CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. DEFINITION AND USES OF HISTORY
The term history, derived from the Greek word Istoria, means “inquiry” or “an account of one’s
inquiries.” History is the story of humans in the past. It tells what they did and what happened to
them. Historians are people who study and write about the human past. They tell us that history
began about 5,500 years ago when people first began to write. However, the story of people
begins in prehistory.
Prehistory is the study of the distant past. Prehistory was the time before people developed the
art of writing. Archaeologists and Anthropologists have worked to find clues about early human
life. Only a small part is studied of these events and deeds of the past. This small part, which is
studied, is also called history. Unlike prehistory, however, the subject of history mainly deals
with the past, beginning from when writing and recording started. Therefore, historians are
people who study and write about the human past. However, the other disciplines do it in the
present. Man interacts with the natural environment to produce his primary needs, such as food,
shelter, and cloth. In the production process, human beings improved the production tools and
the quality and quantity of the produce history as a body of knowledge is an account of the past
based on historical facts and evidence.

Historical fact refers to information or statement about the past that is known or proven to be
true. History is all about providing an interpretation of what happened, why it happened, and
how it happened based on sources. Therefore, history is both the facts of the past and inquiry
made into the past facts. Thus, history is not an opinion or novel writing. Identifying historical
facts from opinion requires critical thinking. Distinguishing between fact and opinion is one of
the most important skills you can learn from studying history. A fact is a statement that can be
proved with supporting information. On the other hand, an opinion is what a writer believes
based on his or her viewpoint. History writers can keep their opinions with facts, but an opinion
is something that cannot be proved.As a body of knowledge, History is a branch of social science
that deals with what human beings did in the past. It studies changes in the development of past
societies’ political, economic, social, and cultural life.

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The Importance of History
History helps us know about the past, understand the present, and foresee future developments. It
also allows us to understand national and international issues, including democratic principles
and nationalism. History can also help us develop the necessary skill for collecting and analysing
information to reach conclusions. So, it helps us live our lives as conscious citizens actively
participating in shaping our future. History teaches us critical skills. Studying History helps
students to develop essential research skills. History helps us understand the present better and
provides a sense of identity. It also entertains and makes us reseanable creatures.
1.2 Historiography and Historical Interpretations
A. Historiography
Historiography is studying how knowledge of the past is attained and transmitted. The world’s
oldest written History comes from China. Archaeologists have discovered records of Chinesee
History written before 1000BC. Ancient Greek historians, notably Herodotus and Thucydides,
introduced the organized study and narration of the past. The term’s first use is attributed to
Herodotus (c. 484-425BC), who is often the “father of history”. Thucydides wrote critically and
accurately.
History emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the 19th century, first in Europe
and then other parts of the world. Leopold Von Ranke (1795-1886), the German historian,
established History as an independent discipline. Ranke is considered the “father of modern
historiography” for his effort to the scientific study of the past. Ethiopia had an indigenous
tradition of history writing. It made some changes from the chronicle tradition in the early 20th
century. History emerged as an academic discipline in the 1960s. This decade is vital in the
growth of Ethiopian historiography.
B. Historical Interpretation
What happened in the past is endless. Thus, historians select topics or problems they desire to
study. History is a systematic and objective study of the past as a field of discipline. It is a
systematic study because historical study follows established rules, procedures, and standards.
Historians use specific basic methods in writing History. The study of history also refers to the
objective pursuit of truth. In principle, historians are expected to avoid bias though it is difficult
in practice. Historical interpretation is the process by which we describe, analyse, evaluate, and

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create an explanation of past events. We base our interpretation on primary or secondary, or both
sources.
1.2.1 Sources of History
History is the study of the past supported by evidence arising from sources. Sources are pllars
and where there are no sources, there is no history. Sources are, therefore, key to the study and
writing of History. Most commonly, historians divide sources into two broad groups. These are
primary and secondary. Primary sources are those that are contemporary with the events under
study. They are original materials that have direct relations to the events they describe. Examples
of primary sources are monuments, tools, ornaments, artefacts (coins, fossils, inscriptions,
weapons, utensils, and ruins of buildings), written materials (manuscripts or handwritten
materials, chronicles, diaries, letters, minutes, codes of laws, Holy Bible,Holy Qura’an,court
records and administrative files, travel documents), photographs, jewelleries,clothes,maps, video
and audiovisual materials.
Secondary sources are sources that contain information that is derived from primary sources. In
addition, they provide us with second-hand or indirect information.Their is a gap in time and
space with sources. Examples of secondary sources are articles, books, textbooks, journals,
biographies, oral traditions and published stories or movies about historical events. Oral
traditions are historical sources transmitted by word of mouth from one generation to the next.
Oral data can qualify the position of primary or secondary sources based on the nature of
informants.History can only be written based on data collected from the abovementioned
sources. However, whatever the source of information, it should be subjected to critical
evaluation before being used as evidence. Primary sources have to be verified for originality and
authenticity to avoid forgery. Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability of their
reconstructions. Oral data should be cross-checked with other sources such as written documents
to determine its truth; because it may lose its authenticity due to distortion through time.
1.2.2 Dating in History
In recording the past, historians try to determine the exact time when events occurred. That is
what we call it dating. Dating is figures or numerical statements that express the time of
historical events or processes. The duration in time could be short or long. Therefore, historians
describe the period of events by using certain subdivisions or units of time. Hence, the figurative
expression expresses the exact dates on which events occurred.

