Happiness

Block III

POSITIVE COGNITIVE STATES

AND PROCESSES

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UNIT 8 SELF AND RELATED CONCEPTS*
Structure
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Concept of Self
8.3.1 Different Aspects of Self

8.4 Self-Concept
8.4.1 Real Self and Ideal Self

8.5 Self-Esteem
8.6 Self-Efficacy
8.7 Self-Regulation
8.8 Let Us Sum Up
8.9 Key Words
8.10 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
8.11 Unit End Questions
8.12 References
8.13 Suggested Readings

8.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you would be able to:
• Describe the concept of self;
• Understand different aspects of self;
• Differentiate between real-self and ideal-self;
• Explain the concept of self-esteem;
• Explain the concept of self-efficacy; and
• Learn about strategies for self-regulation of behaviour.

8.2 INTRODUCTION
The question “Who am I” is a central point that can arise in each stage of
our life, though it is more pertinent during the adolescence stage. Whatever
developmental stages you are in by now, you must have formed some notions
about yourself, though you may or may not be aware about it. Self is and has
always been the intriguing concept to understand. All of us have certain views
and beliefs about ourselves - our abilities, skills, interests, likings, dislikings,
strengths and weaknesses etc. Thus we know what we are, what are our aims
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*
Sunita Devi, Senior Consultant (Manodarpan), DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi
Positive Cognitive in life, how do we want to live our life, what are our guiding principles and
States and Processes values. These play a significant role in directing us, guiding us, and regulating
our emotions and actions. So how do we develop this concept of self? Are there
different aspects of self? There are various terms related to the self such as self-
concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. One needs to have a good self-concept,
high levels of self-esteem and self-efficacy to function effectively and engage
in positive behaviour. This will indicate a positive self. So in the present Unit,
you will learn about the self and its related concepts such as self-esteem, self-
efficacy, and self-regulation.

8.3 CONCEPT OF SELF

If you ask yourself ‘Who am I?’, “What makes me?” , you might answer with “I
am a student,” or, “I am a singer,” or may be, “I am a God fearing person” etc.
Or, perhaps you may answer, “I am good in studies,” “I am a trained dancer,”
or “I am a popular sportsperson.” Here you may note that you are qualifying
your abilities. Further answers might include the type of traits: “I am a caring
person,” “I am an introvert,” or “I am a disciplined and punctual person”. These
answers arise from what you think about yourself, which is developed from your
experiences and evaluation from early life, and it keeps adjusting or changing
throughout life.
Mostly when people go for interview, the most common question asked is
“describe yourself or tell us about yourself”. What you answer is all about how
you perceive your ‘self’. You may describe physical features, traits, qualities,
goals, motives etc. Thus, your concept of self is made up of varied information
about yourself, which you gain from your own experience and also receive
from others in your environment.
Reflective Activity 1:
Let us try to have some preliminary notion of yourself (i.e. who are you?) by
completing the following sentences. You can write more number of points
also by taking a separate sheet (it will be a good idea to note down the time
you will take to finish this activity of writing about yourself)
Starting Time: _____________
I am .......................................................
I am .......................................................
I am .......................................................
I am .......................................................
I am .......................................................
Ending Time _____________
Reflect on the following:
1. How easy was it for you to complete these sentences?
2. How much time did you take?
3. Different people take different time to answer these questions.
Why?
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It might have been very easy for you or might have not been as easy as you Self and Related
may have thought of at first. You were describing your ‘self’ when you were Concepts
answering the above statements. As you are aware of various objects and people
around you, similarly you are aware about your ‘self’. When a child is born, they
develop their self-concept gradually in interaction with their parents/caregivers,
family members, friends, teachers and other significant people around. Our
interaction and experiences with other people and the way we perceive these
help us to form the foundation of our self-concept. Further, different social
and cultural systems and institutions around us including societal expectations,
cultural values, social media usage and technology etc. also affect our perception
of ourselves.
If you see the list of yours and your friends/family members in the above
Reflective activity 1, you will realise that how different we are because of our
different experiences and interpretation we make of these.
When we analyse these various descriptions about ourselves, we can categorize
them into various categories such as those describing our abilities and skills, i.e.,
what can we do (self-concept); those describing us in terms of affective value,
i.e., how do we value or respect ourselves (self-esteem); and those expressing
our belief in ourselves that we are capable of doing things, a sense of personal
control (self-efficacy).

8.3.1 Different Aspects of Self

Our ‘self’ can also be described in terms of personal, social, cognitive, and
behavioural aspects. The personal self is mainly concerned with one’s own
self related to personal aspects, whereas the social self develops in relation with
others and is primarily concerned with family and social relationships (socio-
cultural context). Therefore, it is also known as familial or relational self. The
self can also be understood in terms of cognitive and behavioural aspects.
If you reflect on your answers in the Reflective activity 1, you will realise that
self is made up of your personal and social self. If you identify yourself with
your personal information or attributes such as your name, your quality, your
abilities or your beliefs/values, you are referring to your personal self, whereas
if you say that you belongs to Kerala or Rajasthan, you are a Hindu/Muslim, etc.
you are referring to your social or cultural self. Sometimes you may wonder
why some feel offensive if something is said about their place or religion or
family, now you can understand that it affects their social self or identity that
is why they probably feel bad and react in that manner. Thus, the way people
describe themselves as a person, defines their ‘self’. Self as a whole is about the
person’s thoughts, feelings, experiences, and ideas, with respect to herself or
himself which define the person at both, the personal and social levels.
These different aspects of self get shaped up by the result of our interactions with
our physical and socio-cultural environments. Therefore, it is multi-faceted. The
origins of self may be observed in infancy when the infant is aware that s/he is
hungry and cries to be fed by the caregiver. So, this biological need of food and
hence crying, later on modifies according to the socio-cultural environmental
context. For example, while you may feel hungry for a pizza, a tribal adult is
not. Another example is that fasting is given importance in all the religions.
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Positive Cognitive Although you have a biological need of food and you feel hungry everyday
States and Processes normally, but on the day of the fast, you ignore or may not even feel hungry
because of the social-cultural conditioning.

8.4 SELF-CONCEPT
Self-concept is a basic notion about who we are in terms of physically,
emotionally, socially, and spiritually (Neill, 2005). From the time of our birth,
we develop and regulate our self-concept based on the information received
from others about ourselves. Thus self is a multi-dimensional concept. It is
affected by multiple factors, which in turn influence the individual aspects. For
instance, you may think and describe yourself in terms of your physical aspects,
and in terms of your relations or emotions. Your perception about yourself in
physical aspects, e.g., you are very fat or very thin, may impact your interaction
in social situations or your emotions.
A few definitions of self-concept are given below.
• According to Roy Baumeister (1999), self-concept is “the individual’s
belief about himself or herself, including the person’s attributes and who
and what the self is.”
• The self-concept is defined as “the composite ideas, feelings, and attitudes
people have about themselves’ (Hilgard, Atkinson, and Atkinson, 1979:
p.605).
• According to Purkey (1988), self-concept is “the sum of a complex,
organized, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions
that each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence”. Let’s
understand the important terms in this definition. According to him, the
self-concept is:
 Learned: We are not born with the concept of self (and that is why it
is said that the child is like a blank slate), it is learnt steadily, formed
and re-formed by significant others and events in our life. Basically a
child’s self-image is a learnt one which is influenced by the feedback
given by significant others such as parents, family, peers and teachers.
Here we need to remember that we all have our own way of seeing
the things so the feedback given to the child may not essentially be
the accurate one. For example, if a parent or teacher constantly tell
the child that s/he is obedient, the child starts believing and see her/
himself as obedient, or when they tell the child that s/he is mischievous,
the child begins to think so. Though, it may not be true, as it is the
subjective opinion of parents and teachers. Thus, two children with a
similar behaviour pattern would have different self-pictures according
to the message relayed by their respective parents. Teachers are
considered the second parents and influence children’s life in a very
significant way (Lawrence, 1996). Teachers too may have judgements
about children like parents. The judgments or assumptions of teachers
about the child may be similar to parents or it may be different.
 Organized: Our self-concept is organized which is characterized
134 by orderliness and harmony (Damon and Hart, 1991) that provides
 consistency to the personality of an individual. That is why personality Self and Related
is defined as the individualistic characteristics which is relatively Concepts
permanent in nature.
 Dynamic: Life is all about ups and downs, success and failure which
impacts our self-concept making it dynamic in nature which changes
and develop according to our experiences and situations. In order to
develop a healthy personality, an individual needs to work constantly
on assimilating the new thoughts into old ones throughout life.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. If a person says, “I am good in studies”, s/he is referring to her/his
social self.
True / False
2. When an individual says that s/he belongs to South India, s/he is
referring to her/his social self. True / False
3. The self as a whole is made up of individual’s:
a) thoughts and feelings
b) experiences, and ideas
c) only A
d) both A and B
4. From the following which is not true about ‘Self’:
a) Learned
b) Dynamic
c) Static
d) Organised
5. “Self-concept is a basic notion about who we are in terms of
physically, emotionally, socially, spiritually” Who said this?
a) Hilgard, Atkinson, and Atkinson
b) Roy Baumeister
c) Purkey
d) Neill
All of us have some sense of who we are and how different we are from others.
Our perception and ideas about our capabilities and qualities is known as self-
concept. This view about our self or our self-concept can be positive or negative,
depending upon our experiences and mind set. The way we would respond to
the question, “Who am I?” tells about how do we see ourselves, positively
or negatively. The positive response to this question makes us feel good or
rather we can say that if we feel good about our self then our answer would
be positive. It can be that we may like some of our qualities and may not like 135
Positive Cognitive other. For example, one may feel good about his/her social skills but may not
States and Processes be positive or confident about the academic skills. Although it is not easy to
find out an individual’s self-concept, yet you may get a fair idea by the way an
individual describes about him/her.
Our positive self helps us to view the world as a safe and positive place to be
in. On the other hand, the negative response makes us feel unhappy about who
we are and make us view the world as unsafe and bad place to be in. According
to Rogers, self-actualizing tendencies drive all human behaviour to achieve at
their fullest level of potentials. A person forms the basic structure of self and
related concepts based on the result of his/her interactions with the environment
and others. Thus self-concept is an organized, dynamic, conceptual pattern of
ideas and values related to the self.

8.4.1 Real Self and Ideal Self

The ‘self’ has two parts: the Ideal self and the Real self. According to Carl
Rogers, we all visualise ourselves into our ideal self, which we would like to be;
whereas the real self is what we actually are. Our real self can be very different
from our ideal self. The more the gap or disparity between what we like to be
(ideal self) and what we are (real self), the more the disharmony within our
self. That is why Rogers emphasized that we essentially need to work towards
attaining the harmony or consistency between these two selves. We achieve
harmony or the congruence by making our thoughts and actions of real self,
similar to our ideal self. In short, when our self-concept is accurate, we achieve
congruence or harmony within self.
It is very important to focus on bringing or maintaining this congruence, as high
congruence is essential to have a greater sense of self-esteem and a healthy,
fruitful life. On the other hand, if the discrepancy is more between our ideal
and actual selves, we experience a state of incongruence, which can lead to
low self-esteem, anxiety and maladjustment. So adults especially, the parents
and teachers, need to provide unconditional positive regard, or unconditional
love to children, which can help our children achieve high congruency in their
ideal and real self. Rogers (1980) mentioned that, “as individuals are accepted
and valued as they are, they tend to develop a more caring attitude towards
themselves” (p. 116).

8.5 SELF-ESTEEM
Another important aspect of our self is self-esteem. As a human being, we
constantly evaluate our self or make some judgment about our own value or
worth which is termed as self-esteem. People vary in viewing their self-esteem,
some have high self-esteem, whereas others may have low self-esteem. Self-
esteem reflects a personal psychological characteristic relating to self-judgment
based on one’s values about humans (Alesi et. al., 2012). It indicates being
aware of one’s value system and an emotional evaluation of one’s self-worth
(Schunk, 1985).
Self-esteem is a multi-dimensional construct. We have a global overall self-
esteem based on general judgements of self-worth and various subtypes of self-
esteem based on evaluations of self-worth in different contexts such as, within
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the family, school, work setting, leisure setting, or peer group (Mruk, 1999). Self and Related
Self-esteem is different from self-confidence. Self-confidence indicates that Concepts
you are confident of your ability to carry out a particular thing. On the other
hand, self-esteem refers to how high you hold yourself in your own eyes, how
much respect and worth you give to yourself.
There are many self-report measures to assess self-esteem of individuals such
as giving a variety of statements and asking a person to indicate whether the
statements given are true for her/him or not.
For instance:
• “I am good at sports”
• “I am the one usually chosen for the cultural programmes or
competitions”
• “I am highly liked by my teachers”
• “My friends consider me a trustworthy person”
If a child says ‘Yes’ to the above statements, it shows that s/he has high self-
esteem in comparison to the child who says “No”. Generally by 6-7 years of age,
children’s self-esteem is formed at least in four areas: academic competence,
social competence, physical/athletic competence, and physical appearance,
which improve with age and experience. Rosenberg’s Self-esteem inventory
(Rosenberg, 1965b) is a most commonly used uni-dimensional measure of self-
esteem. Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (Coopersmith, 1981, 2002) is a
multi-dimensinal measure of self-esteem in areas of family, school, peers, and
general social activities.
Self-esteem is more or less stable across the life span, though it may vary at
lifecycle transition points (Robins et.al., 1999). For instance, teenagers may
experience a drop in self-esteem due to the various physical and psychological
changes they go through.
Self-esteem develops early in life based on the experiences and interactions
during the early years. It has a great impact on our everyday behaviour. For
instance, individuals who have high academic self-esteem perform better in
studies and are liked by their peers than those with low academic self-esteem.
Conversely, individuals with low self-esteem may have high levels of anxiety,
depression, and antisocial behaviour than those who have high self-esteem.
People with high self-esteem are better in their social adjustment (Martin et al.,
2014). It also positively affects their psychological well-being and quality of
life (Boyd et al., 2014).
Therefore, it is extremely important for parents, families and schools to create a
warm and positive environment, which can help in the development of high self-
esteem among children. It makes them feel acknowledged, accepted as capable
and valuable. Not allowing children to take their decisions and nagging often
results in low self-esteem among children. It may be noted that it is important
to have a healthy self-esteem than a very high self-esteem which is not realistic
or functional.
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Positive Cognitive Culture/environment of an individual plays a critical role in developing his/
States and Processes her self-concept and self-esteem. Some cultures focus on the importance of
being together whereas other cultures value the individual beings more than
the group. Understanding of ‘self’ in Indian cultural context is distinct from
the Western cultural context. One of the differences is the boundary we draw
between the self and the others. In Indian culture, this boundary of self is not
clearly defined or fixed and gets extended to others like family and friends. For
example, whenever an individual takes some decision about self (e.g. study,
job, etc.), usually one tends to think his/her decision in relation to others as
well. Thus, sometimes our self includes the others and sometimes it withdraws
and focuses completely on individual self (e.g., our personal needs or goals).
Whereas, if we see the western culture, this boundary of self appears to be
relatively fixed and clearly defined where individuals keep their individuality.
In the Indian culture, the self is usually attached with one’s own group and both
maintain the state of harmonious co-existence. On the other hand, in the Western
culture an individual often keep a distance from the others/groups which makes
the Western cultures as individualistic, and Indian and many Asian cultures as
collectivistic.

