Polystyrene

Polystyrene (PS) /ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn/ is a synthetic polymer

Polystyrene
made from monomers of the aromatic hydrocarbon
styrene.[5] Polystyrene can be solid or foamed.
General-purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and brittle.
It is an inexpensive resin per unit weight. It is a poor
barrier to air and water vapor and has a relatively low
melting point.[6] Polystyrene is one of the most widely
used plastics, with the scale of its production being
several million tonnes per year.[7] Polystyrene is
naturally transparent, but can be colored with
colorants. Uses include protective packaging (such as
packing peanuts and optical disc jewel cases),
containers, lids, bottles, trays, tumblers, disposable
cutlery,[6] in the making of models, and as an
alternative material for phonograph records.[8]

As a thermoplastic polymer, polystyrene is in a solid

(glassy) state at room temperature but flows if heated
above about 100 °C, its glass transition temperature. It
becomes rigid again when cooled. This temperature
behaviour is exploited for extrusion (as in Styrofoam)
and also for molding and vacuum forming, since it can Names
be cast into molds with fine detail. The temperatures IUPAC name
behavior can be controlled by photocrosslinking.[9] Poly(1-phenylethylene)
Other names
Under ASTM standards, polystyrene is regarded as not
Thermocol
biodegradable. It is accumulating as a form of litter in
the outside environment, particularly along shores and Identifiers
waterways, especially in its foam form, and in the CAS Number 9003-53-6 (https://commonc
Pacific Ocean.[10] hemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_r
n=9003-53-6)
Abbreviations PS
History ChemSpider none

Polystyrene was discovered in 1839 by Eduard Simon, ECHA InfoCard 100.105.519 (https://echa.eu
ropa.eu/substance-informati
an apothecary from Berlin.[11] From storax, the resin of
on/-/substanceinfo/100.105.5
the Oriental sweetgum tree Liquidambar orientalis, he
19)
distilled an oily substance, that he named styrol, now
called styrene. Several days later, Simon found that it CompTox DTXSID5031925 (https://co
Dashboard (EPA) mptox.epa.gov/dashboard/ch
had thickened into a jelly, now known to have been a
polymer, that he dubbed styrol oxide ("Styroloxyd")
because he presumed that it had resulted from emical/details/DTXSID50319
oxidation (styrene oxide is a distinct compound). By 25)
1845 Jamaican-born chemist John Buddle Blyth and Properties
German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann Chemical formula (C8H8)n
showed that the same transformation of styrol took
Density 0.96–1.05 g/cm3
place in the absence of oxygen.[12] They called the
Melting point ~ 240 °C (464 °F; 513 K)[4]
product "meta styrol"; analysis showed that it was
for isotactic polystyrene
chemically identical to Simon's Styroloxyd.[13] In 1866
Marcellin Berthelot correctly identified the formation Boiling point 430 °C (806 °F; 703 K) and
depolymerizes
of meta styrol/Styroloxyd from styrol as a
polymerisation process.[14] About 80 years later it was Solubility in water Insoluble
realized that heating of styrol starts a chain reaction Solubility Soluble in benzene, carbon
that produces macromolecules, following the thesis of disulfide, chlorinated
German organic chemist Hermann Staudinger (1881– aliphatic hydrocarbons,
1965). This eventually led to the substance receiving chloroform, cyclohexanone,
its present name, polystyrene. dioxane, ethyl acetate,
ethylbenzene, MEK, NMP,
The company I. G. Farben began manufacturing THF[1]
polystyrene in Ludwigshafen, about 1931, hoping it Thermal 0.033 W/(m·K) (foam, ρ 0.05
would be a suitable replacement for die-cast zinc in conductivity g/cm3)[2]
many applications. Success was achieved when they Refractive index 1.6; dielectric constant 2.6 (1
developed a reactor vessel that extruded polystyrene (nD) kHz – 1 GHz)[3]
through a heated tube and cutter, producing
Related compounds
polystyrene in pellet form.[15]
Related Styrene (monomer)
compounds
Ray McIntire (1918–1996), a chemical engineer of
Dow Chemical, rediscovered a process first patented in Except where otherwise noted, data are given
for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C
early 1930s by Swedish inventor Carl Munters.[16] [77 °F], 100 kPa).
According to the Science History Institute, "Dow
Infobox references
bought the rights to Munters's method and began
producing a lightweight, water-resistant, and buoyant material that
seemed perfectly suited for building docks and watercraft and for
insulating homes, offices, and chicken sheds."[17] In 1944,
Styrofoam was patented.[18]

