Two fields of normative ethics

“ You don’t have to be great to start, but you 1. Moral philosophy

have to START to be GREAT.” 2. Applied ethics or practical ethics

Have a vision. Be a learner, not a finisher. -DR. AMY FAST 1. Moral philosophy

• deals with moral ideas such as what human beings

"must do or how human beings should be."

• This also deals with our moral obligation, the

meaning of the act, or the purpose of the act.

• focus on what makes the action morally good in

general.

• how to live well together; how our decision affect

everyone involved.

• Ex. Topic: honesty and justice

2. Applied ethics or Practical ethics

• a philosophy that discusses strong and basic

moral issues linked to abortion.

• Practical application of ethics to real world

problems.

• Focus in specific moral dilemmas

• Ex. Topic: medicine, business, or education

META-ETHICS

• a discipline that relies on meaning.

• It is a science that is seeking to address non-moral

questions about morality.

• Understanding why acts are good or bad.

WHAT IS ETHICS?

• “ethos” = tradition, habit, character, or attitude.

• Ethics or moral philosophy can be provisionally

described as the empirical study of moral decisions.

• It is a systematic analysis of the nature of human

actions.

• It is concerned about the correctness and

wrongness of the act. An act is deemed to be right

or wrong, based on the intent, circumstances, or

character of the act itself.

NORMATIVE AND META

NORMATIVE ETHICS

• examine whether a particular act should or should

not be carried out. (must obey)

 CHARACTERISTICS MORAL STANDARDS

1.

IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS 2.

3.

1. people can determine the difference between 4.

right from wrong, good and bad; 5.

2. people can eliminate actions that do not 6.

conform to what is right; Moral standards entail serious harm or benefit.

3. people will be very careful to the actions and Examples of this are the following: theft, the

decisions to make; murder of innocent people, respect others, a

4. people will not be disturbed of the internal and feeding program for the poor, etc.

external factors of not doing the right thing; Moral standards are not determined by authority

5. establish good habits of characters of a person; figures. Moral values should always be upheld,

6. come up to rational decisions in facing an ethical even though they are at odds with self-interest.

dilemma; Cheating on examination is an example. It’s not

7. it makes a person responsible in the family, school because students are afraid of the teacher,

and society; instructor, or professor but the students know that

8. a person becomes sensitive to the needs of others is a wrongful act.

more than himself or herself; and Moral standards should be adopted over other

9. reminds a person to fully need conscience in values, including self-interest. Moral standards

decision making and a person can acknowledge should always be retained even if they are at

the actions made stake with self-interest.

Moral standards are focused on objective

MORAL VS NON-MORAL STANDARD considerations. The basis of considerations and

decisions must not be favorable only to a

• Countries and nations rich or poor, developed and particular

underdeveloped have their own set of laws, person or group. Anyone who

policies, cultures, traditions, customs, and beliefs. It commits mistakes and wrongful acts then is

may be acceptable to other countries but not punished accordingly.

acceptable to others Moral standards are perceived to be universal.

• People need to recognize the difference between Moral standards believed to be universal as it is

moral principles and non-moral ones, to define the applicable anywhere and anytime. Telling the

basic ethical values that can direct our actions. truth is a universal standard.

Moral standards are correlated with different

MORAL STANDARDS feelings and vocabulary. If anyone doesn't live up

to the norm or standards, he will feel guilty, bad,

• normally promote the common good, that is, the and wrong. The same is true when someone else

welfare and well-being of human beings, animals, does not live up to the expectations, norms, and

and the environment. standards, others may feel disgusted at this person.

• a blending of norms and values. NON-MORAL STANDARDS

ETHICS • apply to laws which are not related to social or

• Therefore, norms plus values pertain to moral legal considerations.

standards. NORMS as standards are basic • not inherently related to morality

guidelines regarding human acts. • lack of ethical sense.

• Principle that defines what is good or evil in • EX: etiquette, statutes, code of professional ethics,

people’s behavior. etc.

• dictates what should/should not be done. personal mistake called a self-inflicted dilemma. In

MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS a strict sense, a moral dilemma is a situation in

Legality and morality are distinct, but often people are which moral values are of equal importance. In a

confused about these terms. We believe that what is broader sense, there may be moral dilemmas in

moral is also legal and that what is immoral is not good. which a person has strong moral reasons for acting

Not all that is lawful is moral. MAGADA, APRIL MAE R.