Increasing Your Self-Esteem: Some Tips

• Learn a new skill in areas such as academic, cognitive, social, and work-
related
• Go beyond your comfort zone
• Question your self-limiting beliefs, challenge your thoughts
• Focus on your strengths
• Engage in affirmative talk, tell yourself positive and kinder words
• Visualize things in a positive way
• Cultivate a positive attitude
• Be clear about your goals and values
• Do not hesitate to talk to others and take their help
• Take self care
• Recognize the ‘hero’ within you, tap onto your inner strengths
• Remember that you are more than your circumstances, the way you
respond matters more
• You are unique, so do not compare with others

Self Assessment Questions 2

1. Who developed the concept of the ideal self and the real self?
2. The more the gap or disparity between what we like to be (ideal self)
and what we are (real self), more the harmony within our self. True /
False
3. Match the terms of column A with the appropriate description given in
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the column B.
 Column A Column B Self and Related
Concepts
(a) Self-concept (i) judgment about our own value or
worth
(b) Self-esteem (ii) Our perception and ideas about our
capabilities and qualities
(c) Incongruence (iii) do not have clearly defined and fixed
boundaries
(d) Harmony (iv) discrepancy between our ideal and
actual selves
(e) Collectivistic culture (v) real self similar to ideal self

8.6 SELF-EFFICACY
Self-efficacy is another important concept of self. The term ‘self-efficacy” was
proposed by psychologist Albert Bandura (1977). He was a Canadian-American
psychologist who worked as a professor at Stanford University. According to
him, “self-efficacy is a person’s particular set of beliefs that determine how well
one can execute a plan of action in prospective situations”. We all have different
views about our ability to control the life outcomes. People who believe that they
are capable and can control what happens to them are having high self-efficacy
whereas people who believe that the things and life events are not in their control
and they cannot do anything about the life outcomes displays low self-efficacy.
For example a child, who thinks that if I study hard I can pass the examination,
demonstrates high self-efficacy. On the other hand, a child who thinks if I am
lucky, the paper will be easy or I wish the examiner checks the papers leniently,
displays low self-efficacy as s/he thinks that the outcome is not in their control
and is in control of fate or luck or other situational factors. Hence, an individual
who believes that s/he has the capacity or behaviours to deal with a particular
situation, shows high self-efficacy. Such a person will accordingly put in the
effort required to achieve the desired outcome/ consequence.
The idea of self-efficacy is founded on Bandura’s social cognitive theory
(Bandura, 1997, 1986). According to this theory, human beings actively engage
with their environment to shape their lives. People learn by observing and
imitating others. So if a child is exposed to people who demonstrate high self-
efficacy, s/he tends to imitate the same behaviour. Also people will engage
in behaviours for which they have mastery, high expectations of success and
conviction about their own effectiveness, as this will lower the amount of risk
they would undertake. High self-efficacy makes people to choose, influence,
and even create the circumstances of their own life. Further, they feel more
confident and less fearful.
Self-efficacy is different from self-esteem in the sense that self-esteem refers
to judgments about self-worth whereas self-efficacy refers to judgments about
self-capabilities. However, like we have a general self-esteem and self-esteem
related to specific domains (multi-dimensional self-esteem measures), similarly
self-efficacy can be general/global self-efficacy as well as we have self-efficacy
specific to different domains. There is also collective self-efficacy, which refers
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Positive Cognitive to “the extent to which we believe that we can work together effectively to
States and Processes accomplish our shared goals” (Maddux, 2009a, p. 340). For instance, a sports
team competing for an Olympic medal pursues shared objectives at a collective
level.
Self-efficacy refers to a sense of perceived control. It includes a focus on the
goal and planful thinking for achieving the goal, which underlies the person’s
belief about their capabilities to achieve the goal. This is also called the “efficacy
expectancies” (Snyder, Lopez, & Pedrotti, 2011). As we have seen in earlier
sections, ideas about our ‘self’ is formed by our experiences, our mind set and the
people around us; this suggests that self-efficacy can be developed. Self-efficacy
has been linked to successful coping and improved physical health (Maddux,
1995, 2009a). Children with high self-efficacy perform better in all spheres of
life. People with high self-efficacy have been found to have high determination.
So it is very important for the society, parents and teachers to create positive
experiences and present positive role models for children to develop a strong
sense of self-efficacy during their formative years in childhood.
Strategies for Enhancing Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is a learned phenomenon. There can be various strategies that can
help develop self-efficacy.
• Self-mastery: One needs to build success by mastering tasks. The sense
of mastery and achievement can help improve belief in our capabilities or
effectiveness.
• Role modelling: Observing others in similar situations who have achieved
success can inspire one to undertake those activities. Observational learning
is also used when we make use of role models to imitate their behaviour.
• Visualization: One can visualize oneself behaving effectively, thereby
generating positive emotions and increasing efficacy expectancies.
• Verbal persuasion: Being persuaded by people who are expert in the field,
powerful, and trustworthy can build self-efficacy in the individual.
• Creating positive emotions and regulating arousal: If we are highly
aroused, it may lead to negative emotions and hamper self-efficacious
thinking. Hence one needs to lower the arousal by engaging in meditation,
biofeedback, relaxation and other techniques. Regulation of negative
emotions and creation of positive emotions will help one to develop self-
efficacy.
Activity 1
Enter into your stretch zone
There are three personal zones of achievement: comfort zone, stretch zone,
and panic zone. One needs to go beyond the comfort zone (where the person
does not want to enter into new arenas or put in more efforts), and also the
panic zone (where the person does not want to take any risk). Stretch zone
is where you are willing to take reasonable risks based on self-awareness
and can take failures as learning experiences to move forward. Doing what
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 Self and Related
we like, trying out the unknown, being vulnerable can help us to be flexible
Concepts
and open to new learning experiences. This will increase our self-belief or
self-efficacy.
Think about any aspect in your life where you can benefit by stepping into
your stretch zone and actually take steps to carry it out.

8.7 SELF-REGULATION
We all must have faced situations where we were required to control our desires
or behaviour. We might have been successful at it or might not have been. For
instance, you might have got very angry that your assistant staff at office did not
do a task on time which was urgent. How did you control your anger? Or you
might have bursted at a passer-by who just suddenly came in front of your car
when you were taking a left turn on the road. Or you gave in to the temptation of
eating sweets at a dinner party and ate too much. The crucial aspect in all these
examples is exercising control over our desires, impulses and actions.
Self-control leads to better adjustment and positive outcome (Peterson &
Seligman, 2004). The famous Marshmallow experiment by Walter Mischel is
an example of self-control (Mischel, 1974). It depicts self-control in the form
of the ability to delay gratification of desires. In this experiment, small children
were given a choice that if they want, they can get one marshmallow now
which is in front of them, or if they wait for a period of around 15 minutes,
the experimenter would get them two marshmallows. It was found that those
children who could wait and displayed the ability to control and delay the
gratification of their desires, obtained positive outcomes in their later years
in life also (Mischel & Mendoza-Denton, 2003; Goleman, 1998). Self-control
and self-regulation abilities helped them adjust effectively, achieve better
academically and manage stress successfully.
For example, it is very important to teach a child to delay or defer the immediate
satisfaction of certain needs. This will help in learning the ability to regulate
oneself and delay gratification of one’s needs. We all know how important
self-control is in achieving the long-term goals. For example a child is having
an examination tomorrow and today his/her favourite movie is coming on
television. If s/he has poor self-control and watch movie instead of revising for
the exam, s/he may not perform well in his/her exam. You can also think and
discuss with your friends or family some other examples where self-control is
required in our day-to-day life. Think of the situation at traffic red light. If a
person has a poor self-control and difficulty to wait, imagine what could happen
to him/her or they can cause accidents to others. There are many good practices
in Indian culture which provides us with some effective mechanisms (such as
keeping fast (vrata or roza)) for developing self-control among individuals
which can also be very beneficial for physical system to detoxify and rest.
Thus self-regulation involves looking at the future goals and accordingly
sacrifice the short-term desires and pleasures, e.g., if one wants to achieve
better a particular body weight, a long-term goal, one needs to follow the health
routing in a disciplined way and forgo the short-term pleasures of eating sweets
or fast food. One needs to stay focused on the goal and take necessary steps,
modify one’s behaviour, acquire various skills in the way to achieve that long- 141
Positive Cognitive term goal. So it is a dynamic process of interaction with the environment and
States and Processes changing one’s strategies and plans to attain that end goal.
Self-control Failure
There are occasions when we fail to exercise self-control. There is inability to
regulate ourselves to follow the planned out steps because of various reasons.
These reasons for failure to self-control may relate to personal factors or to
external situational factors. These factors can also be under one’s control to
change or not under one’s control. Excuses are the explanations that we give
for our self-control failure when factors were under our control, but we could
not do so. It avoids taking personal responsibility and attributes the failure to
external factors. Thus it helps us to preserve our self-esteem and self-image. At
other times, of course, uncontrollable factors can hinder the implementation of
our plans. Cultural factors related to belief system may also affect our ability to
self-control or failure of self-control. Individuals internalize the socio-cultural
belief systems that influence their own belief of self-control or lack of it. The
amount of self-control exercised by people may have less to do with the power
of the impulse, and more to do with culturally internalized beliefs about whether
they should, or can, exercise self-control (Baumgadner & Crothers, 2015).
There are also individual differences in self-control that govern the ability to
control oneself. As Carver (2005) points out, personality characteristics such as
ego-resilience, ego-control, and hardiness affect one’s self-control ability.
Life may not always go according to our needs and desires. We need to adjust
according to life situations on many occasions. There may be occasions in life,
which involve battles between situational pressures and our self-control. We
require will power, determination and strategic planning to control and regulate
our behaviour in accordance to our long-term goals.
There are number of psychological techniques to develop self-control which
have been suggested below:
• Observe your own behaviour. If you make this a habit, you will notice
and gather necessary information about yourself which may help you to
alter, adapt, or strengthen certain aspects of your ‘self’. You need to be
more observant or mindful of your thoughts, feelings and behaviour.
• Self-instruction is another essential technique. If you are observant of
yourself, you would find that this technique would be more beneficial. Have
you noticed the self-talk which is going on in our mind constantly? We all
often talk and instruct ourselves to do something and behave the way we
want to. Such instructions are quite effective in self-regulation especially
when you observe yourself to be thinking or doing something negative or
destructive.
• Self-reinforcement. This technique involves rewarding behaviours that
have positive consequences. For example, you may go to play with friends,
if you have finished your assignments. These techniques are quite effective
to develop self-regulation and self-control in people. You can try these
techniques to make yourself better.

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 Self and Related
Self Assessment Questions 3 Concepts
1. The individual’s belief that s/he is capable and can control what
happens to her/him is known as ____________________.
2. According to Rogers, ___________________drive all human
behaviour to achieve at their fullest level of potentials.
3. Self-regulation refers to our ability to organise and monitor our own
behaviour. True/False
4. Self-regulation focuses on the short-term goals than long-term goals.
True / False
5. Which of the following is NOT the psychological techniques to
develop self-control?
a) Self-observation
b) Self-instruction
c) Self-reinforcement
d) Self-indulgence

8.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you learned about how self is formed, different forms of self and
how different cultures influence our self. All human beings strive for betterment,
which creates the concept of ideal self, but reality may be very different.
The discrepancy between ideal self and the real self can affect an individual
negatively. You also learned about the different concepts related to self, such
as self-concept, self-esteem, self-efficacy and self-regulation and briefly about
how to develop these. Self-concept is an important part of our ‘being’. Positive
self refers to viewing our own self in a positive way, valuing oneself, believing
in oneself, and being able to regulate one’s emotions and behaviour to achieve
positive outcomes and desired goals. Strategies for developing self-esteem and
self-efficacy were described. You also learned about the different psychological
techniques to develop self-control behaviour and regulate oneself.