Before 1949, chemical engineer Fritz Stastny (1908–1985)

developed pre-expanded PS beads by incorporating aliphatic
hydrocarbons, such as pentane. These beads are the raw material
for molding parts or extruding sheets. BASF and Stastny applied
for a patent that was issued in 1949. The molding process was
demonstrated at the Kunststoff Messe 1952 in Düsseldorf. Expanded polystyrene packaging
Products were named Styropor.[19]

The crystal structure of isotactic polystyrene was reported by Giulio Natta.[20]

In 1954, the Koppers Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
developed expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam under the trade name
Dylite.[21] In 1960, Dart Container, the largest manufacturer of
foam cups, shipped their first order.[22]

Structure and production

In chemical terms, polystyrene is a long chain hydrocarbon
wherein alternating carbon centers are attached to phenyl groups
(a derivative of benzene). Polystyrene's chemical formula is
(C8H8)n; it contains the chemical elements carbon and hydrogen. A polystyrene yogurt container

The material's properties are determined by short-range van der

Waals attractions between polymer chains. Since the molecules
consist of thousands of atoms, the cumulative attractive force
between the molecules is large. When heated (or deformed at a
rapid rate, due to a combination of viscoelastic and thermal
insulation properties), the chains can take on a higher degree of
confirmation and slide past each other. This intermolecular
weakness (versus the high intramolecular strength due to the
hydrocarbon backbone) confers flexibility and elasticity. The Bottom of a vacuum-formed cup;
ability of the system to be readily deformed above its glass fine details such as the glass and
fork food contact materials symbol
transition temperature allows polystyrene (and thermoplastic
and the resin identification code
polymers in general) to be readily softened and molded upon symbol are easily molded
heating. Extruded polystyrene is about as strong as an unalloyed
aluminium but much more flexible and much less dense (1.05
g/cm3 for polystyrene vs. 2.70 g/cm3 for aluminium).[23]

Production
Polystyrene is an addition polymer that results when styrene
monomers polymerize (interconnect). In the polymerization, the
carbon-carbon π bond of the vinyl group is broken and a new
carbon-carbon σ bond is formed, attaching to the carbon of
another styrene monomer to the chain. Since only one kind of Polystyrene is flammable, and
monomer is used in its preparation, it is a homopolymer. The releases large amounts of black
newly formed σ bond is stronger than the π bond that was broken, smoke upon burning.
thus it is difficult to depolymerize polystyrene. About a few
thousand monomers typically comprise a chain of polystyrene,
giving a molar mass of 100,000–400,000 g/mol.
 Expanded polystyrene is lightweight.
This is a man in Guiyang, China
carrying a lot of expanded
polystyrene packaging.

Each carbon of the backbone has tetrahedral geometry, and those carbons that have a phenyl group
(benzene ring) attached are stereogenic. If the backbone were to be laid as a flat elongated zig-zag chain,
each phenyl group would be tilted forward or backward compared to the plane of the chain.

The relative stereochemical relationship of consecutive phenyl groups determines the tacticity, which
affects various physical properties of the material.[24]

Tacticity
In polystyrene, tacticity describes the extent to which the phenyl group is uniformly aligned (arranged at
one side) in the polymer chain. Tacticity has a strong effect on the properties of the plastic. Standard
polystyrene is atactic. The diastereomer where all of the phenyl groups are on the same side is called
isotactic polystyrene, which is not produced commercially.
Atactic polystyrene
The only commercially important form of polystyrene is atactic, in which the phenyl groups are
randomly distributed on both sides of the polymer chain. This random positioning prevents the chains
from aligning with sufficient regularity to achieve any crystallinity. The plastic has a glass transition
temperature Tg of ≈90 °C. Polymerization is initiated with free radicals.[7]

Syndiotactic polystyrene
Ziegler–Natta polymerization can produce an ordered syndiotactic polystyrene with the phenyl groups
positioned on alternating sides of the hydrocarbon backbone. This form is highly crystalline with a Tm
(melting point) of 270 °C (518 °F). Syndiotactic polystyrene resin is currently produced under the trade
name XAREC by Idemitsu corporation, who use a metallocene catalyst for the polymerisation
reaction.[25]

Degradation
Polystyrene is relatively chemically inert. While it is waterproof and resistant to breakdown by many
acids and bases, it is easily attacked by many organic solvents (e.g. it dissolves quickly when exposed to
acetone), chlorinated solvents, and aromatic hydrocarbon solvents. Because of its resilience and inertness,
it is used for fabricating many objects of commerce. Like other organic compounds, polystyrene burns to
give carbon dioxide and water vapor, in addition to other thermal degradation by-products. Polystyrene,
being an aromatic hydrocarbon, typically combusts incompletely as indicated by the sooty flame.