HOW MORAL STANDARDS ARE FORMED ETHICS

• Morals are shaped by the beliefs of an individual. nonetheless, not equally strong moral reasons for

• Values are the basis of the capacity of an acting in another way.

individual to distinguish between right and wrong. • Ex: honesty vs. loyalty; choosing between you will

• Morals build on this to form concrete, context tell the truth about you friend’s mistakes or keep it

driven rules that regulate the actions of an as a secret for your friendship sake.

individual. KURIE & ALBIN (2007)

• They are formed from the experience of a person's • a moral dilemma is a situation in which people

life and are subject to opinion. assume that they should morally do one thing and

FACTORS HOW MORAL STANDARDS ARE INFLUENCED that they should morally do another thing, and

1. occasionally a third thing or even a fourth thing,

2. but they're not doing any of these mutually

3. contradictory choices together.

4. • There are several options but mutually

5. contradictory; a doctor choosing whom to use the

6. limited resources between young patient with high

7. recovery rate and older patient that needed the

8. medicine immediately with low recovery rate.

the moral values or principles that we conform FIGAR & DORDEVIC (2016)

with, in our rearing; • a situation whereby a person has to make a

the character and manners that imbibed with us decision. Among competing alternatives, which is

by means of birthright; the right (ethical) alternative and which is the best?

the religious values that our forefathers taught us; • Ex: The company is at risk and the owner need to

the values we learned from school; decide what was the best decision to take, is it to

the moral conduct, ways and habits of those reduce employees or to cut the resources of the

people around us; company to save it. Both decisions have big

the direct and implied cultural norms; impact to individuals involved.

our life experiences; and The definitions CHARACTERIZED MORAL DILEMMA OR

our critical thinking in these experiences. ETHICAL DILEMMA as:

CHAPTER 2: MORAL DILEMMAS • Making an option to one moral value over the

MORAL DILEMMA other;

KVALNES, 2019 • A situation where moral values are equally

• A moral dilemma is a situation in which a decision significant;

maker must give preference to one moral principle • A scenario where a person has a strong moral

over another. Dilemmas occur when, confronted reason in action, but not equally strong moral

with a challenging situation, two or more of that reason in acting in another way;

kind of values disagree with the understanding of • A state where a person should morally do one, two,

the decision-maker, or when one assesses the or more and have difficulty in deciding any of

moral option of another. those conflicting choices.

• A moral dilemma may arise as a result of a prior MORAL DILEMMA

• Every human being, experience struggling to make STRUCTURAL MORAL DILEMMA

a decision especially if there is an urgency to • The structural moral dilemma is that selecting a

make a choice. proper system of responsibilities and relationships

• Weighing what is good and moral. (larger scope), which is a continuing universal

• Thinking which is the best between and among challenge.

choices, and perhaps at stake or in a hot sit when CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL MORAL DILEMMA

choosing. DIFFERENTIATION VS INTEGRATION

• The choice may be favorable to some, however, ➢ The conflict between the distribution of jobs and

not favorable to others. the organization of numerous activities generates

• It gets individual stress of judging as to whether the a classic dilemma. The more complicated a task

decision is good or not in travailing circumstances. structure, the more difficult it is to sustain a

A moral dilemma or ethical dilemma applies to our centered, tightly coupled organization.

personal life, in a job, in a profession, education, ➢ Once you integrate something and you decided

and some others to change it, it can cause wide impact.

• Ex: honesty vs. harm; loyalty vs. fall out; discovering GAP VS OVERLAP

your best friend’s boyfriend cheating with another ➢ When the main tasks are not explicitly defined, the

girl. critical job will slip through gaps. (doing your

THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA colleague’s part/task can cause overlap/conflict

1. because it doubles your work and you don’t know

ORGANIZATIONAL MORAL DILEMMA what do first.)

• refers to a situation that causes an organization to ➢ In a similar manner, functions and activities can

respond negatively or positively to an ethical issue overlap, causing conflict, wasting time, and

that affects staff, shareholders, and society, as well unintended duplication of responsibilities. (not

as corporate ethics and customers. being able to do the task can cause overlap.)