8.9 KEY WORDS

Collectivistic Perspective : In collectivistic perspective, the self is usually
seen as attached with one’s own group and
both maintain the state of harmonious co-
existence.
Congruence : state of being in which our thoughts about our
real and ideal selves are very similar.
Incongruence : state of being in which there is a great
discrepancy between our real and ideal
selves.

143
Positive Cognitive Self : Self as a whole is about the person’s thoughts,
States and Processes feelings, experiences, and ideas, with respect
to herself or himself which define the person
at both, the personal and social levels.
Real self : what we actually are.
Ideal self : which we would like to be.
Social Self : is primarily concerned with family and social
relationships.
Positive-self : The positive view about our self which helps
us to view the world as a safe and positive
place to be in.
Self-concept : Our perception and ideas about our capabilities
and qualities is known as self-concept.
Self-esteem : The evaluation or the judgment about our self
or our own value or worth is termed as self-
esteem.
Self-efficacy : The individual’s belief that s/he is capable and
can control what happens to her/him is known
as self-efficacy.
Self-regulation : refers to our ability to organise and monitor
our own behaviour.
Self-reinforcement : Rewarding our self for those behaviours that
have positive consequences.

8.10 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. False; 2. True; 3. D. both A and B; 4. C. Static; 5. D. Neill
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Carl Rogers, 2. False
3. Match the columns A and B
(a) (ii), (b) (i), (c) (iv), (d) (v), (e) (iii)
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Self-efficacy; 2. Self-actualizing tendencies; 3. True; 4. False; 5. Self-
indulgence

8.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Define self-concept and discuss the different aspects of self.
144 2. Differentiate between individualistic perspective of culture from the
collectivistic perspective with examples.
3. Explain the importance of congruence between the ideal self and the real Self and Related
self with examples. Concepts

4. Explain the concept of self-efficacy and suggest ways to develop it among

children.
5. Define self-regulation and describe different techniques to develop self-
control.

8.12 REFERENCES
Alesi, M., Rappo, G., and Pepi, A. (2012). Self-esteem at school and
self-handicapping in childhood: comparison of groups with learning
disabilities. Psychol. Rep. 111, 952–962. doi: 10.2466/15.10.PR0.111.6.952-
962
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive
theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia
of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New York: Academic Press. (Reprinted
in H.Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. San Diego: Academic
Press, 1998).
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy. New York: Freeman.
Baumgadner, S., & Crothers, M. (2015). Positive psychology. Pearson.
Boyd, J. E., Otilingam, P. G., & Deforge, B. R. (2014). Brief version of the
Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness (ISMI) scale: psychometric properties and
relationship to depression, self-esteem, recovery orientation, empowerment,
and perceived devaluation and discrimination. Psychiatr. Rehabil. J. 37, 17–23.
doi: 10.1037/prj0000035
Carver, C.S. (2005). Impulse and constraint: Perspectives from personality
psychology, convergence with theory in other areas, and potential integration.
Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 312-333.
Cook, D. A., & Artino, A. R. Jr. (2016). Motivation to learn: an overview of
contemporary theories (https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.13074). Med Educ., 50
(10):997-1014. doi:10.1111/medu.13074
Coopersmith, S (1981, 1987). Self-esteem inventories. Palo Alto: Consulting
Psychologists Press.
Coopersmith, S. (2002). Revised Coopersmith self-esteem inventory manual.
Redwood City: Mind Garden.
Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam
Books.
Karolyi, P. (1999). A goal systems-self-regulatory perspective on personality,
psychopathology, and change. Review of General Psychology, 3, 264-291.
Maddux, J.E. (1995). Self-efficacy, adaptation, and adjustment: Theory,
research, and application (Ed.). New York: Plenum.
145
Positive Cognitive Maddux, J.E. (2009a). Self-efficacy: The power of believing you can. In S.J.
States and Processes Lopez, & C.R. Snyder (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp.
335-343). New York: Oxford University Press.
Martin, F., Russell, S., and Seeley, J. (2014). Higher quality of life and lower
depression for people on ART in Uganda as compared to a community control
group. PLoS One, 9: e105154. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105154
Mischel, W. (1974). Processes in delay of gratification. In Berkowitz (Ed.),
Advances in experimental psychology, 7, pp. 249-292. New York: Academic
Press.
Mischel, W., & Mendoza-Denton, R. (2003). Harnessing willpower and
socioemotional intelligence to enhance human agency and potential. In I.G.
Aspinwall & U.M. Staudinger (Eds.), A psychology of human strengths:
Fundamental questions and future directions for a positive psychology (pp.
245-256). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Morgan, C., King, R., Weisz, J. & Schopler, J. (2017). Introduction to
Psychology. McGraw-Hill Inc.,U.S.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M.E.P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues:
A handbook of classification. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association/New York: Oxford University Press.
Robins, R., Norem, J., & Check, J. (1999). Naturalising the self. In L. Pervin
and O. John (eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 443-
47). New York: Guilford.
Rosenberg, M. (1965b). Society and Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Schunk, D. H. (1985). Self-efficacy and classroom learning. Psychol.
Sch. 22, 208–223. doi: 10.1002/1520-6807(198504)22:2<208::aid-
pits2310220215>3.0.co;2-7
Snyder, C.R., Lopez, S.J., & Pedrotti, J.T. (2011). Positive psychology:
The scientific and practical explorations of human strngths. 2nd ed., Sage
Publications.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2001). Theories of Self-Regulated Learning and Academic
Achievement: An Overview and Analysis. In Zimmerman, B.J. & Schunk,
D.H. (Ed.), Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement: Theoretical
Perspectives (pp. 1-65).

8.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bandura A. (1997). Self-efficacy in changing societies. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Kabat-Zinn J. (2005). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body
and mind to face stress, pain, and illness (15th Anniversary Ed.). New York,
NY: Delta Trade Paperback/Bantam Dell.

146
Macayan, Junghan-Pinugu, Castillo. (2019). Understanding the self outcome- Self and Related
based module. C&E Publishing. Concepts

Sammut, G. (2021). Understanding the self and others. Routledge.

Schiraldi, G. R. (2016). The self-esteem workbook. New Harbinger.
Schwarzer, R. (1992). Self-efficacy: Thought control of action. (Ed.).
Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
Stevens, R. (1996). Understanding the self. Sage Publications Limited.

147
Positive Cognitive
States and Processes UNIT 9 RESILIENCE*
Structure
9.1 Learning Objectives
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Resilience: Background and Early Research
9.3.1 Methodological Considerations

9.3.2 Four Waves of Resilience Research

9.4 Evolution of the Concept of Resilience

9.5 Key Concepts in Resilience Research
9.6 Theoretical Models of Resilience
9.7 Debates and Discussions in Resilience Research
9.8 Application of Resilience
9.9 Let us Sum Up
9.10 Key Words
9.11 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
9.12 Unit End Questions
9.13 References
9.14 Suggested Readings

9.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you would be able to:
• Explain the meaning of resilience;
• Know about the early research in the field of resilience;
• Describe the methodological considerations and the focus of research in
resilience;
• Explain the key terms in resilience;
• Discuss debates and discussions in the field of resilience; and
• Describe application of resilience in different areas.

9.2 INTRODUCTION
Think of people around you who, according to you have led a ‘difficult’ life.
That is, they have faced adverse situations which have threatened their existence,
development, or well-being. Such adversities may include natural calamities,
unemployment, financial loss, violence, or physical illness. Usually, individuals
148 are not expected to successfully recover from these extreme challenges.
*Dr. Amrita Deb, Associate Professor of Psychology, Department of Liberal Arts, IIT, Hyderabad
However, some of us are more likely than others to not only overcome but also Resilience
thrive in the aftermath of such events.
Besides the examples of adversities cited above, individuals commonly face
challenges stemming from novel situations such as the move from school to
college or getting promoted at work. These events are not necessarily adverse,
however, the transition from a familiar situation to a new one does require some
level of resilience for healthy adaptation. If we observe people around, we will
notice that some of us handle changes better than others. For instance, students
who move to a hostel in a new city for higher education are perhaps moving
away from the security and comfort of their homes for the first time. In such
situations, some students are able to adapt to their new surroundings better and
quicker, as compared to others.
Resilience researchers have defined this phenomenon as the ability to display
adaptation despite significant challenges.
Illustrative biography
Srinivasa Ramanujan, the great Indian mathematician faced some initial
struggles as a child. After experiencing illness, death of siblings and being
moved between his grandparents’ and parents’ house, he discovered his
mathematical abilities at a young age. However, he continued to struggle
with ill-health, finances and college education. Despite being hailed as a
mathematical genius, he had to leave college without a degree due to his
poor interest in non-mathematics subjects. Throughout all these challenges,
he continued to pursue his work in mathematics. Finally, he obtained his
formal degree from the University of Cambridge. In his brief life while being
faced with several challenges, he was able to make significant contributions
to the field of mathematics.

9.3 RESILIENCE: BACKGROUND AND EARLY

RESEARCH
For many decades, research in psychology was based on a deficit-based approach,
that is, it focused on investigating what is wrong with individuals and found
ways to fix it. This is akin to the approach of disciplines such as medical science,
psychiatry and clinical psychology where professionals detect symptoms and
then attempt to alleviate them through medication and/or therapy. Therefore,
over time, abundant evidence was gathered on what is wrong and how to fix it.
But there was less focus on what is right with individuals, and how to enhance
it. Issues like suffering, vulnerability, and symptoms received more attention as
compared to other topics such as resilience. This may be attributed to specific
events of that period such as the World Wars, which led researchers to prioritize
the study of psychological symptoms and disorders over other areas of work.
Moreover, psychodynamic approach popularized by pioneers including Sigmund
Freud and Alfred Adler had a powerful influence on research and practice in that
era. Subsequently, explorations in that period majorly addressed suffering and
vulnerability as compared to positive adaptation. This deficit-based approach
led to ample studies on children growing up in disadvantaged situations such as
poverty and natural calamity who display maladaptive outcomes in adulthood.
On the other hand, research on children from disadvantaged backgrounds who 149
Positive Cognitive have shown positive outcomes in adulthood, was comparatively less common.
States and Processes This approach also known as the psychopathological approach, continued to
dominate psychology research for many decades.
In 1998, when Professor Martin Seligman became the President of the American
Psychological Association, he drew attention to the fact that while it is important
to study suffering, understanding how people thrive is also imperative (Refer to
Unit 1 where you have already studied abut the rise of positive psychology). The
increasing popularity of the positive psychology movement led by Professor
Seligman, encouraged researchers to shift their attention from why people fail
to why people succeed. The idea was to employ a balanced approach that targets
alleviation of symptoms along with enhancing strengths.
In longitudinal studies beginning from 1950’s, pioneers such as Michael Rutter,
Emmy Werner and Ruth Smith focused on studying maladaptive outcomes in
children from disadvantaged backgrounds involving parental mental illness,
prenatal complications and poverty. To their surprise, they discovered that
some children within this cohort, did not display the maladaptive outcomes as
expected of them. In fact, their functioning and overall adaptation were almost
similar to those who did not face such hardships in early life. These reports
indicated that there must be certain factors that protect individuals from the
impact of adversities. Following such findings, researchers became interested
in discovering what is right with these children, and how this information can
be used to help other children growing up with such adversities.
As investigations in the area progressed, researchers were able to identify a list of
risk factors and protective processes important in understanding resilience. Early
research was largely limited to early life adversities and mostly specific groups
like children and adolescents. But over the last few decades, resilience research
has expanded to include different age groups, environmental factors, and various
adversities including natural calamities, socioeconomic disadvantage, childhood
abuse, mental illness, community violence and academic challenges.
Illustrative biography
Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin, actor and filmmaker known for the art of comedy
had a very troubled childhood. He elaborates on this in his autobiography,
highlighting several tragic incidents that he experienced while growing
up including his mother’s mental illness, father’s absence, and poverty.
Usually, children coming from such disadvantaged backgrounds are not
expected to display successful outcomes in adulthood. However, Charlie
Chaplin, as he came to be known, grew up to establish a prosperous career
in films. Even several decades after his death, he continues to be popular for
his work which had the ability to entertain audiences worldwide.

9.3.1 Methodological Considerations

Resilience research follows both quantitative as well as qualitative approach.
Some of the most popularly used resilience measures are Connor–Davidson
Resilience scale (Connor & Davidson, 2003), The Resilience Scale by Wagnild
& Young (1993), and The Brief Resilience Scale by Smith et al. (2008). However,
for an in-depth information about the personal process of adaptation, qualitative
150 approaches are more useful. Interview, focus group discussions, arts-based
techniques etc. can be used for understanding individual differences and unique Resilience
adaptation strategies in the resilience experience. Some arts-based techniques
explored in resilience research include dramatization, drawing, painting, and
photography. Since a major part of the resilience experience is subjective in
nature, it is important to employ methods that investigate personal contexts.
Exploration of cultural and contextual factors is vital in the understanding of
resilience.
A mixed method approach also offer a comprehensive understanding about
the whole resilience experience. Further, resilience research benefits from an
interdisciplinary approach as it has implications for various disciplines such as
social work, education etc.
Research on Resilience in India
The multicultural aspect of the Indian society makes it a fascinating but complex
area for resilience research. Specific features of the collectivistic culture such as familial
and societal attachments may function as protective factors. But in certain scenarios, high
expectation to conform to sociocultural and traditional norms could function as risk factors.