The process of depolymerizing polystyrene into its monomer, styrene, is called pyrolysis. This involves
using high heat and pressure to break down the chemical bonds between each styrene compound.
Pyrolysis usually goes up to 430 °C.[26] The high energy cost of doing this has made commercial
recycling of polystyrene back into styrene monomer difficult.

Organisms
Polystyrene is generally considered to be non-biodegradable. However, certain organisms are able to
degrade it, albeit very slowly.[27]

In 2015, researchers discovered that mealworms, the larvae form of the darkling beetle Tenebrio molitor,
could digest and subsist healthily on a diet of EPS.[28][29] About 100 mealworms could consume between
34 and 39 milligrams of this white foam in a day. The droppings of mealworm were found to be safe for
use as soil for crops.[28]

In 2016, it was also reported that superworms (Zophobas morio) may eat expanded polystyrene (EPS).[30]
A group of high school students in Ateneo de Manila University found that compared to Tenebrio molitor
larvae, Zophobas morio larvae may consume greater amounts of EPS over longer periods of time.[31]

In 2022 scientists identified several bacterial genera, including Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus and
Corynebacterium, in the gut of superworms that contain encoded enzymes associated with the
degradation of polystyrene and the breakdown product styrene.[32]

The bacterium Pseudomonas putida is capable of converting styrene oil into the biodegradable plastic
PHA.[33][34][35] This may someday be of use in the effective disposing of polystyrene foam. It is worthy
to note the polystyrene must undergo pyrolysis to turn into styrene oil.

Forms produced
Polystyrene is commonly injection molded, vacuum formed, or extruded, while expanded polystyrene is
either extruded or molded in a special process. Polystyrene copolymers are also produced; these contain
one or more other monomers in addition to styrene. In recent years the expanded polystyrene composites
with cellulose[39][40] and starch[41] have also been produced. Polystyrene is used in some polymer-
bonded explosives (PBX).

Sheet or molded polystyrene

Polystyrene (PS) is used for producing disposable plastic cutlery and dinnerware, CD "jewel" cases,
smoke detector housings, license plate frames, plastic model assembly kits, and many other objects where
a rigid, economical plastic is desired. Production methods include thermoforming (vacuum forming) and
injection molding.
 Polystyrene
Petri dishes Properties
and other Density of EPS 16–640 kg/m3[36]
laboratory
Young's modulus (E) 3000–3600 MPa
containers
such as test Tensile strength (st) 46–60 MPa
tubes and Elongation at break 3–4%
microplates
Charpy impact test 2–5 kJ/m2
play an
important Glass transition temperature 100 °C[37]
CD case made from role in Vicat softening point 90 °C[38]
general purpose biomedical
polystyrene (GPPS) and research and Coefficient of thermal expansion 8×10−5 /K
high impact polystyrene science. For Specific heat capacity (c) 1.3 kJ/(kg·K)
(HIPS)
these uses, Water absorption (ASTM) 0.03–0.1

Decomposition X years, still decaying

articles are almost always made by injection molding, and often
sterilized post-molding, either by irradiation or by treatment with
ethylene oxide. Post-mold surface modification, usually with
oxygen-rich plasmas, is often done to introduce polar groups.
Much of modern biomedical research relies on the use of such
products; they, therefore, play a critical role in pharmaceutical
research.[42]

Thin sheets of polystyrene are used in polystyrene film capacitors

Disposable polystyrene razor as it forms a very stable dielectric, but has largely fallen out of use
in favor of polyester.

Foams
Polystyrene foams are 95–98% air.[43][44] Polystyrene foams are
good thermal insulators and are therefore often used as building
insulation materials, such as in insulating concrete forms and
structural insulated panel building systems. Grey polystyrene
foam, incorporating graphite, has superior insulation
properties.[45]

Carl Munters and John Gudbrand Tandberg of Sweden received a

US patent for polystyrene foam as an insulation product in 1935 Closeup of expanded polystyrene
(USA patent number 2,023,204).[46] packaging

PS foams also exhibit good damping properties, therefore it is

used widely in packaging. The trademark Styrofoam by Dow Chemical Company is informally used
(mainly US & Canada) for all foamed polystyrene products, although strictly it should only be used for
"extruded closed-cell" polystyrene foams made by Dow Chemicals.
Foams are also used for non-weight-bearing architectural structures (such as ornamental pillars).