• It includes also the leaders' ethical actions in LACK OF CLARITY VS LACK OF CREATIVITY

preserving financial reporting integrity. ➢ When employees are not clear about what they

• Unrealistic and conflicting goals. A leader must are expected to do, they often adapt their tasks to

have realistic and very clear goals so that his or personal interests instead of system-wide goals that

her often lead to problems. Yet when people 's duties

subordinates are over defined, they comply with their positions

understand and procedures in a bureaucratic manner. They

what the specifically follow job requirements as to how

organization is going through, hence, they can much the service or product fails.

work together thoroughly until they reach the EXCESSIVE AUTONOMY VS EXCESSIVE

goals of the organization. INTERDEPENDENCE

2. ➢ When individuals or groups are too independent,

INDIVIDUAL MORAL DILEMMA they are always isolated. On the other hand, if the

• pertains to a situation where individuals confront units and responsibilities are too closely connected,

with several factors such as peer pressure, people are absentminded from work and waste

personal financial position, an economic and time or excessive coordination.

social status which may influence all individual SOLUTIONS:

ethical standards. ▪ Must have well-distributed jobs and the laws,

• due to peer pressure, an individual engages in a policies, rules, and regulations must be balanced

certain scenario in which may change their through lateral approaches.

behavior and attitude ▪ Must have an implicitly defined job description,

3. roles, and duties to evade from gaps and

overlaps. in their own way, and the intervention of another's

▪ Must have a clear-cut expectation of the tasks in a freedom means forcing others to be happy.

wide range of goals IMMANUEL KANT ACCENTUATES THE FOLLOWING

MAGADA, APRIL MAE R. PHILOSOPHY ON FREEDOM:

ETHICS KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON MORALITY

▪ Must have a well-balanced interdependence and Kant based his ethical philosophy on the idea that

coordination. REASON should be used to decide how people will

CHAPTER 3: FREEDOM AS FOUNDATION FOR BEHAVE.

MORAL ACTS CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE

WHAT IS FREEDOM? o Universal law applies to everyone.

According to Oxford Languages, FREEDOM is the o Telling the truth despite the consequences.

power or right to act, speak or think as one wants o Rule of behavior that is unconditional or absolute.

without hindrances or restraint. o Should be done/must do.

KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON FREEDOM HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVE

IMMANUEL KANT o Abiding to certain rule/doing things because you

• German philosopher during the Age of want it/you want to achieve something.

Enlightenment. o You will study hard because you want to have

• His contribution to Philosophy includes Metaphysics, good grades.

Epistemology, Ethics, and Aesthetics. MAGADA, APRIL MAE R.

• Kant’s Philosophy on Freedom and Morality, The ETHICS

Principles of Justice and Fairness. Government Code of 1991 and those imposed on

1. revenues levied under state law.

2. • Taxes levied at national level are collected by the

3. Office of Internal Revenue (BIR), whereas those

Freedom is the right to control one’s actions levied at local level ( i.e. provincial, city, municipal

based on reason, not desire. and barangay) are collected by the Office of

Ex: having an urge to get revenge but rather Internal Revenue ( BIR).

choose not to and hold/control your emotion Under the 1987 Philippine Constitution mentioned

because it is what is morally right. above, “the rules of taxation shall be uniform and

The principle, then, is not to live by the animalistic equal.”

rules forced on them from birth, but rather to live According to Law Dictionary.com, (2015) “Uniformity in

by the laws that you enforce on yourself. taxation means equity in the burden of taxation,

The state cannot legally enforce any specific which cannot occur without uniformity in the mode of

definition of happiness on its people. assessment as well as in the rate of taxation. It must

PHILOSOPHY ON FREEDOM also be applied to all property subject to taxation so

• Individuals are independent from being limited by that all property can be taxed alike and equally.

the option of others to the extent that they may KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS

coexist with each other's freedom under universal Kant’s corollary meaning of justice and fairness are the

rule. following:

• The three concepts of freedom are the freedom of 1.

a human being as a member of a state (right to 2.

vote), the dignity of each person as a subject 3.

(dignity), and the freedom of any member of the Justice involves external acts through which an

commonwealth as a resident(freedom to live individual may directly or indirectly influence

regardless each other differences.) others.