In India, resilience has been explored after large-scale adversities such as cyclones and
earthquakes. It has also been studied among varied populations such as students,
individuals diagnosed with mental illness, and adults with a history of childhood
adversity. Resilience researchers in India have explored protective factors (Herbert, Manjula,
& Philip, 2013) and developed resilience measures and interventions (Singh, Junnarkar & Kaur,
2016).

 Reflect and list out certain culture-specific determinants in adaptation in

the context of India.
 How various religions of India and spiritual approach/practices in India
help develop resilience among individuals?
9.3.2 Four Waves of Resilience Research
Investigators have suggested that resilience research may be understood to have
emerged in four waves. This is elaborated by Wright, Masten and Narayan
(2013). They presented the four waves in resilience research. The focus of
investigation in each of these waves is depicted in Figure 9.1 below.

Fig. 9.1: The Four Waves of Research in Resilience

The first wave of resilience research identified a list of factors that contributed to
competence considered as a marker of resilience. These included factors specific
to the individual such as internal locus of control and self-efficacy. The second 151
Positive Cognitive wave focused on the interaction between the person and the environment in
States and Processes the process of reintegration after disruption. Waves I and II helped to establish
descriptions of the phenomenon of resilience, provide clarity to related concepts
and explore methodologies. Initially, the primary focus of researchers was on
the individual and later it also emphasized on the system.
In the third wave, researchers attempted to understand how resilience may be
developed from this interaction. Wave III researchers started exploring the ways
in which findings from Waves I and II may be implemented to enhance and
promote resilience through resilience interventions. Finally, the fourth wave
was directed at understanding resilience at multiple levels involving cellular
and neural factors. This also led to a multidisciplinary approach to resilience
research involving neuroscience, sociology, social work and related areas.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Which wave of resilience focused on finding out resilient qualities?
2. Name any one scale on resilience.
3. Which approach dominated the earlier psychological research?

9.4 EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT OF

RESILIENCE
Resilience, Invincibility and Invulnerability
In the initial years of resilience research mostly focused on children, those who
functioned well despite adversity were sometimes described as invulnerable
and invincible. Later, researchers suggested that such descriptions may not be
accurate as it is realistically impossible for human beings not to be impacted by
events occurring in their life. Transitions do have some bearing on emotions and
cognitions and consequently on behaviour. However, terms like invulnerable
and invincible give the impression that resilient individuals are unaffected by
stressors. This is a flawed assumption and thus the terms invincibility and
invulnerability are no longer used synonymously with resilience.
Resilience and Coping
Another term that is sometimes used synonymously with resilience, is coping.
Although on the surface it might appear that coping and resilience mean the
same, it is not so. The essential difference between coping and resilience as
reported in psychology literature is that the idea of coping is largely associated
with one’s response to negative events such as death of a loved one, conflicts
in relationships, financial, professional, or academic setbacks. However,
the phenomenon of resilience is not restricted to unfavourable events only.
As discussed above, resilience is required to handle all kinds of transitions
whether desirable such as getting one’s dream job; or undesirable such as
being terminated from one’s dream job. While resilience is helpful to cope
with unfavourable transitional events, it is also important in events that are
favourable but challenging; such being selected as the college representative for
an inter-college competition.
152
The similarity between resilience and coping is that both are involved in adapting Resilience
to stressful circumstances. However, coping may involve both adaptive and
maladaptive processes including dysfunctional outcomes. For instance, a person
diagnosed with hypertension may display maladaptive coping through denial of
the diagnosis and non-adherence to treatment. From the patient’s perspective
both maladaptive and adaptive responses are ways of coping. However, while
the former leads to management of symptoms, the latter is an impediment to
recovery and well-being. In comparison, resilient individuals engage with
the situation actively instead of maladaptive coping by avoidance or denial.
Therefore, it may be appropriate to posit that resilience develops from exposure
to risk and developing strengths to address it; rather than running away from it.
In other words, resilience is a form of healthy coping often resulting in learning
and growth. Thus, the broad umbrella term coping does not necessarily indicate
positive adaptation in the way as resilience does. Therefore, resilience is more
than coping.
Resilience and Other Overlapping Concepts
A number of related variables such as post-traumatic growth, positive adaptation,
personal growth, and benefit finding are often studied in the aftermath of
adversity. However, any positive change following trauma and adversity is
not akin to resilience. Resilience is the phenomenon that contributes to these
processes and outcomes. It helps to achieve positive outcomes in situations
where growth is unexpected. This is the reason investigations have reported
associations between resilience and these variables.
Resilience as Bouncing Back and Bouncing Forward
In the initial years of resilience research, resilience was often described as
bouncing back from adversity. This phrase indicates that resilient individuals
come back to their original or improved levels of functioning after facing
disruption caused by the adversity. This flexibility is similar to that of a spring.
Even after being stretched or distorted, the property of a spring allows it to
continue to function as before, when placed back into a device.
In later years, the concept of bouncing forward instead of bouncing back, was
recommended by researchers (e.g., Walsh, 2002). The replacement of bouncing
back by bouncing forward emphasizes that the move is in a positive direction.
That is, the resilient individuals move ahead from a position of disadvantage to
a position of advantage.
Resilience as a Trait, Process, Skill and an Outcome
Resilience as a trait: Findings show that in the initial years, resilience was
studied as a trait. It was perceived as an attribute that can lead to positive
adaptation outcomes such as well-being or post-traumatic growth. Research
studying resilience as a trait sought to link its contribution to other variables.
Resilience as a trait was found to contribute to positive adaptation outcomes
such as personal growth.
Resilience as a process: As research progressed, investigators claimed that
resilience is also a process as it involves a journey of towards a positive
adaptation outcome. For instance, the process of resilience involves negotiations
153
Positive Cognitive with several protective factors. These may include both internal strengths such
States and Processes as self-efficacy and autonomy; and external protective factors such as close
friendships and supportive communities.
Resilience as a skill: In recent times, researchers have suggested that resilience is,
at least partially, a skill. Like other broad skills such as effective communication
or specific skills such as art or music, resilience can be learned and cultivated
further. For example, just as regular practice can help a singer to refine their
musical abilities, engaging with challenging situations can help individuals
discover and hone their protective mechanisms. Resilience, as a skill can be
developed through interventions such as therapy.
Resilience as an outcome: Several research investigations have pursued the topic
of resilience as an outcome in the aftermath of adversities. Resilient outcomes
such as post-traumatic growth, benefit finding, and well-being are indicators of
positive adaptation. Researchers studying resilience as an outcome have sought
to explore both internal and external protective factors that contribute to resilient
outcomes. In the early years of resilience research, most researchers sought to
use psychosocial competence as the indicator of resilience. For instance, the
ability to fulfil age-appropriate developmental tasks in a given cultural context
was selected as a resilient outcome. Additionally, healthy peer relationships and
successful academic outcomes were characterized as resilient outcomes among
children and adolescents.

9.5 KEY CONCEPTS IN RESILIENCE

RESEARCH
Decades of resilience research have led to the identification of certain keywords.
Wright, Masten, and Narayan (2013) have elaborated upon the most relevant
terms in this area. A description of some of these keywords are presented below
with suitable examples.
• Resilience
Resilience is described as positive adaptation in response to adversity.
Positive adaptation outcomes such as recovery, well-being and post-
traumatic growth may be observed among individuals with high levels of
resilience.
Example: Survivors of natural calamities such as an earthquake are likely to
face serious setbacks in several life domains following the event. Social and
occupational functioning as well as mental health may be impacted due to severe
adversities. Individuals’ journey from these disruptions to a life of functioning
and growth is indicative of their resilience.
• Adversity
Adversities refer to any experiences that disrupt the regular course of
development of a system or an individual. Adverse events disturb the
individual’s homeostasis eventually impacting functioning.
Example: Adversities can include events that cause large-scale destruction such
as war, political conflict, and natural calamity. It can also refer to individual-
154
specific circumstances such as loss of employment, financial crisis or symptoms Resilience
of chronic illness. Presence of significant adversity is regarded as one of the
essential criteria for the identification of resilience.
• Risk
A risk indicates high possibility of an unfavourable outcome. In a given
situation, risk factors are those features which can predict this negative
outcome.
Example: The chances of an infant developing malnutrition is higher if born
into circumstances such as poverty. Additional risk factors within the same
situation include premature birth, congenital disorders, and parental negligence.
Likewise, a weak immune system is a risk factor during a viral outbreak.
Research has shown that for individuals recovering from mental illness, lack of
support from family and community is a major risk factor.
• Cumulative risk
A ny risk factor may be a deterrent to healthy adaptation. However, the
presence of several risk factors leads to increased likelihood of unfavorable
outcomes. Likewise, repeated occurrences of the same risk factor are likely
to amplify its impact.
Example: Children growing up in poverty are likely to be subjected to several
environmental stressors. The lack of access to facilities such as safe shelter,
healthcare, and schooling are crucial risk factors that hinder healthy development.
The presence of any one of these risk factors is damaging; however, the presence
of all these factors suggests cumulative risk.
Likewise, physical and emotional abuse by family members on one occasion
is a risk factor. However, repeated occurrences of such abuse, intensifies its
impact. These examples represent cumulative risk, which is far more impactful
than that of isolated events.
• Proximal risk
Proximal risk includes all risk factors which are experienced directly by the
individual. This may be understood in the light of Urie Bronfenbrenner’s
Ecological Systems theory. According to this framework, the microsystem
refers to the immediate environment. Proximal risk factors are usually
present in the microsystem.
Example: Family conflict is a proximal risk as the outcome of this adversity
directly impacts the person living in the same household. Similarly, poor
doctor-patient communication is a proximal risk as it directly impacts the
doctor-patient relationship as well as treatment.
• Distal risk
Risk factors present within the environment but not within the immediate
surroundings are known as distal risks. These factors impact the person
indirectly through other factors. With reference to Urie Bronfenbrenner’s
Ecological Systems theory, distal risk factors may be present in extended
circles such as the macrosystem. 155
Positive Cognitive Example: Conflicts within the extended family or community do not impact the
States and Processes individual as directly as conflicts within the immediate family. However, the
former situations do have the potential to threaten the individual’s development
or adaptation in an indirect manner.
• Protective factor
While risks are detrimental to development and adaptation, protective
factors buffer the impact of adversities. Early resilience researchers
identified that the presence of protective factors indicate that the individual
will display resilient outcomes when faced with adverse circumstances.
Protective factors may be internal or external. Internal protective factors
refer to strengths within the individual including self-esteem, self-efficacy,
or internal locus of control. External protective factors include resources
such as supportive relationships within the family and community.
Example of internal protective factors: Personality traits such as conscientiousness
may be a protective factor in academic resilience. In relationship conflicts,
skills pertaining to problem-solving, communication, and negotiation play a
protective role in helping the individual navigate through the situation.
Example of external protective factors: In India, helpline numbers such as 100
for police and 101 for fire brigade are external protective factors. Retirement
pensions for senior citizens and scholarships for students may be regarded as
resources that help them to adapt to both regular and unanticipated stressors.
Besides family and friends, community and peer groups, hospitals and non-
government organizations are important sources of external support.
• Cumulative protection
Research indicates that the presence of several protective factors is more
useful in building resilience as compared to a few protective factors.
Example: A student who has achieved poor academic grades will benefit if
she has access to supportive parents, classmates, and teachers. The combined
contribution of these protective factors is likely to make a stronger impact than
the presence of only one protective factor. Individuals will experience higher
levels of resilience if they have both internal and external resources to tackle
challenges, as compared to those who lack support from family, colleagues and
friends.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Resilience is synonymous to invincibility. True or False.
2. What is resilience?
3. What is distal risk?
4. Explain cumulative protection.
Activity 1
Protective Factors in Resilience: Individual, Family, and Community

156 • A summary of internal and external protective factors commonly reported

by research studies on resilience is presented below.
• Think of a personal situation that had seemed very challenging to you Resilience
initially. But you were able to adapt to the change brought about by this
event. Write down the internal strengths and external protective factors that
helped you to overcome this adversity, in the blank rows in the box below
or tick mark the ones you can relate to.

Internal Protective External Protective Factors

Factors

Individual Family Community

Self-esteem Stable home Access to basic
environment facilities such as clean
air, water
Self-efficacy Secure attachment with Affordable education,
primary caregivers compassionate teachers
recreational activities
Internal locus of control Positive sibling Safe community
relationships

Problem solving skills Supportive connections Employment

with family members opportunities
Ability to build and Socioeconomic Access to health care,
maintain relationships advantages legal and welfare
services
Hope Parental resilience Supportive policies in
the area of education,
law and health

9.6 THEORETICAL MODELS OF RESILIENCE

Resilience has been explained with the help of several theoretical models.
Unlike psychopathological models, these frameworks expect the individual
to succeed and even thrive despite the presence of adversity. The following
resilience models focus on internal strengths and the protective resources in
their environment.
Grotberg’s Paradigm of Resilience (1999) was constructed with the aim
of enhancing strengths to deal with adversities that typically tend to result in
depression among the youth. This model uses three components namely I have,
I am, and I can to present five blocks of resilience. I have includes trusting
relationships that provide support. I am refers to the building blocks of autonomy
and identity which contribute towards building internal protective factors such
as responsibility and self-esteem. I can refers to the building blocks of initiative
and industry which contribute towards building skills such as interpersonal
and problem solving skills. Figure 9.2 below displays the three components
of resilience, building blocks and their description as presented by Grotberg
(1999). Grotberg (1999) recommends that these building blocks can assist in
facing, overcoming, being strengthened, or transformed by adversity.