Expanded polystyrene (EPS)

Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is a rigid and tough, closed-cell foam
with a normal density range of 11 to 32 kg/m3.[47] It is usually
white and made of pre-expanded polystyrene beads. The
manufacturing process for EPS conventionally begins with the
creation of small polystyrene beads. Styrene monomers (and
potentially other additives) are suspended in water, where they
undergo free-radical addition polymerization. The polystyrene Thermocol slabs made of expanded
beads formed by this mechanism may have an average diameter of polystyrene (EPS) beads. The one
around 200 μm. The beads are then permeated with a "blowing on the left is from a packing box.
agent", a material that enables the beads to be expanded. Pentane The one on the right is used for
is commonly used as the blowing agent. The beads are added to a crafts. It has a corky, papery texture
and is used for stage decoration,
continuously agitated reactor with the blowing agent, among other
exhibition models, and sometimes
additives, and the blowing agent seeps into pores within each as a cheap alternative to shola
bead. The beads are then expanded using steam.[48] (Aeschynomene aspera) stems for
artwork.
EPS is used for food containers, molded sheets for building
insulation, and packing material either as solid blocks formed to
accommodate the item being protected or as loose-fill "peanuts"
cushioning fragile items inside boxes. EPS also has been widely
used in automotive and road safety applications such as
motorcycle helmets and road barriers on automobile race
tracks.[49][50][51]

A significant portion of all EPS products are manufactured

through injection molding. Mold tools tend to be manufactured
from steels (which can be hardened and plated), and aluminum
alloys. The molds are controlled through a split via a channel
system of gates and runners.[52] EPS is colloquially called
"styrofoam" in the Anglosphere, an genericization of Dow Section of a block of thermocol
under a light microscope (bright-
Chemical's brand of extruded polystyrene.[53]
field, objective = 10×, eyepiece =
15×). The larger spheres are
EPS in building construction expanded polystyrene beads which
were compressed and fused. The
Sheets of EPS are commonly packaged as rigid panels (common bright, star-shaped hole at the
in Europe is a size of 100 cm x 50 cm, usually depending on an center of the image is an air-gap
intended type of connection and glue techniques, it is, in fact, between the beads where the bead
99.5 cm x 49.5 cm or 98 cm x 48 cm; less common is 120 x margins have not completely fused.
60 cm; size 4 by 8 ft (1.2 by 2.4 m) or 2 by 8 ft (0.61 by 2.44 m) in Each bead is made of thin-walled,
the United States). Common thicknesses are from 10 mm to air-filled bubbles of polystyrene.

500 mm. Many customizations, additives, and thin additional

external layers on one or both sides are often added to help with various properties. An example of this is
lamination with cement board to form a structural insulated panel.
Thermal conductivity is measured according to EN 12667. Typical values range from 0.032 to
0.038 W/(m⋅K) depending on the density of the EPS board. The value of 0.038 W/(m⋅K) was obtained at
15 kg/m3 while the value of 0.032 W/(m⋅K) was obtained at 40 kg/m3 according to the datasheet of K-
710 from StyroChem Finland. Adding fillers (graphites, aluminum, or carbons) has recently allowed the
thermal conductivity of EPS to reach around 0.030–0.034 W/(m⋅K) (as low as 0.029 W/(m⋅K)) and as
such has a grey/black color which distinguishes it from standard EPS. Several EPS producers have
produced a variety of these increased thermal resistance EPS usage for this product in the UK and EU.

Water vapor diffusion resistance (μ) of EPS is around 30–70.

ICC-ES (International Code Council Evaluation Service) requires EPS boards used in building
construction meet ASTM C578 requirements. One of these requirements is that the limiting oxygen index
of EPS as measured by ASTM D2863 be greater than 24 volume %. Typical EPS has an oxygen index of
around 18 volume %; thus, a flame retardant is added to styrene or polystyrene during the formation of
EPS.

The boards containing a flame retardant when tested in a tunnel using test method UL 723 or ASTM E84
will have a flame spread index of less than 25 and a smoke-developed index of less than 450. ICC-ES
requires the use of a 15-minute thermal barrier when EPS boards are used inside of a building.

According to the EPS-IA ICF organization, the typical density of EPS used for insulated concrete forms
(expanded polystyrene concrete) is 1.35 to 1.80 pounds per cubic foot (21.6 to 28.8 kg/m3). This is either
Type II or Type IX EPS according to ASTM C578. EPS blocks or boards used in building construction
are commonly cut using hot wires.[54]

Extruded polystyrene (XPS)

Extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) consists
of closed cells. It offers improved surface
roughness, higher stiffness and reduced
thermal conductivity. The density range is
about 28–34 kg/m3.[55][56]

Extruded polystyrene material is also used

in crafts and model building, in particular
architectural models. Because of the
extrusion manufacturing process, XPS
does not require facers to maintain its
thermal or physical property performance. Extruded polystyrene has a smooth texture, and can be cut
Thus, it makes a more uniform substitute into sharp-edged shapes without crumbling
for corrugated cardboard. Thermal
conductivity varies between 0.029 and
0.039 W/(m·K) depending on bearing strength/density and the average value is ≈0.035 W/(m·K).