• Individuals have an autonomous right to be happy Justice does not affect the desires, wishes, or
needs of others. 1. Culture is an analects of items with cultural or historical

Justice is concerned primarily with the nature of interest.

interpersonal relationships and not with their 2. Culture is a remark of peoples’ choices and admiration
of
substance.
beauty.
TAXATION IN THE PHILIPPINES: THE RULES EMBODIED
3. Culture is in harmony with the environment and an
UNDER THE LAW
individual has a role to play on it.
TAXATION POLICY IN THE PHILIPPINES IS REGULATED
4. Culture is wider in scope as it includes beliefs, ideals,
PRIMARILY BY THE CONSTITUTION OF THE PHILIPPINES
communication, language systems, behaviors, and
AND THE THREE REPUBLIC ACTS.
commonality of people within a group.
• Constitution: Article VI, Section 28 of the
5. Culture embraces material objects that are significant
Constitution provides that "the rules of taxation to
shall be uniform and equal" and that "a a particular group or society.
democratic system of taxation shall be established 6. Culture is related to the social structure and economic
by the Congress." aspects of society.
• National law: National Internal Revenue Code— 7. Culture is a combination of the skills, talents, capacities,
enacted as Republic Act No. 8424 or the Tax and artifices brought about by a group of people to look
Reform Act of 1997 and subsequent laws at, relay messages, and respond to the realities of social
amending it; most recently, the Law of the life.
Republic No. 10963 or the Law on Tax Reform for 8. Culture is the attributes and observation of a particular
Acceleration and Inclusion was amended group of people which includes language, religion, social
• Local laws: the major sources of revenue for local behavior, etiquette, fashion, music, and arts.
government units ( LGUs) are taxes imposed under INFLUENCES OF CULTURE IN MORAL DEVELOPMENT
the Republic Act No. 7160 or the Local 1. Culture is always social and communal by which the
“Good moral actions make us freer; bad moral actions relationship of the people towards one another and their
make us a slave to our sin” experience as people are the culture’s meadow.
“We have freedom to do things and to decide things • Laws, norms, values, and attitudes serve as a binding
for ourselves. But morality teaches us to choose from force to enhance their relationships. From that
the right and the wrong behavior.” perspective then culture influence the moral
What is Culture? How does it Define our Moral Behavior? development of the members of the community.
WHAT IS CULTURE? 2. The culture defines the normative principles and
KOHAK (1984): culture is at the root of human alienation behaviors of society.
from
• This refers to the definition of the principles and
the environment.
behaviors to be maintained, preserved, and
COLE (2019): culture as a concept that refers to a broad
and changed for the benefit and best interest of the

diverse collection of often intangible areas of social life. members of the community.

LEDERACH, (1995): introduced culture as the collective • From the relationship and experience of the members

knowledge and schemes generated by a group of people of the community where the community itself would
to
be able to form certain normative principles and
perceive, view, convey, and react to the social realities
behaviors to be relayed and to be taught to the
around them.
members of that community.
ZIMMERMAN EXPLICATED (2017): culture as the
characteristics 3. A culture, as best exemplified in the experience of the

and awareness of a specific community of people, people, develops restrictions and sets boundaries and
including
limitations as they live and relate with one another.
language, religion, food, social behavior, etiquette,
• Laws, rules, principles, and norms will be the
fashion,
guidelines for the members of the community to
music, and the arts.
behave accordingly, and if not then they will be
WHAT IS CULTURE?
subject to the punishment or sanction embedded in sense of urgency.

their culture. ➢ The Filipinos have a positive personality, but a lack of

self
• This shows that there will be an awareness of the
confidence and a deep desire to achieve their goals
moral development of the members of the
➢ Bahala na system
community.
5. COLONIAL MENTALITY
4. As culture helps in generating the character and
identity 6. KANYA-KANYA SYNDROME

of its people, it also includes their moral character. 7. LACK OF SELF-ANALYSIS AND REFLECTION