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For example:
 The battle of Adwa took place on March 1, 1896
 Ethiopian Renaissance Dam was initiated on April 2, 2011
Dating in history is expressed in numerical statements such as a decade, century, and
millennium. A decade refers to a period of ten years. A century is one hundred years, whereas a
millennium refers to a thousand years. For example:
 The years from 1900 to 1909 is the first decade of the twentieth century
 The years from 1900 to 1999 is the twentieth century
 The years from 1000 to 1999 the is the second millennium
The primary purpose of dating in history is to organise past events according to their sequence
of occurrence by using calendars. This is what we call chronology. The two widely used
calendars worldwide are the Gregorian and Islamic. According to the Gregorian calendar, time
is counted forward and backwards from the time of the birth of Jesus Christ. The time before the
birth of Christ is referred to as BC. (Before Christ), whereas the time after the birth of Jesus
Christ is expressed in AD (anno Domini), a Latin term meaning “The Year of the Lord”.
Ethiopia uses its calendar, which began on September 11, of the Gregorian calendar. The
Ethiopian Calendar is seven to eight years behind the Gregorian calendar. The Islamic Calendar
follows the event called the Hijra to count time forwards and backwards. The Hijra was the flight
of the prophet Mohammed and his early followers from the town of Mecca to Medina in 622AD.
Hence, BH stands for the years before the Hijra, and AH refers to the years after the Hijra.
Historians sometimes use a timeline. A timeline is a graphic representation of events in
chronological order or periods of history. It is a horizontal or a vertical lineup of historical
events. Historical timeline enables quick visualisation and forms a clear idea of the passage of
time about events.
In addition, the timeline shows you when and where events happened during the discussion
period. See the timeline below. Because of the length of time, historians organise the human past
into separate periods after identifying significant developments and giving a label to each period.
This is what we call periodization in history. Accordingly, history is conventionally divided into
ancient, medieval and modern history.

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1.3 Features, interdependence and achievements of major civilizations
1.3.1 Civilizations in Africa
Ancient Egypt
The civilisation of Ancient Egypt began at about 3000BC. It flourished in the Nile Valley.
According to tradition, Upper and Lower Egypt were unified by Menes around 3200BC.
Agriculture was the basis of the Egyptian economy. The silt from the Nile replenished the
fertility of the soil and allowed the production of large amounts of crops. The Egyptian peasantry
produced wheat and barley. Livestock also formed an integral part of the economy.
Trade was another important economic activity in the empire. The Egyptian empire was a large
state ruled by an absolute king called a pharaoh. The king ruled Egypt through officials named
Viziers. The Viziers acted as mayors, tax collectors and judges. The pharaohs were regarded as
kings and gods. He was believed to be an incarnated god and would indeed be a god after death,
watching over Egypt’s welfare. The Egyptians were polytheists. They worshipped many gods.
Ancient Egyptians believe in life after death. The process of preserving the body is called
mummification. Mummification later developed into skilled art. As a result, ancient Egyptians
also advanced in medicine. Egyptian society was structured hierarchically.