Water vapor diffusion resistance (μ) of XPS is around 80–250.

Commonly extruded polystyrene foam materials include:

Styrofoam, also known as Blue Board, produced by DuPont

 Depron, a thin insulation sheet also used for model building[57]

Water absorption of polystyrene foams

Although it is a closed-cell foam, both expanded and extruded polystyrene are not entirely waterproof or
vapor proof.[58] In expanded polystyrene there are interstitial gaps between the expanded closed-cell
pellets that form an open network of channels between the bonded pellets, and this network of gaps can
become filled with liquid water. If the water freezes into ice, it expands and can cause polystyrene pellets
to break off from the foam. Extruded polystyrene is also permeable by water molecules and can not be
considered a vapor barrier.[59]

Water-logging commonly occurs over a long period in polystyrene foams that are constantly exposed to
high humidity or are continuously immersed in water, such as in hot tub covers, in floating docks, as
supplemental flotation under boat seats, and for below-grade exterior building insulation constantly
exposed to groundwater.[60] Typically an exterior vapor barrier such as impermeable plastic sheeting or a
sprayed-on coating is necessary to prevent saturation.

Oriented polystyrene
Oriented polystyrene (OPS) is produced by stretching extruded PS film, improving visibility through the
material by reducing haziness and increasing stiffness. This is often used in packaging where the
manufacturer would like the consumer to see the enclosed product. Some benefits to OPS are that it is
less expensive to produce than other clear plastics such as polypropylene (PP), (PET), and high-impact
polystyrene (HIPS), and it is less hazy than HIPS or PP. The main disadvantage of OPS is that it is brittle,
and will crack or tear easily.

Co-polymers
Ordinary (homopolymeric) polystyrene has an excellent property profile about transparency, surface
quality and stiffness. Its range of applications is further extended by copolymerization and other
modifications (blends e.g. with PC and syndiotactic polystyrene).[61]: 102–104 Several copolymers are used
based on styrene: The brittleness of homopolymeric polystyrene is overcome by elastomer-modified
styrene-butadiene copolymers. Copolymers of styrene and acrylonitrile (SAN) are more resistant to
thermal stress, heat and chemicals than homopolymers and are also transparent. Copolymers called ABS
have similar properties and can be used at low temperatures, but they are opaque.

Styrene-butane co-polymers
Styrene-butane co-polymers can be produced with a low butene content. Styrene-butane co-polymers
include PS-I and SBC (see below), both co-polymers are impact resistant. PS-I is prepared by graft co-
polymerization, SBC by anionic block co-polymerization, which makes it transparent in case of
appropriate block size.[62]

If styrene-butane co-polymer has a high butylene content, styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is formed.
The impact strength of styrene-butadiene co-polymers is based on phase separation, polystyrene and
poly-butane are not soluble in each other (see Flory–Huggins solution theory). Co-polymerization creates
a boundary layer without complete mixing. The butadiene fractions (the "rubber phase") assemble to form
particles embedded in a polystyrene matrix. A decisive factor for the improved impact strength of styrene-
butadiene copolymers is their higher absorption capacity for deformation work. Without applied force,
the rubber phase initially behaves like a filler. Under tensile stress, crazes (microcracks) are formed,
which spread to the rubber particles. The energy of the propagating crack is then transferred to the rubber
particles along its path. A large number of cracks give the originally rigid material a laminated structure.
The formation of each lamella contributes to the consumption of energy and thus to an increase in
elongation at break. Polystyrene homo-polymers deform when a force is applied until they break.
Styrene-butane co-polymers do not break at this point, but begin to flow, solidify to tensile strength and
only break at much higher elongation.[63]: 426

With a high proportion of polybutadiene, the effect of the two phases is reversed. Styrene-butadiene
rubber behaves like an elastomer but can be processed like a thermoplastic.