• Culture shapes the character and identity of the ➢ Filipinos are superficial and dreamy. They lack self

people in the community through the norms, evaluation and reflection of the situation

standards, rules, regulations, and laws. CULTURAL RELATIVISM

• If the community is traditional or modern in character • Cultural relativism means that we do not judge a society

then that is the way the members of the community by our own criteria of what is right or wrong, odd or

will learn and experience but of course, not all have natural. Rather, we will make an effort to understand the

good implications. cultural traditions of other communities in their own

5. The culture identifies the authorities or the governing cultural context

individuals or groups. • Cultural relativism is the desire to consider a culture on

its
• The authorities serve as the maker, interpreter, and
own terms and not to make conclusions based on the
implementer of the laws, rules, and regulations that
norms of one's own community.
they have in the community.
APRIL MAE RIVERA MAGADA
• In the family, the parents have the moral authority
ETHICS
over their children which is also essential for the moral
• The concept of cultural relativism also means that any
development of the members of the family
opinion on ethics is subject to the perspective of each
CHARACTERISTICS OF FILIPINO CULTURE
person within their particular culture.
1. The Filipino people are very resilient
• Cultural relativism (CR) is a moral theory that contends
2. Filipinos take pride in their families
that there are no objective universal moral rules, and the
3. Filipinos are very religious
moral rules that do exist are culturally bound.
4. Filipinos are very respectful
The definitions of cultural relativism stated are
5. Filipinos help one another summarized to
6. Filipinos value tradition the following:
7. Filipinos have the longest Christmas celebration 1. In cultural relativism, no one can judge a society by
their
8. Filipinos love art and architecture
standards in the principle of right or wrong, eccentric or
9. Filipinos are hospitable people
natural.
WEAKNESSES OF FILIPINO CHARACTER
2. People must understand other societies’ cultures.
1. EXTREME PERSONALISM
3. In cultural relativism, the aim is to strengthen our
➢ The Filipinos always try to give an interpretation of the
knowledge and interpretation of the practices and
actions or they take things personally. They say thank you
cultural traditions that are not part of our culture and that
with "but" (compliment-criticism-compliment)
not uncommon to other cultures.
2. EXTREME FAMILY CENTEREDNESS
4. Cultural relativism is a moral theory that claims the idea
➢ The Filipinos have very high family protection whether
of
in
no objective universal moral rules that would apply to
good or poor condition and circumstance (consentidor)
every culture and it varies depending on the culture of
(overprotected)
the society.
3. LACK OF DISCIPLINE
Example:
4. PASSIVITY AND LACK OF INITIATIVE
• In the case of Islam, for instance, to marry five times are
➢ They are rather complacent (relax) but they often have
a allowed if the man is capable to support them while in
Christianity, it is punishable by the law if any man or Schwart’s Concept of Universal

woman are married twice as it is bigamous 1. Power: authority; leadership; dominance, social
power, wealth
• The moral standards of every society differ from the 2. Achievement: success; capability; ambition;
other influence; intelligence; self-respect.
3. Hedonism: pleasure; enjoying life
and for that reason, any culture should be respected by
4. Stimulation: daring activities; varied life; exciting life
anyone. We cannot say that it is right or wrong because 5. Self-direction: creativity; freedom; independence;
curiosity; choosing your own goals
that culture permits them to do so and the other societies' 6. Universalism: broadmindedness; wisdom; social
justice; equality; a world at peace; a world of beauty;
cultures would view the same that is right or wrong or vice
unity with nature; protecting the environment; inner
versa. harmony
7. Benevolence: helpfulness; honesty; forgiveness;
Pros and Cons of Cultural Relativism loyalty; responsibility; friendship
8. Tradition: accepting one's portion in life; humility;
Pros devoutness; respect for tradition; moderation
1. It creates learning opportunities that could make 9. Conformity: self-discipline; obedience
10. Security: cleanliness; family security; national
humanity stronger. security; stability of social order; reciprocation of
favors; health; sense of belonging
2. It eliminates the concept of separate, but equal. 11. Schwartz also tested an eleventh possible universal
value, 'spirituality', or 'the goal of finding
3. It creates a system of niche expertise.
meaning in life’, but found that it does not seem to
4. It encourages respect. be recognized in all cultures.