Peasants undertook irrigational activities. They also constructed palaces, massive temples and
tombs for the Pharaohs. These tombs are known as pyramids. Ancient Egyptians developed the
art of writing known as hieroglyphics around 3000BC. It was a combination of pictograms,
ideograms, phonograms and determinatives. Next, Egyptians introduced papyrus which was a
paper-like substance
Nubia
Kush was a kingdom along the Nile River in what is now northeastern Sudan. It existed as early
as 2000 BC and lasted until about 350AD. Agriculture was an important basis for social
differentiation and stratification. The Nubians cultivated cereals, vegetables and dates fruit. In
addition, pastoralism formed another important base of the subsistence economy. Finally, trade
was another important source of wealth and power for Nubian states. At different times, Egypt
conquered and ruled lower Nubia. Absolute kings and queens ruled the Nubian states. Nubian
kings and queens were considered like the Egyptian pharaohs as divine rulers. Nubia was also
known for its metal technology. Meroe was an important center of metal products such as gold,

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copper, silver, and iron. This indicates that Meroe had a flourishing iron industry. The Kushites
conquered Egypt about the eighth century BC. Then, at about 350AD, the Aksumite king, Ezana,
invaded and destroyed Meroe.

1.3.2. Civilisations in Asia

Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia included the area now eastern Syria, Southern Turkey and most parts of Iraq.
The earliest of the great river valley civilisations was the civilisation of Sumerian found between
the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. The Sumerians began to build the first cities in the world.
Sumerians used mud bricks dried in the sun in their buildings. Large temples of this kind were
called Ziggurats (stepped towers). The soil of southern Mesopotamia was very fertile, and with
flood control and irrigation, large crops were possible. The Sumerian kings had divine authority.
A king ruled as representative of his city’s major god. The Sumerians were Polytheists. The
plough and the potter wheel first appeared in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians may have been the
first to use bronze. The Sumerians developed a writing system around 3200 BC. Their writing
system was known as cuneiform. Cuneiform was not an alphabet system. Instead, it was a highly
complex system of ideographs. They also developed mathematics, astronomy, medicine and
metal works.
Persia
Persia was a land that included parts of the area now called Iran and Afghanistan. The Persians
called the region the “Land of Aryans”, from which the name Iran is coined. ThePersians called
their language Aryan. They established a dynasty known as the Persian Empire, the largest
empire in the ancient world. The first Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great around
550BC, became one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Europe’s Balkan Peninsula
in the West to India’s Indus Valley in the East. It also included parts of North Africa. They made
an important contribution to government, law and religion. They built many new roads and
developed the world’s first postal service. Their religion was known as Zoroastrianism, founded
by a prophet called Zoroaster
India

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The first Indian Civilisation began in the Indus Valley in Pakistan and Western India at about
2500BC and reached its apex at about 1500BC. The people had their counting, measuring,
weighing, and writing systems. They dug ditches and canals around the cities to irrigate their
farms. The people traded with one another and also with other civilisations like Mesopotamia.
The Indus artisans used copper and bronze to make tools, mirrors, pots, and pans and crafted
gold ornaments. The ancient Indian society was hierarchically divided into different sociasocia
according to their work and birth; it goes back some 3,000 years. Hindu religion was developed
from the beliefs of the early Indo-Aryans. Buddhism emerged from Hinduism as a reform
movement. It spread outside of India to South East Asia, China and Japan.
China
The civilisation of ancient China first developed in the Yellow River Region of Northern China
in the third millennia BC. Chinesee civilisation expanded over time to present-day China's
central and southern parts. Ancient Chinesee civilisation reached its height about 3000 BC. in the
Valley of Hwang Ho. The first dynasty in China was called the Shang dynasty (c. 1700-
1122BC). Its achievements included the creation of bronze vessels, war chariots, and a writing
system. At about 1122 BC., the Chon dynasty overthrew the Shang dynasty and established its
own rule over China until 256BC. As a result, Chinesee literary classics developed, and Chinesee
philosophy emerged. Confucius (551-479BC) was the most influential and respected philosopher
in Chinesee history, and his teaching was Confucianism. Confucianism teaches the importance of
a well-ordered society in which parents rule their children; men lead women and the educated
judge ordinary people. The ancient Chinesee constructed the Great Wall of China to keep out
invaders from central Asia. It extends about 7,400 Kilometers across southern China. The
Chinese developed their system of writing called logographic, which meant the use of pictorial
symbols to represent words of the Chinesee language.
1.3.3. Ancient Civilisation of Latin America
Maya
The Maya were Native American people who developed a magnificent civilisation in the western
hemisphere before the coming of the Europeans. This civilisation was at its peak from about 250-
900AD. The Maya produced remarkable architecture, painting, pottery, and sculpture. They
made outstanding achievements in astronomy mathematics and developed an accurate yearly
calendar. They developed an advanced form of writing. The Maya worshipped many gods and