Impact-resistant polystyrene (PS-I)

PS-I (impact resistant polystyrene) consists of a continuous polystyrene matrix and a rubber phase
dispersed therein. It is produced by polymerization of styrene in the presence of polybutadiene dissolved
(in styrene). Polymerization takes place simultaneously in two ways:[64]

Graft copolymerization: The growing polystyrene chain reacts with a double bond of the
polybutadiene. As a result, several polystyrene chains are attached to one polybutadiene.
S represents in the figure the styrene repeat unit
B the butadiene repeat unit. However, the middle block often does not consist of such
depicted butane homo-polymer but of a styrene-butadiene co-polymer:

SSSSSS­SSSSSSS­SSSSSSBBSBBSB­SBBBBSB­SSBBBSBSSSSSSS­‐
SSSSSSS­SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS

By using a statistical copolymer at this position, the polymer becomes less susceptible to cross-linking
and flows better in the melt. For the production of SBS, the first styrene is homopolymerized via anionic
copolymerization. Typically, an organometallic compound such as butyllithium is used as a catalyst.
Butadiene is then added and after styrene again its polymerization. The catalyst remains active during the
whole process (for which the used chemicals must be of high purity). The molecular weight distribution
of the polymers is very low (polydispersity in the range of 1.05, the individual chains have thus very
similar lengths). The length of the individual blocks can be adjusted by the ratio of catalyst to monomer.
The size of the rubber sections, in turn, depends on the block length. The production of small structures
(smaller than the wavelength of the light) ensure transparency. In contrast to PS-I, however, the block
copolymer does not form any particles but has a lamellar structure.

Styrene-butadiene rubber
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is produced like PS-I by graft copolymerization, but with a lower styrene
content. Styrene-butadiene rubber thus consists of a rubber matrix with a polystyrene phase dispersed
therein.[65] Unlike PS-I and SBC, it is not a thermoplastic, but an elastomer. Within the rubber phase, the
polystyrene phase is assembled into domains. This causes physical cross-linking on a microscopic level.
When the material is heated above the glass transition point, the domains disintegrate, the cross-linking is
temporarily suspended and the material can be processed like a thermoplastic.[66]

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is a material that is stronger than pure polystyrene.

Others
SMA is a copolymer with maleic anhydride. Styrene can be copolymerized with other monomers; for
example, divinylbenzene can be used for cross-linking the polystyrene chains to give the polymer used in
solid phase peptide synthesis. Styrene-acrylonitrile resin (SAN) has a greater thermal resistance than pure
styrene.

Environmental issues

Production
Polystyrene foams are produced using blowing agents that form bubbles and expand the foam. In
expanded polystyrene, these are usually hydrocarbons such as pentane, which may pose a flammability
hazard in manufacturing or storage of newly manufactured material, but have relatively mild
environmental impact. Extruded polystyrene is usually made with hydrofluorocarbons (HFC-134a),[67]
which have global warming potentials of approximately 1000–1300 times that of carbon dioxide.[68]
Packaging, particularly expanded polystyrene, is a contributor of microplastics from both land and
maritime activities.[69]

Environmental degradation
Polystyrene is not biodegradeable but it is susceptible to photo-oxidation.[70] For this reason commercial
products contain light stabilizers.

Litter
Animals do not recognize polystyrene foam as an artificial
material and may even mistake it for food.[71] Polystyrene foam
blows in the wind and floats on water due to its low specific
gravity. It can have serious effects on the health of birds and
marine animals that swallow significant quantities.[71] Juvenile
rainbow trout exposed to polystyrene fragments show toxic effects
in the form of substantial histomorphometrical changes.[72]

Discarded polystyrene cup on the

Reducing shore of Lake Michigan
Restricting the use of foamed polystyrene takeout food packaging is a priority of many solid waste
environmental organisations.[73] Efforts have been made to find alternatives to polystyrene, especially
foam in restaurant settings. The original impetus was to eliminate chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), which was
a former component of foam.

United States
In 1987, Berkeley, California, banned CFC food containers.[74] The following year, Suffolk County, New
York, became the first U.S. jurisdiction to ban polystyrene in general.[75] However, legal challenges by
the Society of the Plastics Industry[76] kept the ban from going into effect until at last it was delayed
when the Republican and Conservative parties gained the majority of the county legislature.[77] In the
meantime, Berkeley became the first city to ban all foam food containers.[78] As of 2006, about one
hundred localities in the United States, including Portland, Oregon, and San Francisco had some sort of
ban on polystyrene foam in restaurants. For instance, in 2007 Oakland, California, required restaurants to
switch to disposable food containers that would biodegrade if added to food compost.[79] In 2013, San
Jose became reportedly the largest city in the country to ban polystyrene foam food containers.[80] Some
communities have implemented wide polystyrene bans, such as Freeport, Maine, which did so in
1990.[81] In 1988, the first U.S. ban of general polystyrene foam was enacted in Berkeley, California.[78]

On 1 July 2015, New York City became the largest city in the United States to attempt to prohibit the
sale, possession, and distribution of single-use polystyrene foam (the initial decision was overturned on
appeal).[82] In San Francisco, supervisors approved the toughest ban on "Styrofoam" (EPS) in the US
which went into effect 1 January 2017. The city's Department of the Environment can make exceptions
for certain uses like shipping medicines at prescribed temperatures.[83]