Cons UN Chapter of Universal Values

1. There will be actions taken that would be defined by “The values of peace, freedom, social progress,
equal rights and human dignity, enshrined in the
some as “violent,” “unsafe,” or “wrong.” Charter of the United Nations and in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, are no less valid today
2. It is based on a concept that people are perfect. than when, over half a century ago, those documents
3. It creates a personal bias. were drafted by representatives of many different nations
and cultures.” -Kofi Annan
4. It eliminates the idea that reform or change can be a
Looking at the fundamental values mentioned above and
good thing. the provisions under the Charter of the United Nations,
countries of all nations and cultures must apply
END NOTE these principles to maintain peace and security in
the world
✓ Knowing the advantages or pros and disadvantages
If all nations in the world despite differences in races,
or cons of cultural relativism, we able to balance the
colors, international standings, cultures, religions,
cultures of the societies despite the differences. customs, traditions, set aside their respective self-
interests, peace and security in the whole world will
✓ From the reality of differences, we can adjust, change evidently possible.
our perspectives and learn from the strengths and Basic Universal Human Values
weaknesses of each culture to improve ourselves.  Happiness
 Peace
✓ To better understand the people as what and who
 Freedom
they are, their roots, their moral standards,  Safety
 Intelligence
acceptable and unacceptable or permissible or  Respect
 Equality
prohibited in their societies then we need to embrace  Justice
 Nature
their cultures to determine the trends or situations to
 Health
develop.
Human Dignity

 Dignity is the state or quality of being worthy of

Universal Values honor or respect. It is the importance and value that
a person has, that makes other people respect
The word "value" means something that a person or a them or makes them respect themselves.
group believes has a value that merits being sought,
promoted, or privileged. This can be a thing a state of It must be preserved so that the respect of
mind, or a behavior that results from those things or others is maintained. Any act or action to be
states of mind. done by an individual will be reflected in his
or her personality.
It can be understood in two ways. First, because everyone
finds it important. Second, when all people have reason to Only one big mistake can ruin a good reputation
believe it has value. for anyone. People must be very careful of his or
her action and words to be said.
is a concept that it is not obvious to define because a
principle relates to morality or ethics. All people have  The 1987 Philippine Constitution Article 2 Section 11
certain values that come from within them and direct provides, “The state recognizes the dignity of
their actions—values can differ from person to person. every human person and guaranteed full
respect for human right.”
 This implies that any person in whatever capacity, they think have the courage to approach higher
economic and social status, rich or poor, educated authorities.
or uneducated deserve to be respected by  On the other hand, ‘kahihiyan’ maybe observed in
anyone. the Filipino families. They try to avoid doing
things that may dishonor their family’s name
It is in the inner self of a person, an innate and reputation. If problems arise in the family, as
character built and developed day by day of much as they could, they will hide it within the family
anyone. Whatever action to be done will reflect on because for them, the stink of a member will be the
whom and who you are. stink of the whole family.

Amor Propio
The Filipino Way  ‘amor propio’ has been characterized as the
high degree of sensitivity that makes a person
Filipino Moral Characters: Strengths and
intolerant to criticism and causes him to have
Weaknesses
an easily wounded pride
Filipino cultural morality especially that which concerns  Concerning this Filipino value, some observe that
social ethics, centers on ideally having a “smooth Filipinos learn to withstand a loss of face in some
interpersonal relationship” (SIR) with others. situations, particulalrly when they perceive
themselves to be a fault, but it is devastating to be
The definition of “smooth interpersonal relationship” in publicly criticized, insulted, belittled, or humiliated or
Philippine culture is principally supported by and anchored to lose one’s self-respect.
on the following Filipino values and Filipino traits and  ‘amor propio’ comes from the person’s tendency
values. to protect is or her dignity and honor. Because of
pride or amor proprio, for instance, a person may
Filipino Values
refuse offers even if he/she wants to accept them.
Values are those aspects in life that include customs,
Filipino Traits
traditions, etc., which the people regard as necessary
and important in their dealings with one another,  TRAIT IS A DISTINGUISHING FEATURE OR CHARACTER
OF A PERSON OR A GROUP OF PEOPLE.
Pakikisama
 Hospitality
 One of the Filipino values is ‘pakikisama’ or sense or  Close family ties
togetherness. It refers to doing somebody a good  Respect for elders
deed.
 It is not only practiced in neighborhood but also at
work and school. Helping other people even in small How is Moral Character Developed?
little way may show ‘pakikisama.’
 Is having and maintaining ‘good public relations.’ Moral Character and Its Development
Just like other Filipino values, ‘pakikisama’ can work
 The term “character” comes from the ancient Greek
either positively or destructively.
term charaktêr, which initially referred to the mark
 Because of ‘pakikisama,’ may submit to group
impressed upon a coin.
opinion, overgenerous praise one another, using
 It is a distinctive feature by which one thing is
metaphorical language rather than candid
distinguished from others—a set of qualities or
terms, concealing negative feelings or unhappy
characteristics that can be used to differentiate
spirits underneath a pleasant demeanor, smiling
between persons.
even when things go wrong.
 In philosophy, the term character is typically used to
Utang na loob refer to the particularly moral dimension of a
person.
 ‘Utang na loob’ or dept or gratitude is very important  Moral character refers to the existence or lack of
to Filipinos. It is recognizing and returning the favor to virtues. To say that a certain person has a good moral
that person in the same measure who help them in character means that he/she is a good person and a
times of need good citizen with a sound moral compass.
 Filipinos may have ‘utang na loob’ if other people help  It can be conceptualized as an individual’s
them during sickness, medication, sending their disposition to think, feel, and behave in an
children to school, finding a job, or they were ethical versus unethical manner.
saved in a life threatening situation. Once  Development of moral character can be explained by
Filipinos surpass those challenges in life, they will the following approaches: virtues, disposition, and
return to the person whom they have debt of gratitude circular relations of acts and character, and
to give back the favor they received or they will help theoretical perspectives.
that person in times of need.
 However ‘utang na loob’ may not be good if the Principle
person is forced to do somethings even against
Agere sequitur esse
his/ her will or against the law just to pay the
debt of gratitude. The person will do this to avoid Action follows being
being reproved or having confrontations, clashes and
conflicts with the person whom they have ‘utang na Ang kilos mo o ginagawa mo ang nagdidikta kung anong
loob.’ klaseng tao ka/o kung anong ugali/characteristic meron ka