157
Positive Cognitive
States and Processes

Fig. 9.2: Grotberg’s (1999) Paradigm of Resilience

Other resilience models such as those proposed by Kumpfer (1999)

and Richardson (2002) illustrate individuals’ journeys from being faced
with disruptions to displaying resilient reintegration. In 2020, Ungar and
Theron presented a dynamic multisystemic model of resilience. This model
acknowledges the role of biopsychosocial ecological systems in resilience. It
proposes that addressing cultural and contextual processes ranging from rituals
to community activities is important in resilience research.
These models have been widely used by researchers in designing their research,
interpretation of data and application of findings.

9.7 DEBATES AND DISCUSSIONS IN

RESILIENCE RESEARCH
Findings from Wave I, II, and III of resilience have led to several pertinent
questions. The debates that followed helped to clarify the concepts further.
Some crucial discussions in this regard are presented below.

9.7.1 Criteria for defining resilience

Researchers have unanimously agreed that resilience must involve two
conditions:
• Presence of a significant adversity
• Display of positive adaptation despite the adversity
Unless the individual reports significant stressors in the situation, the
phenomenon of resilience is not applicable. If an individual displays positive
adaptation under any other circumstances, they are usually described as
competent or well-adjusted; but not as resilient. The term resilience is used only
when the event has been severe enough to cause significant threat to adaptation
or development.

9.7.2 Resilient individuals also experience trauma and

vulnerability

158 Resilient individuals are not unaffected by trauma. This is the reason terms
like invincibility and invulnerability are no longer used to describe resilient
individuals as we have learned earlier in this Unit. Resilient individuals Resilience
experience emotions such as anger, fear, and helplessness but over time, they are
able to discover their protective factors and use them successfully in adapting
to the event.
The unpredictability of life in general and uncertainties in day-to-day experiences
expose us to vulnerable circumstances. Thus, distress and discomfort are
expected responses. Resilient individuals are not invincible or unaffected by
vulnerability. The journey from this state of trauma and vulnerability to positive
adaptation is representative of resilience.

9.7.3 Resilience is domain-specific

Researchers have pointed out that resilience is domain specific. Thus, it is
possible to display positive adaptation in one area of life while experiencing
vulnerability in another domain. Some individuals who display excellence in
their professional or academic lives, experience anxiety in trying to maintain
their success. Such domain specificity is observed in case of other psychological
concepts, such as locus of control wherein an individual may be internally
controlled in the social domain and externally controlled in the domain of
health.
Despite the domain specificity of resilience, there is indication that success
or failure in one domain can impact adaptation in another domain. In certain
conditions, protective factors that have led to success in one domain can be used
to improve circumstances in another domain. For instance, if family support
has helped students to achieve resilient outcomes in academics, it may also be
utilized to achieve resilient outcomes in the social domain.

9.7.4 The dangers of apparent resilience

The assumption that resilience in one domain is evidence for resilience in
another domain is faulty and could have serious mental health implications.
In the 1990’s research by Suniya Luthar, a pioneer in this field, found that
some resilient inner-city adolescents displayed high social competence under
conditions of high stress. When probed further, the researchers discovered that
they were not doing as well in the mental health domain. In fact, these adolescents
were significantly more depressed than highly competent adolescents from
low-stress backgrounds. Luthar termed this as ‘apparent resilience’ indicating
that there is a tendency for some individuals to internalize symptoms. This
gives the impression that they are highly resilient when in reality, they may be
experiencing serious mental health concerns. Researchers have reported that if
internalized symptoms are ignored, they are likely to lead to greater distress
over a period of time. Therefore, researchers and practioners must be cautious
in making conclusions on overall resilience based on adaptation in one domain.
Resilience can be displayed in one or several domains, however, the idea of
absolute resilience is problematic.

9.7.5 Resilience varies over time

In consideration of the Developmental task theory which suggests that
adaptation is an evolving process, it is gathered that resilience is variable in
different circumstances and through different periods in life. As we journey 159
Positive Cognitive through life, we are faced with a range of situations comprising of a variety of
States and Processes risk and protective factors. These constantly changing situations can either have
a beneficial or detrimental impact on resilience. Also, sociodemographic factors
such as age play a role in the process. For example, infants are protected from
several environmental calamities by their caregivers. They step in immediately
to fulfil any demands created by tragedies such as death of a family member.
Moreover, the inability to grasp the anticipated consequences of these events
protect infants from emotional pain. But for older children and adolescents,
the understanding of the severity of the situation increases their distress. At the
same time, the ability to communicate with others and seek support helps older
children to independently take actions towards positive adaptation. This shows
that, with age, our exposure to adversities increases but cognitive and emotional
maturity also places us in a better position to display resilience.
If certain life events restrict our access to protective factors, a highly resilient
individual can become less resilient. Losing employment can limit positive
experiences in the domain of mental health, finance and even relationships.
Protective factors associated with employment such as self confidence and
financial stability may be lost following unemployment. This is likely to have a
detrimental impact on resilience. In certain societies, strong stigma surrounding
mental illness may lead to prejudice and discrimination even from family
members. In such cases, decrease in external support can transform a person
from a highly resilient person to a vulnerable one.

9.7.6 Resilience as ‘ordinary magic’

Resilience is described as an experience that is ordinary but magical. Ann
Masten, a pioneer in this field has often referred to the ordinariness of resilience
in her work. She posits that resilience is an ordinary rather than an extraordinary
phenomenon. This indicates that it is possible for all to experience it. Despite the
ordinariness of the phenomenon, the outcome is perceived as magical. This is
because resilience makes it possible for individuals to succeed in circumstances
where they are usually expected to fail. Masten’s (2001) observation on the
ordinariness of resilience provides hope to at-risk populations. It is now believed
that with the help of protective factors, individuals can discover resilience and
display positive adaptation amidst challenges.

9.7.7 Multisystemic resilience

Researchers from various disciplines, besides psychology have acknowledged
the interaction of multiple systems in resilience. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s
Ecological Systems theory is often cited in this context. For a complete
understanding of resilience, it is crucial to refer to the complex interactions
between multiple systems. Even in cases where individual factors are generally
implicated, such as poor performance in school, researchers and practioners
must probe into multisystemic factors to determine the nature of intervention.
Academic resilience can be more effectively addressed if multiple systems such
as family and school are involved instead of simply working on improving the
child’s academic efforts. This is true for other adversities ranging from domestic
violence, physical illness to mental illness. Survivors, in such cases not only
need to find and enhance internal protective factors in their lives but also need
160 to be provided with a safe and inclusive atmosphere where they feel reassured.
In case of some challenges, individuals are able to survive with the help of Resilience
internal protective factors alone, however, the journey is less overwhelming if
there is support from the environment as well. For instance, individuals with
an illness may put great efforts into their recovery by displaying adherence to
prescribed medication and treatment protocols but the rehabilitation process is
boosted when the patient receives structural and emotional support from medical
professionals, family, workplace and friends. The onus of resilient adaptation
should not be placed on the individual if the socioecological environment is not
supportive.
This multisystemic conceptualization of resilience is important from the point
of interventions. In his book on multisystemic resilience, Michael Ungar cites
evidences from investigations that integrate contexts including cultural practices
into interventions.
In view of the above discussion, it is clear that the concept of resilience is not
easy to define. Resilience researchers therefore must consider a number of
factors in operationally defining the concept for their investigations.
Self Assessment Questions 3
1. What is domain-specific resilience?
2. Who termed resilience as ‘ordinary magic’?
3. What are the criteria for defining resilience?

9.8 APPLICATION OF RESILIENCE

Applications of findings from resilience research have helped to improve several
favourable outcomes such as mental health and well-being. With progress in
understanding and identifying resilience, researchers developed interest in
enhancing it. Wave III researchers started applying the findings obtained to
promote resilient adaptation among vulnerable populations. While most of the
initial interventions were directed at children and adolescents, the initiatives now
include a variety of samples worldwide including indigenous populations.
Some interventions were directed at reducing risk factors while the others
attempted to enhance protective factors. At times, detachment from a hostile
environment protects the individual from future harm. This was displayed
in previous studies on familial abuse where individuals were able to achieve
positive outcomes by distancing themselves from their abusive family. In some
cases, however, it is not possible to disconnect from the risk factors entirely
as in situations of bereavement. Developing resilience in experiences such as
death of a loved one usually involve a combination of internal and external
protective factors that buffer the impact of the event. Interventions should
enhance resources as well as the skills required to access them.
Interventions may be applied to different adversities and across populations,
covering a variety of sociodemographic and socioecological contexts. Besides,
ecological data from multisystemic resilience investigations have valuable
implications in policies pertaining to education, clinical and therapeutic settings,
community and mental health.
161
Positive Cognitive Finally, the study of resilience testifies that human beings have the capacity
States and Processes for surviving against all odds. One can not only overcome challenges but even
thrive despite uncertainties and vulnerabilities. It is therefore crucial to identify
the protective factors that can contribute to the process in different cultures
and contexts. Thus resilience is a universal phenomenon and awareness and
promotion initiatives can contribute towards building personal and systemic
resilience across contexts.

9.9 LET US SUM UP

Resilience is crucial in the process of adapting to various transitions and
challenges of life. Researchers have presented several concepts which are
important in understanding resilience. These include risk factors, protective
factors, cumulative risk, cumulative protection among other key terms related
to resilience. An overview of the four waves of resilience research illustrates
that resilience has been variously presented as a trait, process, skill and an
outcome. While much of the initial research focused on the individual and their
immediate environment, research has expanded to include multiple systems
in resilience. Larger contexts such as society and culture and their interaction
with other factors are particularly important in a comprehensive understanding
of resilience. Research on resilience aims to enhance resilience in everyday
lives as well as in the aftermath of adversities ranging from natural calamity to
relationship conflicts. In conclusion, resilience is a universal phenomenon and
awareness and promotion initiatives can contribute towards building personal
and systemic resilience across contexts.

9.10 Key Words

Resilience : Displaying positive adaptation despite
significant adversity
Adversity : Events that interrupt the regular course of
development of a system or an individual.
These challenges disrupt homeostasis,
eventually impacting functioning.
Risk factors : Those features in a given situation that predict
high possibility of unfavourable outcomes.
Protective factors : Factors that help individuals to display
resilient outcomes when faced with adverse
circumstances
Cumulative risk : Presence of several risk factors leads to
increased likelihood of unfavorable outcomes.
Likewise, repeated occurrences of the same
risk factor are likely to amplify its impact.
Cumulative protection : Presence of several protective factors is more
useful in building resilience as compared to a
few protective factors.
Apparent resilience : The tendency of some individuals to internalize
162 mental health symptoms while displaying
 competence in other domains. This gives the Resilience
impression that the person is resilient when
actually they may not be.
Multisystemic resilience : The idea that multiple systems are involved in
the process of resilience. This approach allows
researchers to look beyond individual factors
into biopsychosocial ecological contexts.
Resilience interventions : Initiatives that seek to enhance resilience by
addressing risk and protective factors
Ordinary magic : A way of referring to resilience indicating that
while the outcome is magical or unexpected,
the phenomenon is universal.

9.11 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. First wave
2. Connor–Davidson Resilience scale (Connor & Davidson, 2003)
3. psychopathological approach
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. False
2. Resilience is described as positive adaptation in response to adversity.
3. Cumulative protection refers to combined contribution of several protective
factors in building resilience
4. Risk factors present within the environment but not within the immediate
surroundings are known as distal risks.
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Domain specific resilience refers to that, it is possible to display positive
adaptation in one area of life while experiencing vulnerability in another
domain.
2. Ann Masten
3. Presence of a significant adversity; and display of positive adaptation
despite the adversity.

9.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Describe risk and protective factors in resilience.
2. Why is resilience described as ‘domain-specific’? Illustrate with the help of
an example.
163
Positive Cognitive 3. Do you agree that resilience is ‘ordinary magic’? Provide examples in
States and Processes support of your answer.
4. Cite an example of apparent resilience that you might have observed in
your life or in people around you.
5. Why do researchers recommend the use of mixed methods in studying
resilience?
6. If you are asked to develop a resilience intervention on college students in
India, which risk and protective factors will you focus on?
7. Provide a description of some of the multiple systems and protective factors
that can contribute to resilience among individuals diagnosed with a chronic
physical illness.