The U.S. Green Restaurant Association does not allow polystyrene foam to be used as part of its
certification standard.[84] Several green leaders, including the Dutch Ministry of the Environment, advise
people to reduce their environmental harm by using reusable coffee cups.[85]

In March 2019, Maryland banned polystyrene foam food containers and became the first state in the
country to pass a food container foam ban through the state legislature. Maine was the first state to
officially get a foam food container ban onto the books. In May 2019, Maryland Governor Hogan
allowed the foam ban (House Bill 109) to become law without a signature making Maryland the second
state to have a food container foam ban on the books, but is the first one to take effect on 1 July
2020.[86][87][88][89]

In September 2020, the New Jersey state legislature voted to ban disposable foam food containers and
cups made of polystyrene foam.[90]

Outside the United States

China banned expanded polystyrene takeout/takeaway containers and tableware around 1999. However,
compliance has been a problem and, in 2013, the Chinese plastics industry was lobbying for the ban's
repeal.[91]

India and Taiwan also banned polystyrene-foam food-service ware before 2007.[92]
The government of Zimbabwe, through its Environmental
Management Agency (EMA), banned polystyrene containers
(popularly called 'kaylite' in the country), under Statutory
Instrument 84 of 2012 (Plastic Packaging and Plastic Bottles)
(Amendment) Regulations, 2012 (No 1.) [93] [94]

The city of Vancouver, Canada, has announced its Zero Waste

2040 plan in 2018. The city will introduce bylaw amendments to
prohibit business license holders from serving prepared food in Expanded polystyrene waste in
Japan
polystyrene foam cups and take-out containers, beginning 1 June
2019.[95]

In 2019, the European Union voted to ban expanded polystyrene food packaging and cups, with the law
officially going into effect in 2021.[96][97]

Fiji passed the Environmental Management Bill in December 2020. Imports of polystyrene products were
banned in January 2021.[98]

Recycling
In general, polystyrene is not accepted in curbside collection recycling programs and
is not separated and recycled where it is accepted. In Germany, polystyrene is
collected as a consequence of the packaging law (Verpackungsverordnung) that
requires manufacturers to take responsibility for recycling or disposing of any
packaging material they sell.

Most polystyrene products are currently not recycled due to the lack of incentive to The resin
identification
invest in the compactors and logistical systems required. Due to the low density of
code symbol
polystyrene foam, it is not economical to collect. However, if the waste material goes for polystyrene
through an initial compaction process, the material changes density from typically
30 kg/m3 to 330 kg/m3 and becomes a recyclable commodity of high value for
producers of recycled plastic pellets. Expanded polystyrene scrap can be easily added to products such as
EPS insulation sheets and other EPS materials for construction applications; many manufacturers cannot
obtain sufficient scrap because of collection issues. When it is not used to make more EPS, foam scrap
can be turned into products such as clothes hangers, park benches, flower pots, toys, rulers, stapler
bodies, seedling containers, picture frames, and architectural molding from recycled PS.[99] As of 2016,
around 100 tonnes of EPS are recycled every month in the UK.[100]

Recycled EPS is also used in many metal casting operations. Rastra is made from EPS that is combined
with cement to be used as an insulating amendment in the making of concrete foundations and walls.
American manufacturers have produced insulating concrete forms made with approximately 80%
recycled EPS since 1993.

Upcycling
A March 2022 joint study by scientists Sewon Oh and Erin Stache at Cornell University in Ithaca, New
York found a new processing method of upcycling polystyrene to benzoic acid. The process involved
irradiation of polystyrene with iron chloride and acetone under white light and oxygen for 20 hours.[101]
The scientists also demonstrated a similar scalable commercial process of upcycling polystyrene into
valuable small-molecules (like benzoic acid) taking just a few hours.[101]

Incineration
If polystyrene is properly incinerated at high temperatures (up to 1000 °C[102]) and with plenty of air[102]
(14 m3/kg), the chemicals generated are water, carbon dioxide, and possibly small amounts of residual
halogen-compounds from flame-retardants.[102] If only incomplete incineration is done, there will also be
leftover carbon soot and a complex mixture of volatile compounds.[103] According to the American
Chemistry Council, when polystyrene is incinerated in modern facilities, the final volume is 1% of the
starting volume; most of the polystyrene is converted into carbon dioxide, water vapor, and heat. Because
of the amount of heat released, it is sometimes used as a power source for steam or electricity
generation.[102][104]

