matching transformer, band-pass filter and
amplifier-detector.
➢ The amplifier detector converts a small incoming signal into a signal capable of operating with
relay.
➢ The matching transformer is necessary to match the low characteristic impedance of the line on
one side and a high input impedance of the amplifier-detector on the other.
3. Coupling Equipment:
➢ The impedance of the coupling capacitor (CS) is very large at 50 Hz compared to parallel tuned
circuit (which is tuned to carrier frequency) consisting of LP and CP. Therefore, the coupling
capacitor drops most of the 50 Hz voltage so that a verry small 50 Hz voltage appears across
the signalling equipment.
➢ The series circuit consists of CS and LS. Which is designed to resonate at the carrier frequency.
Since, the impedance of a series resonant circuit is ideally zero at the resonant frequency. It
provides very good coupling at the carrier frequency.
➢ The parallel circuit consists of LP and CP. Which is tuned to resonance at the carrier frequency.
Since, the impedance of a parallel resonant circuit is ideally infinite at the resonant frequency.
It develops maximum voltage at carrier frequency. Thus, it is helping to extract the maximum
carrier signal.
➢ Therefore, the series and parallel L-C tuned circuits help in efficiently coupling the carrier into
the EHV line.
4. Line Trap:
➢ Line traps are also known as rejection filters. It consists of a parallel resonant circuit (Ltrap and
Ctrap in parallel). Which is tuned to carrier frequency and connected in series at both ends of the
line.
➢ This circuit offers high impedance for carrier frequency currents. Thus, it is preventing the
dissipation of the carrier signal in the neighbouring sections.