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goddesses. The Maya built tall pyramids of limestone with small temples on top. The Spanish
had captured the southern part of the area in the 16th Century. Spanish domination of the entire
Maya region was completed in the late 17th Century.
Inca
The Inca were a South American native people. They ruled one of the largest and richest empires
in the Americas. The Inca Empire began to expand at about 1438. It included present-day
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. Its capital was Cusco, in southern
Peru. The Inca were skilled in engineering and crafts. For example, they built a network of roads.
Inca craftworkers made fine artefacts from gold, silver and other materials. The Inca also wove
fine cotton and woollen cloth. Spanish forces conquered the Inca Empire after 1532.
Aztecs
The Aztecs were another Native American people who ruled a powerful empire in Mexico
during the 15th and 16th centuries. The center of the Aztec civilisation was the valley of Mexico.
The Aztecs empire included many cities and towns. The largest city was the capital Tenochtitlan,
which stood on the site of present-day Mexico -City. Agriculture formed the basis of the Aztec
economy. The Aztecs worshipped hundreds of gods and goddesses. They used a form of writing
called pictographic writing. Unfortunately, their empire was destroyed by the Spaniards in 1521.
1.3.4. Civilisations in Europe
Ancient Greek Civilisation
Ancient Greece, which emerged about 2500 years ago, was the birthplace of western civilisation.
Greeks' culture developed chiefly in small city-states called Polis. A city-state consists of a city
or town and the surrounding villages and farmland. The best-known city-states were Athens and
Sparta. The city-states never became united into a nation. However, they all had a common
language, religion and culture. The Greeks called themselves Hellens and their land Hellas.
Greek cultural achievements were outstanding in the classical period and were the ancient legacy
to Europe and the world.
Some of the accomplishments were:
 Architecture. The temple of Athena in Athens (the Parthenon) is the finest example.
 Literature and Drama. The Greeks invented drama (theatre).
 Sculptures. The Greeks made statues of gods and heroes in marble and bronze.

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  History writing. The two great Greek historians were Herodotus and Thucydides.
Herodotus wrote about countries and civilisations outside Greece but is also our best
source for the Persian Wars. Thucydides wrote a good account of the Peloponnesian
War, without bias though he was Athenian.
 Medicine. Hippocrates began the tradition of modern medicine in Europe. He identified
symptoms, classified diseases and suggested sensible remedies (for example, fresh air
and a good diet).
 “Democracy”, “Psychology”, “Olympic”, and “Marathon” all have Greek origin.
 Philosophy. The two greatest philosophers of ancient Greece, who taught in Athens,
were Plato and later Aristotle. The modern philosopher Bertrand Russell stated, “Plato
and Aristotle were the most influential of all philosophers, ancient, medieval or modern.”
Ancient Roman Civilisation
The Roman civilisation was started in present-day Italy around 753BC on the hills above the
River Tiber. Ancient Rome had a significant influence on the development of western
civilisation. Roman law had become the foundation for the legal systems of most countries in
Western Europe and Latin America. Roman roads, bridges, and aqueducts served as a model for
engineering. Ancient Romans built public baths and amphitheatres (outdoor arenas). The most
famous theatre in the city of Rome was the Coliseum.
A series of kings ruled ancient Rome at the beginning. The Roman Republic was established in
509BC after the Roman nobles overthrew the king. Two elected officials called Consuls headed
the government of the republic. A Consul served for only a year. The Senate was the most
powerful government body of the Roman Republic, and senators served for life. The Roman
Republic lasted nearly 500 years, until 27BC. The Roman Empire was established after the
republic was destroyed by the twenty years of civil war. The empire lasted until Rome fell in
476AD.
Rome expanded beyond Italy in aggressive wars. The bloodiest wars of Rome were the repetitive
Punic wars (264-146) fought against Carthage. Rome then extended its empire, step by step, all
around the Mediterranean Sea and beyond (Gaul, which is modern France, Britain, Belgium and
the Netherlands). The main difference between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire was
that the former was a democratic society, and the latter was run only by one man. Also, the
Roman Republic was in an almost constant state of war, whereas the Roman Empire's first 200

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years were relatively peaceful. Rome left behind an important legacy, which it passed on to the
world in its culture and institutions.
Some of the most important ones include the following:
 The Latin Language. Latin developed into the “Latin languages” of Europe and Latin
America.
 Latin literature, authors like Cicero, Caesar (he wrote the history of his wars) and the
poets Vergil, Horace and others.
 left behind an important legacy was revived in the European Middle Ages.
The Julian calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar is the base for the current Gregorian calendar

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