Hiya Character Development through Virtue Ethics

 ‘Hiya’ may be observed to Filipinos in accepting the It is important to note that a virtuous behavior for Aristotle
food that are offered to them. Even though they are means practicing moderation, that is, avoiding both
hungry, they will feel sense of shame accepting the excess and deficiency/
food given to them or they will say that they are not
yet hungry. Aristotle calls this the doctrine of the mean. This
 They also feel ‘hiya’ in approaching higher “doctrine of the mean” is a principle that suggests that
authorities like school principal, teachers/ professors, a moral behavior is one that is in the middle of two
deans, and executives. They will look someone whom extremes.
For example, between gain and disadvantage is justice, Human acts (actus humanis)
and between shameless and touchiness is modesty
(Temporal). Indeed, moral virtue can be defined simply as  Human acts are rational acts and are more closely
the just mean associated with character than are acts of human
beings, because the former actions come from the
Moral Character as Dispositions whole person.

 Moral character traits are those dispositions of Laughing at funny things is a moral act, in contrast to
character for which it is appropriate to hold agents laughing because one is being tickled which is an act of a
morally responsible. A trait for which the agent is human being. In the former, there is choice. One can
deserving of a positive reactive attitude, such as choose to laugh or not. Laughing that is ridicule is a bad
praise or gratitude, is a virtue, and a vice. moral act. Laughing at oneself can be good (e.g.,
 Moral character traits are relatively stable, fixed humbling). In fact, training oneself to not laugh at racist
and reliable dispositions of action and affect that jokes or sexual innuendos is considered by many to be a
ought to be rationally informed. moral responsibility.
 Moral character affects one’s moral decision. This
character is a personality trait or disposition that has C. Intention and Responsibility
become habituated in the individual moral agent.  Human beings own their actions and the
Indeed, it is something that is developed, nurtured consequences of them.
and cultivated.  The will is the rational power of human beings
 They can also be dispositions to have certain emotions to act. It is the ability to choose what is good (or what
or affections. For example, justice is the disposition to one thinks is good) directed by reason.
treat others as they deserve to be treated, while  One can be prevented from doing something by
courageousness is the disposition to feel the external forces but carrying through with an action has
appropriate amount of fear called for by a situation. an element of the voluntary, of willing to do it and
 It is something that springs from the will of the therefore cannot be forced.
moral agent—it develops as he/she grows into  Another way the will can be hindered is by lack of
maturity. knowledge. One may attempt to drive across a
flooded bridge thinking the water is low enough to get
through but then get stuck, because it was really two
The Circular Relation of Acts and Character feet above the bridge
 the human being is self-governing in that he can
A. Repetition of Action and Its Effect on the Person carry out a human action or not carry it out as he wills.
Because of self-possession and self-governance,
Actions can be repetitive or automatic in (at least) three
human beings both intend their actions and have
different ways: by habit, by education, and by habitus.
responsibility for their actions.
Habit