9.13 REFERENCES
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1992). Ecological systems theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Six
theories of child development: Revised formulations and current issues (pp.
187–249). Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Connor, K. M. & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003). Development of a new resilience
scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and
Anxiety, 18(2), 76-82. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.10113
Grotberg, E. (1999). Countering depression with the five building blocks of
resilience. Reaching Today’s Youth, 4(1, Fall): 66-72.
Herbert, H.S., Manjula, M., & Philip, M. (2013). Growing up with a parent
having schizophrenia: Experiences and resilience in the offsprings. Indian
Journal of Psychological Medicine, 35(2),148-153. https://doi.org/10.4103/0253-
7176.116243

Johnson, J., Gooding, P. A., Wood, A. M., & Tarrier, N. (2010). Resilience
as positive coping appraisals: Testing the schematic appraisals model of
suicide (SAMS). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(3), 179–186. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.brat.2009.10.007

Kumpfer, K. L. (1999). Factors and processes contributing to resilience: The

resilience framework. In M. D. Glantz, & J. L. Johnson, (Eds.), Resilience
and development: Positive life adaptations (pp. 179–224). Kluwer Academic/
Plenum Publishers.
Luthar, S. S. (1991). Vulnerability and resilience: A study of high-risk
adolescents. Child Development, 62(3), 600. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131134
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in
development. American Psychologist, 56(3), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-
066X.56.3.227

Resilience Research Centre. (2018). CYRM and ARM user manual. Halifax,
NS: Resilience Research Centre, Dalhousie University. http://www.
resilienceresearch.org/
164
Richardson, G. E. (2002). The metatheory of resilience and resiliency. Journal Resilience
of Clinical Psychology, 58(3), 307–321. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10020
Seligman, M. E. P. (1998). The President’s address. APA. American Psychologist,
54, 559-562.
Sinclair, V. G., & Wallston, K. A. (2004). The development and psychometric
evaluation of the brief resilient coping scale. Assessment, 11(1), 94–101. https://
doi.org/10.1177/1073191103258144 ‌

Singh, K., Junnarkar, M., & Kaur, J. (2016). The assessment of resilience. In
K. Singh, M. Junnarkar & J. Kaur (Eds.), Measures of Positive Psychology (pp.
35-70). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-3631-3_3
Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Bernard,
J. (2008). The brief resilience scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back.
International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(3), 194-200. https://doi.
org/10.1080/10705500802222972 ‌

Ungar, M. & Theron, L. (2020). Resilience and mental health: How multisystemic
processes contribute to positive outcomes. Lancet Psychiatry, 7(5), 441-448.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30434-1

Walsh, F. (2002). Bouncing forward: Resilience in the aftermath of September

11. Family Process, 41(1), 34-60. https://10.1111/j.1545-5300.2002.40102000034.x
Wagnild, G. M., & Young, H. M. (1993). Development and psychometric
evaluation of the Resilience Scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 1(2),
165–178.
Windle, G., Bennett, K. M., & Noyes, J. (2011). A methodological review of
resilience measurement scales. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 9(1), 8.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-9-8 ‌

Wright, M. O., Masten, A. S., & Narayan, A. J. (2013). Resilience processes

in development: Four waves of research on positive adaptation in the context
of adversity. In S. Goldstein & R. B. Brooks (Eds.), Handbook of resilience
in children (pp. 15–37). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3661-4_2

9.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Aswini, S. & Deb, A. (2020). Living well with mental illness: Findings from
India. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 1-18. https://doi.or
g/10.1080/10911359.2020.1838380 ‌

Deb, A. (2018). Psychology of resilience. In G. Misra (Ed.). Psychosocial

interventions for health and well-being (pp. 43-57). Springer.
Khan, A. & Deb, A. (2021). Family as a source of risk and resilience among
adults with a history of childhood adversity. Children and Youth Services
Review, 121, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105897
Liebenberg, L. & Ungar, M. (2009). Researching resilience. University of
Toronto Press.
165
Positive Cognitive Masten, A. S. (2015). Ordinary magic: Resilience in development. The Guilford
States and Processes Press.
Schulenberg, S. (2020). Positive psychological approaches to disaster:
Meaning, resilience, and posttraumatic growth. Springer.
Singh, K., Junnarkar, M., & Kaur, J. (2016). The assessment of resilience. In
K. Singh, M. Junnarkar & J. Kaur (Eds.), Measures of Positive Psychology (pp.
35-70). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-3631-3_3
Theron, L. C., Liebenberg, L., & Ungar, M. (Eds.). (2015). Youth resilience and
culture: Commonalities and complexities. Springer Science + Business Media. https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9415-2

Ungar, M. (2008). Resilience across cultures. British Journal of Social Work,

38(2), 218–235. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcl343
Ungar, M. (2021). Multisystemic resilience: Adaptation and transformation in
contexts of change. Oxford University Press.

166
 Resilience
UNIT 10 OPTIMISM AND HOPE*
Structure
10.1 Learning Objectives
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Optimism
10.3.1 Dispositional Optimism

10.3.2 Learned Optimism

10.3.3 Unrealistic Optimism

10.4 Development of Optimism

10.5 Benefits of Optimism
10.6 Hope
10.7 Development of Hope
10.8 Benefits of Hope
10.9 Let Us Sum Up
10.10 Key Words
10.11 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
10.12 Unit End Questions
10.13 References
10.14 Suggested Readings

10.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you would be able to:
• Explain the meaning of optimism and describe its different types;
• Describe the benefits of optimism;
• Define hope and describe the benefits of hope; and
• Discuss the measurement of hope.

10.2 INTRODUCTION
Sudha is doing her graduation and wants to get into a decent job after
completion of her graduation degree. What makes the case of Sudha unique is
that she comes from a family where she is the first girl to study upto graduation
level. In her community, girls are not allowed to study and do jobs to earn
money. However, Sudha despite her hard situation since the beginning of her
education, looks forward to completing her graduation and join a good job to
be financially independent.
167
Dr. Shalini Sharma, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Ramanujan College, University of
*

Delhi, Delhi
Positive Cognitive To achieve her dreams, she takes determined steps and follows a charted out
States and Processes path to achieve what she has thought out for her life.
The above case provides an example of optimism and hope in Sudha. Optimism
and hope are two vital elements for maintaining positive mental health. Positive
mental health is a key to happiness and satisfaction in life. It is state of wellness
where individuals can function fully and deal effectively with the challenges
of life. Hope and optimism both may seem to be very similar and overlapping
constructs, based upon positive future expectancies; however, there are
differences in how they have been conceptualized by theorists. In this Unit, you
will learn about these two positive constructs in detail.

10.3 OPTIMISM
Optimism is a cognitive expectancy for desirable events or things to happen
in future. On the other hand, pessimism denotes expectancy for undesirable
outcomes to happen. Optimism is also characterized as a disposition or trait,
which people are endowed with in varying degrees. It is considered to be a
relatively stable and enduring trait, which guides how people perceive and
address particular situations.
The early understanding and usage of the term was either neutral or negative, as
evident from the works of eminent philosophers and psychologists like Descartes,
Freud, Hegel, and Nietzsche (Domino & Conway, 2001). This was because of
dominant negative outlook towards human nature in the field of psychology
at that time. With advancements in research in psychology and dominance of
humanistic school of thought towards the end of twentieth century, there was a
change in perspective towards the concept of optimism.
Based on contemporary research, there are two dominant approaches and
theoretical models to optimism: Dispositional Optimism Model by Scheier and
Carver (1985) and Optimism as an Explanatory Style by Seligman (1990).

10.3.1 Dispositional Optimism

Scheier and Carver first discussed the concept of optimism in their theory of
self-regulation, where it was conceptualized to be a personality dimension. Later
they coined the term ‘dispositional optimism’. They defined it as ‘the extent to
which people differ in regard to having expectancies of favorable outcomes in
their future’ (Carver et al., 2010). The model proposed by Scheier and Carver
is considered to be the most popular model of optimism, and has relatively
stronger construct validity evidence (Bryant & Cvengros, 2004).
The definition highlights optimism as a general expectancy and does not relate
it to any specific context (Carver et al., 2010; Scheier & Carver, 1985). Being
a personality dimension, it differentiates between optimists and pessimists,
where optimist are people who have an orientation towards having positive
expectations and predictions about their life in general, as compared to pessimists
who have a tendency to expect negative future outcomes in life (Carver et al.,
2010). They argued that optimists would have much stronger valued goals,
and a higher persistence to pursue those goals in the face of difficulties using
effective coping mechanisms leading to a higher likelihood of them achieving
168 their goals (Scheier, Carver and Bridges, 2000). In contrast, pessimists being
more doubtful and hesitant, have more negative affect. Scheier and Carver Optimism and Hope
believed it to be a relatively stable and fixed dimension of personality.
Many research studies supported this stability dimension of optimism, although
it was lower in value than other personality traits (Carver et al., 2010). However
some studies have found the optimism trait to be changeable over time to some
extent. The results of Segestrom (2007) longitudinal study over ten years showed
shifts in optimism of participants over the course of study. This and some other
researches also (Feldman et al, 2015) point towards the changes over time in
optimism, and how it can be enhanced with interventions.

10.3.2 Learned Optimism

The other perspective in the conceptualization and measurement of optimism
is ‘Optimism as an explanatory style’ or Learned optimism model by Martin
Seligman. The theory of optimism as an explanatory style derives from theory
of attribution and theory of learned helplessness (Seligman, 1990). Explanatory
style is defined as the manner in which an individual explains the events of his/
her life, making attributions for their causes. Attributions can be made on the
three dimensions: internality/externality, unstability/stability and specificity/
globality (Weiner, 1985). Internality/externality dimension refers to individuals’
tendency to ascribe either internal (self, dispositional) or external (people or
situational) reasons while explaining their life events. Stability denotes causes
that are fixed and stable over time, while unstable causes are variable and do not
remain same over time and context. Globality refers to propensity to generalize
the causes to all situations, or causes are specific to situations.
Learned helplessness is a feeling resulting from inability to escape from
obnoxious or painful stimuli. The model of learned helplessness attempted to
explain the phenomena of depression. Abramsom and colleagues (1978) realized
the capability of certain attributions to explain the learned helplessness. They
found that learned helplessness can be a result of attributing internal (‘it was
due to my carelessness’), stable (I will be like this forever) and global (‘my
carelessness will spoil everything I will do’) causes to negative life events.
Taking it forward, Seligman coined the term ‘Learned Optimism’ to describe
the tendency of ascribing external (‘I met with a car accident because of faulty
traffic signal’), unstable (‘It does not happen all the time to me’), and specific
(‘I didn’t notice the faulty signal, otherwise I am observant’) causes to negative
life events. Optimists thus are not too disturbed by the setbacks or negative
life events; they see these events as occasions for learning and hope for better
outcomes in future.
Seligman (2003) pointed out that the essential difference between the optimist
and the pessimistic explanatory style was the differential appraisal of the reasons
for success and failure; the prevalence of good and bad events and capability to
sustain hope. Explanatory style is modifiable according to Seligman, and can be
transformed from pessimistic to optimistic style (Seligman, 2013).

10.3.3 Unrealistic Optimism

There can be a tendency of attribution which can entail holding particular
perceptions and self-evaluations that are unduly positive, too exaggerated to
169
Positive Cognitive be called objective or fair. This perception of self or others is called unrealistic
States and Processes optimism; this might appear impractical but can serve the purpose of calming
people when worried and doubtful in challenging situations, and can aid them
in persisting towards their goals.
Unrealistic optimism can be defined as a general propensity to anticipate a
higher probability of positive events to happen to self, and a greater likelihood
of negative events occuring to others (Weinstein, 1980). The concept is similar
to what is called ‘Positive illusions’ (Taylor and Brown, 1988, 1994) which is
common among so called mentally healthy, happy, and well- adjusted people.
Positive illusions consist of an over exaggerated assessment of one’s abilities,
an amplified sense of control and unrealistic optimism about future. People
with unrealistic optimism are less likely to think about the possible risks or
hazards involved in a problem situation, and visualize themselves in situations
where they are successfully dealing with the challenge.
Other than the above mentioned concepts, literature also cites many related
constructs like unrealistic pessimism (Heine, & Lehman, 1995), defensive
pessimism, selective attention, self-deception, and strategic optimism (Norem,
& Cantor, 1986).
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. ______ optimism considers optimism as a personality dimension.
2. Optimism as an explanatory style is also known as _________
optimism.
3. Learned optimism model is given by ___________________.
4. What are the three dimensions in which people usually make
attributions?