When polystyrene was burned at temperatures of 800–900 °C (the typical range of a modern incinerator),
the products of combustion consisted of "a complex mixture of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
from alkyl benzenes to benzoperylene. Over 90 different compounds were identified in combustion
effluents from polystyrene."[105] The American National Bureau of Standards Center for Fire Research
found 57 chemical by-products released during the combustion of expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam.[106]

Safety

Health
The American Chemistry Council, formerly known as the Chemical Manufacturers' Association, writes:

Based on scientific tests over five decades, government safety agencies have determined that
polystyrene is safe for use in foodservice products. For example, polystyrene meets the
stringent standards of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the European
Commission/European Food Safety Authority for use in packaging to store and serve food. The
Hong Kong Food and Environmental Hygiene Department recently reviewed the safety of
serving various foods in polystyrene foodservice products and reached the same conclusion as
the U.S. FDA.[107]

From 1999 to 2002, a comprehensive review of the potential health risks associated with exposure to
styrene was conducted by a 12-member international expert panel selected by the Harvard Center for
Risk Assessment. The scientists had expertise in toxicology, epidemiology, medicine, risk analysis,
pharmacokinetics, and exposure assessment. The Harvard study reported that styrene is naturally present
in trace quantities in foods such as strawberries, beef, and spices, and is naturally produced in the
processing of foods such as wine and cheese. The study also reviewed all the published data on the
quantity of styrene contributing to the diet due to migration of food packaging and disposable food
contact articles, and concluded that risk to the general public from exposure to styrene from foods or
food-contact applications (such as polystyrene packaging and foodservice containers) was at levels too
low to produce adverse effects.[108]
Polystyrene is commonly used in containers for food and drinks. The styrene monomer (from which
polystyrene is made) is a cancer suspect agent.[109] Styrene is "generally found in such low levels in
consumer products that risks aren't substantial".[110] Polystyrene which is used for food contact may not
contain more than 1% (0.5% for fatty foods) of styrene by weight.[111] Styrene oligomers in polystyrene
containers used for food packaging have been found to migrate into the food.[112] Another Japanese study
conducted on wild-type and AhR-null mice found that the styrene trimer, which the authors detected in
cooked polystyrene container-packed instant foods, may increase thyroid hormone levels.[113]

Whether polystyrene can be microwaved with food is controversial. Some containers may be safely used
in a microwave, but only if labeled as such.[114] Some sources suggest that foods containing carotene
(vitamin A) or cooking oils must be avoided.[115]

Because of the pervasive use of polystyrene, these serious health related issues remain topical.[116]

Fire hazards
Like other organic compounds, polystyrene is flammable. Polystyrene is classified according to DIN4102
as a "B3" product, meaning highly flammable or "Easily Ignited". As a consequence, although it is an
efficient insulator at low temperatures, its use is prohibited in any exposed installations in building
construction if the material is not flame-retardant. It must be concealed behind drywall, sheet metal, or
concrete.[117] Foamed polystyrene plastic materials have been accidentally ignited and caused huge fires
and losses of life, for example at the Düsseldorf International Airport and in the Channel Tunnel (where
polystyrene was inside a railway carriage that caught fire).[118]

See also
Styrofoam
Foam food container
Bioplastic
Geofoam
Structural insulated panel
Polystyrene sulfonate
Shrinky Dinks
Insulating concrete form
Foamcore

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Bibliography
Haynes, William M., ed. (2011). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (92nd ed.). CRC
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External links
Polystyrene Composition (http://www.pslc.ws/mactest/styrene.htm) – The University of
Southern Mississippi
SPI resin identification code (https://web.archive.org/web/20160306155212/http://plasticsind
ustry.org/aboutplastics/content.cfm?itemnumber=825&navitemnumber=1124) – Society of
the Plastics Industry
Polystyrene: Local Ordinances (http://www.cawrecycles.org/polystyrene-local-ordinances) –
Californians Against Waste
Take a Closer Look at Today's Polystyrene Packaging (http://plastics.americanchemistry.co
m/Education-Resources/Publications/Brochure-Take-a-Closer-Look-at-Todays-Polystyrene-
PackagingSafe-Affordable-and-Environmentally-R.pdf) (brochure by the industry group
American Chemistry Council, arguing that the material is "safe, affordable and
environmentally responsible")
Lettieri TR, Hartman AW, Hembree GG, Marx E (1991). "Certification of SRM1960: Nominal
10 μm Diameter Polystyrene Spheres ("Space Beads")" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/a
rticles/PMC4915770). Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and
Technology. 96 (6): 669–691. doi:10.6028/jres.096.044 (https://doi.org/10.6028%2Fjres.096.
044). PMC 4915770 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4915770).
PMID 28184141 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28184141).

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