 When an action is constantly repeated, over time it

The Six Stages of Moral Development
can become a habit. For example, the physician who
automatically prescription for contraception for Lawrence Kohlberg
patients who ask and no longer thinks it through has
acquired a habit.  Lawrence Kohlberg, (born October 25, 1927,
Bronxville, New York, U.S.—died January 17, 1987,
Education Boston, Massachusetts), American psychologist and
educator known for his theory of moral development.
 Another type of automatic action is a skill (education).
 Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral
Actions become skills through repetition and
development, a comprehensive stage theory of
experience. For example, the baker automatically
moral development based on Jean Piaget’s theory of
stops kneading the bread dough when it reaches a
moral judgment for children (1932) and developed by
certain elasticity. These actions are done without
Lawrence Kohlberg in 1958.
consciously thinking through all the steps and
reasoning and judgments. The Heinz Dilemma
Habitus  A woman has cancer, and her doctors believe only one
drug might save her. This drug had been discovered
 Actions become automatic is through what Aquinas
by a local pharmacist and he was able to make it for
calls habitus, that is, inclination or disposition, an
$200 per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose.
inclination, a willingness, to respond charitably to
 The woman's husband, Heinz, could only raise $1,000
anyone in need as the situation arises. For example, I
to buy the drug. He tried to negotiate with the
see a person without a coat shivering in the middle of
pharmacist for a lower price or to be extended credit
winter and give them my coat, and on and on.
to pay for it over time.
 While this example is about charity, there is nothing
 But the pharmacist refused to sell it for any less or to
about habitus that requires it to be good. One may
accept partial payments. Rebuffed, Heinz instead
also will to be miserly and act in a miserly way and
broke into the pharmacy and stole the drug to save his
therefore develop a bad disposition or habitus of
wife.
miserliness. The morality of the action also determines
 Kohlberg asked, "Should the husband have done
the morality of the habitus.
that?"
 Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to
whether Heinz was wrong or right but in the reasoning
for each participant's decision. He then classified their
reasoning into the stages of his theory of moral
B. The Type of Action
development.
Because human beings are body/soul unities, actions of
Theoretical Framework
the body are actions of the self.
I: Preconventional Level
Acts of human being (actus humanus) / acts of man
At the preconventional level, morality is externally
 Digestion of food is certainly an action, as is jumping
controlled. Rules imposed by authority figures are
when startled or yawning when tired.
conformed to in order to avoid punishment or receive
rewards. This perspective involves the idea that what is
right is what one can get away with or what is personally
satisfying.

Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientation

Behavior is determined by consequences. The individual

will obey in order to avoid punishment.

Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation

Behavior is determined again by consequences. The

individual focuses on receiving rewards or satisfying
personal needs.

II: Conventional Level

At the conventional level, conformity to social rules

remains important to the individual. However, the
emphasis shifts from self-interest to relationships
with other people and social systems. The individual
strives to support rules that are set forth by others such as
parents, peers, and the government in order to win their
approval or to maintain social order.

Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation

Behavior is determined by social approval. The individual

wants to maintain or win the affection and approval of
others by being a “good person.”

Stage 4: Law and order orientation

Social rules and laws determine behavior. The individual

now takes into consideration a larger perspective, that of
societal laws. Moral decision making becomes more than
consideration of close ties to others. The individual
believes that rules and laws maintain social order that is
worth preserving.

III: Postconventional Level

At the postconventional level, the individual moves

beyond the perspective of his or her own society. Morality
is defined in terms of abstract principles and values
that apply to all situations and societies. The
individual attempts to take the perspective of all
individuals.

Stage 5: Social contract orientation

Individual rights determine behavior. The individual

views laws and rules as flexible tools for improving human
purposes. That is, given the right situation, there are
exceptions to rules.

When laws are not consistent with individual rights and

the interests of the majority, they do not bring about good
for people and alternatives should be considered.

Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation

According to Kohlberg, this is the highest stage of

functioning. However, he claimed that some individuals
will never reach this level. At this stage, the appropriate
action is determined by one’s self-chosen ethical
principles of conscience.

These principles are abstract and universal in application.

This type of reasoning involves taking the perspective of
every person or group that could potentially be affected
by the decision.