10.4 DEVELOPMENT OF OPTIMISM

The presence of optimism as a disposition or explanatory style is dependent
on number of factors, the most important being parental socialization. Parents
play a very important role in development of optimism through role modelling
and reinforcement of optimistic behaviors (Abramson et al. 2000). Parental
mental health is a determining factor and it has been shown that there are higher
chances for optimists to belong to families in which none of the parents are
suffering from depression. Optimists are more likely to come from families
where parents use optimistic explanatory style and are good role models in
that. Children who belong to families that have witnessed many traumas and
struggles, display optimism when their families show resilience and healthy
coping strategies. This is because parents in such situations encourage children
to cope with stressors and challenges in a positive way and reinforce optimistic
behaviors and perseverance.
On the other hand pessimists are believed to come from those households
where either parents are complaining, use self-criticism or criticism of child, are
depressed or use a pessimistic explanatory style. Inattention to child, child abuse
and rejection are other factors which can lead to a development of pessimistic
170 explanatory style (Carr, 2004).
 Optimism and Hope
10.5 BENEFITS OF OPTIMISM
Optimism has many useful consequences for people ranging from mental
health, healthy psychological functioning, performance to effects of aging etc.
(Rudhig, Perry, Hall, & Hladkyj, 2004). The topic of optimism has gained a
lot of popularity among researchers since the last two decades because of these
affirmative outcomes. Research indicates that people having positive beliefs
about (i) their capabilities to achieve desired goals, (ii) a positive perception of
their personal attributes and (iii) their future, perform better than those who are
pessimistic or doubtful (Brown & Marshall, 2001).
a) Optimism and Academic Performance
A number of studies have been conducted to understand the relationship of
optimism with student’s academic performance. The effect of expectancies
on task performance among undergraduate students was studied by Brown
and Marshall (2001) in the lab setting. They found that under difficult task
condition, students having high or moderately high expectancies for task
performance performed better academically in comparison to those who had
low expectancies. In another study, Solberg Nes, Evans, and Segerstrom (2009)
investigated the effects of optimistic orientation on the rate of college retention
in undergraduate college beginners. Their findings revealed optimism was a
favorable personality dimension that influenced the motivation and adjustment
of students, thereby playing an important role in retention of college freshers in
their first years.
b) Optimism, Physical Health and Well-being
There is plethora of researches that support the positive contribution of optimism
in enhancing the well-being and health of individuals. There is a strong evidence
to support the claim that optimists are healthier than pessimists (e.g., Carver et
al., 2010; Gallagher & Lopez, 2009; Rasmussen, Scheier, & Greenhouse, 2009).
The likelihood of a strong link between optimism and health is plausible and
can be explained by the self-regulation model, which proposes optimists are
likely to be more focused towards self and goals, which lead to goal attainment
for optimists and avoidance of goals for pessimists. Another reason for higher
well-being in optimists is their attribute of constructive thinking. Optimism as
a trait is associated with positive expectancies and constructive thinking in life
(Lobel, DeVincent, Kaminer, & Meyer, 2000).
Optimism is believed to result in better physical health, by lowering experienced
stress. Optimists tend to have higher self-efficacy or perception of control over
situations and more positive thought processes because of which they perceive
situations to be manageable and consequently experience lower level of stress
(Carver & Scheier, 2014). Studies also point towards the role of optimism in
promoting health protecting behaviors and refraining from health compromising
behaviors resulting in a healthy lifestyle (Carver & Sheier, 2014). This healthy
lifestyle boosts their immune system and prevents them from developing illness.
Even on developing illness, they tend to comply more with medical advice for a
faster recovery (Carr, 2004). On the contrary pessimism was linked to negative
health effects (Carver et al., 2010). Pessimism was also found to be correlated
positively with involvement in health compromising behaviors like substance 171
abuse, suicide (Carver et al., 2010).
Positive Cognitive c) Optimism and Psychological Well-being
States and Processes
Optimism also contributes to enhanced psychological well-being. Research
shows that people with dispositional optimism are more likely to use reappraisal,
problem focused coping and adaptive emotion focused coping at the time of
stressful situations. Pessimists, on the other hand have a higher tendency to
use avoidant coping strategies like escape avoidance or denial in the face of a
challenge (Carver et al, 2010).
Looking at the positive outcomes of optimism in different spheres of person’s
life, it is crucial that optimism be developed from childhood. Programs have been
developed by researchers (Seligman, 1998) to assist individuals of different age
groups to alter their explanatory style from pessimism to optimism. Participants,
in these programs, get trained to recognize and analyse the situations which are
mood altering, and thereby change their negative beliefs by positive reappraisal
so that it leads to optimistic explanatory style. Thus knowledge of one’s ability
to change and transform one’s thought processes towards optimistic thinking
can be really empowering and advantageous in the direction of positive mental
health and well-being.
It is important to understand that optimism may not always result in positive
outcomes. There may be certain risks associated with over optimism. Such
people may fail to assess and judge personal risks, e.g., being unwilling to go
for medical screening thinking that diseases like cancer is less likely to affect
them. This is unrealistic optimism.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Constructive thinking is one of the reasons for higher well-being in
optimists. True or False.
2. Reappraisal is more likely to be used by the pessimists than the
optimists. True or False.
3. Overly positive and optimistic people are always able to recognize and
judge the potential risk. True or False.

10.6 HOPE
Hope is an interdisciplinary concept studied in different disciplines like
Anthropology, Sociology, Psychology, Philosophy, Nursing/Medicine and
Theology. In philosophy, it is studied as a spiritual virtue; in nursing literature,
hope is associated with survival and coping. Psychology conceptualizes hope
as goal achievement. Hope, according to Staats (1989), is “the interaction
between wishes and expectations.” Stotland (1969) investigated the function
of expectancies and cognitive schemas in the development of hope, which he
defined as a set of important goals with a high perceived possibility of realization.
According to Gottschalk (1974), hope is having positive expectations about
particular favorable consequences, and it motivates a person to overcome
psychological challenges.
A number of conceptual frameworks have been proposed by theorists
like Nekolaichuk (1999), Scioli et al (1997), and Snyder (1994). Within a
172 multidimensional framework, Nekolaichuk et. al. (1999) suggest a hope model
that highlights three dimensions of hope: personal spirit (an individual dimension), Optimism and Hope
risk (a contextual dimension), and authentic caring (a relational dimension).
According to Scioli (1997), individuals realize hope through four dimensions:
mastery (goals), survival (coping), attachment (trust) and spirituality (faith).
Several other perspectives to hope such as, “hopeful thinking or cognition”
(Snyder, 2000), “positive emotional experience” (Fredrickson, 2009), as a
“character strength” (Peterson and Seligman, 2004) and also a “transcendental
phenomenon” (Emmons, 2005, Vaillant, 2008) have been proposed.
From a Positive psychology perspective, hope involves positive feelings
like optimism, but it is also a cognitive- motivational state that comprises of
individual’s beliefs about the self and one’s actions that shapes attainment of
desirable results. Developed by Professor Charles Richard Snyder (1994), the
concept of hope is conceptualized to consist of three components: (i) goals, (ii)
thoughts about means or pathways to achieve specific goals, and (iii) thoughts
about the agency or abilities to attain those goals. Hope is believed to be the
sum of ‘pathways’ and ‘agency’ components. In other words, hope is the
combination of perceived abilities to choose routes towards desirable goals and
the perceived motivation to make use of those routes. It indicates the person’s
belief that s/he will be able to find the path towards the desired goals and utilize
these pathways for attainment of goals. As evident from the definition, Snyder
emphasized hope to be a cognitive-motivational phenomena, and emotions to
be a byproduct of these thoughts. Hope theory predicts that unhindered goal
pursuit should result in positive emotions, but goal impediments may result in
negative emotions.
Snyder (2000) believed hope to be a multi-dimensional concept which can act
both like a stable personality trait and contextual state. As a trait, people can
have individual differences in the extent to which they possess the trait. People
high on hope are thought to use different means to reach their goals, they have
more clarity about the alternate routes and are more likely to have a strong
belief about accomplishing their goals, as compared to people who are low on
hope (Bailis and Chipperfield, 2012).

Fig. 10.1: Snyders’s Model of Hope

Source: Adapted from Snyder (2000) 173
Positive Cognitive According to Snyder’s model as depicted in Fig 10.1, hope will be high
States and Processes when it involves goals that are valued and there is average or above average
probability of realizing the goals in the face of obstacles that are difficult but
not overwhelming. Hope loses its relevance where one is sure of reaching the
goals; and hopelessness results when it is believed that goals are not achievable.
Hopeful thoughts lead to positive emotions and hopelessness results in negative
emotions. Snyder pointed out that at any point in time and situation, hope is
determined by the interplay of three factors:
• The extent to which any goal is valued
• The pathways/means and expectancies about the effectiveness of these
pathways in attainment of desirable goals, and
• One’s agency or energy, abilities and self-efficacy in using these pathways
to goals
The above mentioned factors do not operate in a vacuum, the thoughts about
pathways and agency are dependent on past experiences. The developmental
learnings related to correlation and causality in pathways thinking and agency
thoughts derived from one’s experiences in the past guides one’s expectancies
in the present.
In addition to goals, pathways thinking and agency thinking, Snyder also talked
about the barriers to goal achievement. Goal attainment is not always a smooth
process and involves number of blockages. When faced with obstacles to goals,
most people can think of at least one alternative route, but there are some who
can think of multiple routes to the desired goals. This ability to find multiple
pathways is more characteristic of high hope people (Snyder, 1994a, 1994b).
False Hope
True hope is thought to have a basis in reality, on the other hand, false hope is
believed to result from recognizable distortions of reality. Many scholars and
psychologists have raised concerns about the potential dangers of “false” hope
(Snyder, Rand, King, Feldman, & Woodward, 2002).
According to literature, false hope tend to occur for three reasons: when
expectancies are based on illusions instead of reality (e.g., Beavers & Kaslow,
1981); when unreasonable goals are chased (Rule, 1982, as cited by Snyder
et al., 2002); and when inadequate approach and procedures are followed to
attain the desirable goals (Kwon, 2000, 2002). However, Snyder argued that
false hope was not necessarily a result of distortions in reality. He believed that
high hope individuals can make use of positive illusions that can shape their
perception of reality, but they do not inevitably involve in counterproductive
illusions resulting in major reality distortions (Snyder, 1998)
Another important topic investigated by researchers is the phenomenon of
Collective Hope (Snyder & Feldman, 2000). Collective Hope indicates the extent
of goal-directed thinking of a group of people or communities. Collective hope
becomes functional when a large number of people pursue a goal that cannot be
achieved by any single individual. The operation of collective hope is visible in
community efforts towards common goals like environment protection, health
174 promotion, and government plans.
 Optimism and Hope
10.7 DEVELOPMENT OF HOPE
Although hope is conceptualized both as a trait and state, it has not been found
to have any hereditary component (Snyder, 1994b). It is believed to be a
cognitive set about goal-directed thinking that is completely learnt and shaped
by the socialization process. The elements of hope - the pathway and agency
thinking are coached by parents or caregivers and are visible by the tender
age of two in children, although these thoughts are acquired much before that.
Agency thoughts in babies is their recognition of their self to be a causal factor
in many cause and effects events in their surroundings. Healthy attachment
to caregivers which is based on trust is important for development of hope in
children (Snyder, 1994b). Threatening environment and traumatic experiences
during childhood like loss of parents have been associated with decrease in
hope (Rodriguez-Hanley & Snyder, 2000).
Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Differentiate between hope and optimism.
2. According to Snyder (1994), hope consists of ____________ and
_________ components.
3. What is ‘false hope’?

10.8 BENEFITS OF HOPE

Hope has been found to have beneficial results in the area of academics, sports,
physical health, adjustment, and psychotherapy.
a) Academic Performance
A number of research investigations involving various student populations
have revealed a link between hope and academic performance. Snyder et al.
(1991) identified the characteristics of high-hope students as self-assured,
inspired, enthusiastic, and driven by their intended goals. Higher Hope Scale
scores at the start of college have been shown to predict better overall grade
point averages and whether students will continue school (Snyder, Shorey, et
al., 2002). Furthermore, among college students, higher levels of hope were
linked to higher academic life satisfaction and higher use of problem-solving
skills and coping mechanisms (Chang, 1998). The studies are reflective of hope
being a potential human strength aiding in improving achievement.
b) Health and Well being
As a personal attribute, hope has been linked to a number of positive health
benefits (Snyder, 2002). Snyder (2002) linked high levels of hope to higher
participation in preventative actions that help people avoid developing physical
and mental illnesses. For example, people scoring high on hope showed a greater
involvement with cancer prevention initiatives (Irving, Snyder and Crowson,
1998) and higher motivation to do physical work out (Harney, 1990 in Snyder,
2002).
The correlation between hope and psychological functioning has also been
revealed in numerous research studies. Higher levels of hope were associated 175
Positive Cognitive with improved mental health in high school students (Marques, Pais-Ribeiro,
States and Processes & Lopez, 2011), reduced levels of depression in undergraduates (Snyder et al.,
1991), and better life satisfaction scores in law school students (Rand et al., 2011).
High hope in cancer patients was also associated with reduced psychological
distress in them (Berendes et al, 2010). Elliott, Witty, Herrick, and Hoffman
(1991) carried out a study on 57 persons with major physical disabilities and
found that hope had a favorable impact on depressive symptoms and dealing
with physical handicap. People with higher levels of hope had lower degree of
depression and had stronger social relationships in comparison to individuals
with lower levels of hope.
Michael (2000) studied the effects of hope on anxiety reactions. His study
discovered that hope can be used as a resource to keep anxiety from overpowering
and incapacitating the patient. As a result, hope seemed to have a moderating
influence on anxiety; hopeful individuals have the ability to overcome the
ramifications of anxiety by consciously focusing on achieving their goals.
Energy produced by anxiety can also be channeled into goal-oriented action.
Hope is thus considered to be a valuable human strength with the potential to
result in beneficial outcomes with regard to health and well-being (Seligman
and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
c) Coping and Adjustment
A large number of studies have investigated the effects of hope on dealing with
stress. Snyder (2000) showed a positive effect of dispositional hope on ability
to cope with problems. Based on research findings, Snyder and Pulvers (2001)
stated that individuals low in hope are more likely to have a tragic view of future,
as compared to high hopers who tend to use healthy and productive coping
strategies on a regular basis. It is intriguing to know if there is a difference
between high hopers and low hopers in terms of types of coping strategies used
by them. This question has been dealt by one of the studies by Slezackova
& Piskova (2017). The study was carried on 196 adults in the age range of
19-33 years old. They found that people scoring high on hope used coping
strategies like problem-solving, positive cognitive restructuring and support
from family, friends. These people exhibited a higher level of happiness and
positive perceptions of health. Individuals with low hope scores, on the other
hand, displayed coping strategies like wishful thinking, self-criticism and social
withdrawal.
In the domain of personal and social adjustment, higher Hope scale scores have
been linked to numerous indices of increased happiness satisfaction, positive
emotions, quality of social relationships, and so on (Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991).
Furthermore, hope has been proposed as a common component underpinning
the positive effects of psychological therapeutic treatment. (Snyder, Ilardi,
Cheavens, et al., 2000).

10.9 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, you learned about two important constructs in positive psychology,
that is, optimism and hope. Development of optimism and hope was described
and their benefits were also elaborated. Both have been found to be strongly
176 related to happiness, physical wellness, academic performance and psychological
well-being for people of all ages. It is important to develop these from early Optimism and Hope
childhood. They can play a significant role in the present unprecedented times,
and improve our well-being.

10.10 KEY WORDS

Optimism is a cognitive expectancy for desirable events or things to happen in
future.
Explanatory style is defined as the manner in which an individual explains the
events of his/her life, making attributions for their causes.
Learned Optimism refers to the tendency of ascribing external, unstable and
specific causes to negative life events.
Unrealistic Optimism refers to the tendency of attribution which entails
holding particular perceptions and self-evaluations that are unduly positive, too
exaggerated to be called objective or fair.
Hope refers to having positive expectations about particular favorable
consequences, and it motivates a person to overcome psychological challenges
(Gottschalk, 1974).
Collective Hope indicates the extent of goal-directed thinking of a group of
people or communities.

10.11 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Dispositional
2. Learned
3. Martin Seligman
4. Internality/externality, unstability/stability and specificity/globality
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. True
2. False
3. False
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Hope involves positive feelings like optimism, but it is also a cognitive-
motivational state that comprises of individual’s beliefs about the self and
one’s actions that shapes attainment of desirable results.
2. pathways and agency
3. False hope results from recognizable distortions of reality.

177
Positive Cognitive
States and Processes 10.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the two dominant perspectives in optimism.
2. Discuss Snyder’s Model of Hope citing relevant examples.
3. Elaborate on the various benefits of hope.

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Psychology, 60, 570-585.

181
Positive Cognitive Snyder, C. R., Ilardi, S. S., Cheavens, J., Michael, S. T., Yamhure, L., &
States and Processes Sympson, S. (2000). The role of hope in cognitive behavior therapies. Cognitive
Therapy and Research, 24, 747-762.
Snyder, C. R., Parenteau, S., Shorey, H. S., Kahle, K. E., & Berg, C. (2002).
Hope as the underlying process in Gestalt and other psychotherapy approaches.
International Gestalt Therapy Journal, 25, 11-29.
Snyder, C. R., & Pulvers, K. (2001). Dr. Seuss, the coping machine, and “Oh,
the places you will go.” In C. R. Snyder (Ed.), Coping with stress: Effective
people and processes (pp. 3-19). New York: Oxford University Press.
Snyder, C. R., Rand, K. L., King, E. A., Feldman, D. B., & Woodward, J. T.
(2002). “False” Hope. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(9), 1003-1022.
Staats, S. R. (1989). Hope: A comparison of two self-report measures for adults.
Journal of Personality Assessment, 53, 366-375.
Stotland, E. (1969). The psychology of hope. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Taylor, S. E., & Brown, L. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological
perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 193-210.
Taylor, S.E. (1989). Positive illusions: Creative self-deception and the healthy
mind. New York: Basic Books.
Vaillant, G. E. (2008). Spiritual evolution: A scientific defense of faith. Broadway
Books
Weiner B (1985) An attributional theory of achievement motivation and
emotion. Psychological Review 92, 548–573.
Weinstein, N. D. (1980). Unrealistic optimism about future life events. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(5), 806-820.

10.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Brown, Brene (2010). The gifts of imperfection: Let go of who you think you’re
supposed to be and embrace who you are. Hazelden Publishing.
Frankl, Victor (2013). Man’s Search for meaning: The classic tribute to hope
from the Holocaust. Ebury Publishing.

182
 Flow and
UNIT 11 FLOW AND MINDFULNESS* Mindfulness

Structure
11.1 Learning Objectives
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Flow: The Optimal Experience
11.3.1 Components of Flow Experience

11.4 Flow and Engagement: Are They Same?

11.5 Flow: An Indigenous Perspective

11.6 Benefits of Flow

11.7 Mindfulness
11.8 Meaning of Mindfulness
11.9 Benefits of Mindfulness
11.10 Mindfulness Based Interventions
11.11 Let Us Sum Up
11.12 Key Words
11.13 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
11.14 Unit End Questions
11.15 References
11.16 Suggested Readings

11.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you would be able to:
• Explain the meaning of flow and describe its different components;
• Describe the benefits of flow;
• Define mindfulness and describe its components; and
• Discuss various mindfulness-based interventions and how they impact the
well-being of individuals.

11.2 INTRODUCTION
Rita loves dancing and has performed on stage in many functions in her college.
When she practices in her dance class in the evening, she becomes so engrossed
that she forgets all the tiredness after her college classes. She gets immersed
in her dance and loses the track of time. Have you ever felt that time has flied
while doing anything, e.g., reading a favourite novel or playing a game.
183
Dr. Shalini Sharma, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Ramanujan College, University of
*

Dehli, Delhi
Positive Cognitive Rahul has gone for a movie in the evening with his college friends. They dined
States and Processes out and it was quite late by the time he returned home. His father got angry and
scolded him for being so irresponsible and staying out so late into the night.
Rahul also got angry and was about to retort back saying that he is grown up
now and can take care of himself. But then he thought that he is not going to
ruin his sleep and the enjoyable experience he had by getting into an argument
with his father so late in the night.
Have you ever found yourself in situations similar to the cases described
above? These examples depict two important constructs in positive psychology,
namely Flow and Mindfulness. The field of positive psychology focuses on
such aspects which make one’s life more flourishing, meaningful and worth
living. It aims at finding out what is good in life and how we can enhance our
life?
The process of engagement in any activity and in life refers to the process of
immersing oneself and getting absorbed in the work we do or task at hand.
Engagement and particularly the concept of ‘flow’, is important in making life
worth living and promoting a profound sense of well-being for people who
have flow experience. Mindfulness also contributes to living a balanced and
enriching life by paying attention to the present moment experiences.
In the present Unit, we will discuss about these positive psychology constructs
of flow and mindfulness.

11.3 FLOW: THE OPTIMAL EXPERIENCE

The concept of ‘Flow’ originated from the works of Mihály Csíkszentmihályi
(1975, 1990), a Hungarian-American psychologist, and a Professor at Claremont
Graduate University, California, who first recognized and coined the term.
He studied people from creative field or artists where work is integrated with
leisure like dancers, painters, athletes, etc. based on which he propounded the
concept of flow.
The flow state was defined as the one where a person is fully engaged or
immersed in the activity they are doing. It is a feeling which is characterized
by a state of concentration, fulfillment, complete absorption, engagement and
competency, and a disregard of the sense of time, ego, bodily needs during
the activity. According to Csíkszentmihályi (2005), flow involves being fully
present and engrossed in the activity and utilizing one’s skills to the fullest. The
characteristic feature of flow is a deep involvement in the moment-to -moment
activity.
In his popular work, ‘Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience’,
Csíkszentmihályi has proposed that when, in a state of flow, people feel the
happiest. It is a kind of involvement and focus in one’s work that nothing else
seems to matter (Csíkszentmihályi, 1990). In 1996 he added, flow is “extremely
enjoyed optimal experience in which total concentration and enjoyment with
great interest for the activity is experienced” (Csíkszentmihályi, 1996). This
flow experience can be felt during play, games, creative pursuits, spiritual
experience, and other contexts, however, it is not limited to these. Maslow’s
(1962, 1971) concept of ‘peak experiences and de Charms (1968) idea of
184 ‘origin’ state share many commonalities with flow.
Based on the interview findings of artists, sportsmen etc., Csíkszentmihályi has Flow and
underlined certain elements of flow experience. Mindfulness

11.3.1 Components of Flow Experience

• Merging of action and awareness
One of the most defining features of flow experience is the merging of
action with its awareness. Here the individual is very much aware of his/her
actions, but do not reflect on that awareness itself. For example in a chess
game, the player has undivided attention on the game on its every move but
is not perceptive of that awareness. For this kind of merging between action
and awareness, the activity carried out must be achievable i.e., the person
doing it must be confident about his/her ability to perform.
• Centering of attention
The flow experience is achieved when one’s attention is undivided and
centered on a single stimulus field. This focusing of attention involves
keeping out of attention the unnecessary, irrelevant, or distracting stimuli.
It is also named as the ‘narrowing of consciousness’.
• Loss of ego
Loss of ego here denotes, a temporary loss of self-consciousness or one’s
identity, and individuality. It is a brief forgetfulness of one’s self and
becoming one with the activity.
• Control of action and environment
Another element of flow is a feeling of sense of control over one’s actions
and one’s environment. It is not as much a feeling of mastery, as it is a state
of not being bothered about by the likelihood of loss of control.
• Demands for action and clear feedback
The demands for action which results in flow experience have the
characteristics of being clear, consonant or coherent. In addition it involves
explicit and clear feedback to the person for his actions. The task is
defined clearly and the person is required to do things which are coherent
or compatible with the goals. In other words the goals and the means are
aligned with each other.
• Autotelic in nature
One of the most defining characteristics of flow is it is autotelic in nature
meaning it is self-rewarding and the activity does not require any rewards
external to itself. Most or all of flow activities like play, dance, games, artistic
drawing etc. are inherently rewarding to the person doing those activities.
Although external rewards can be there in most of the above-mentioned
and other flow activities yet the people experiencing flow are primarily
motivated by the experience and not the external rewards attached.
• Altered sense of time
We all have experienced at some point or other how time seems to fly 185
Positive Cognitive very fast when we are enjoying something, and it seems to standstill in
States and Processes periods of boredom, agony or stress. In the flow, attention is focused on
the moment to moment activity, the person is not at all oriented towards
the mental processes that signals the time duration. As a result the person
fully engaged in an activity feels that time has passed too quickly (Conti,
2001).
It is important to note here that for the optimal or flow experience the
challenge or opportunities for action needs to be consonant with perceived
capabilities. When the demands are experienced to be more than what one
can handle, it can lead to stress or anxiety. On the other hand, if the skills
are perceived to be greater than the demands of the situation, it can result
in boredom. Therefore, flow is experienced when there is a match between
the opportunities for action (challenges) and the perceived skills of the
person.
There are other conceptualizations of flow as well by different researchers.
Most of them derive from Csíkszentmihályi model of flow. Jackson and
Eklund (2002) proposed that the optimal experience can be explained by nine
dimensions: consciousness-action fusion, complete concentration, lack of
awareness, balance-skill challenge, time distortion, feedback, target clarity, and
autotelic experience.
Thus the flow experience consists of a number of elements as described
above. Various other factors such as clarity of goals, optimal challenges, high
achievement motivation, and importance of activity for the person also influence
the extent to which the person engages in an activity and finds it intrinsically
rewarding.

11.4 FLOW AND ENGAGEMENT: ARE THEY

SAME?
Flow is often used interchangeably with engagement. Many find the two terms
overlapping, or an extension of each other. There is a very thin line differentiating
the two. Due to the commonalities between the two concepts, and the manner in
which they are conceptualized, there are different perspectives in the literature
about which causes what, i.e., if flow leads to engagement or engagement results
in flow? There is no consistent empirical evidence in one direction.
Kahn (1990) contended engagement to be one of the elements of flow.
Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Rokmá and Bakker (2002) suggested that
flow is climax experience of engagement. They argued that engagement is a
positive psychological state of work that can be described by vigor, dedication
and absorption. Engagement can be a reflection of one’s internal motivation
at work, it can be referred to as a more persistent cognitive-affective state,
as compared to flow which can be a specific, transient, peak experience. The
most common difference cited between the two is temporality. While flow is
a slightly more complex concept and includes various elements, it signifies
a particular, time bound, transient ‘peak’ experience, as compared to a more
consistent, and extensive psychological state such as engagement (Schaufeli et
al., 2002). The absorption dimension of engagement comes very close to flow.
186 Furthermore, engagement is generally referred in work context and “indicates
one’s identification with one’s work” (Schaufeli et al., 2009), while flow can be Flow and
experienced in any of the activities or unlikely situations. Mindfulness

11.5 FLOW: AN INDIGENOUS PERSPECTIVE

The concept of flow has parallels in the Hindu philosophy of Karma Yoga,
underlined in the Hindu’s sacred text Bhagavad Gita. Both Flow and Bhagavad
Gita propound enjoying the journey or process of work itself, rather than being
focused about the end goal, in order to experience inner satisfaction and peace.
In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna instructs his disciple Arjuna to follow this
principle:

deZ.;sokf/kdkjLrs ek Qys"kq dnkpu A

ek deZQygsrqHkwZekZ rs l³~xks·LRodeZf.k || 47 ||
Invest your energies in doing your duty in the best possible manner, but do not
concern yourself with the results. Let the motive of action be the action, and not
the hope of reward.

cqf);qäks tgkrhg mHks lq—rnq"—rs A

rLek|ksxk; ;qT;Lo ;ksx: deZlq dkS'kye~ || 50||
Shree Krishna explains - by getting rid of the attachment to the results of the
work, one can attain excellence in the work we do. This excellence in work is
Yoga. Shri Krishna clarifies that working without personal interests, does not
dampen the spirit of work or quality of work; contrary to this, we become more
skillful in comparison to when we work with an eye towards personal rewards.
Flow can be experienced in any kind of work. To quote the Gita “the one devoted
to his duty (work, action) attains perfection” [18.45].
Csikszentmihalyi’s conceptualization of flow and how to achieve the highest
form of fulfillment- enjoying the moment-to moment activity without aiming at
the end goal, is very similar to the path of peace and self-realization prescribed
by Lord Krishna – the elimination of desire for rewards and detachment from
fruits of actions.

11.6 BENEFITS OF FLOW

Although flow can be a very personally and internally rewarding experience, it
has broader positive consequences. The two direct consequences of flow often
discussed in literature are enjoyment and pleasurable absorption. These two in
turn can lead to a number of benefits for the person and in the work context.
The pleasurable absorption experienced in the leisure and sports activities has
been associated with many crucial outcomes in the work arena like enhanced
interest in task (Csikzsentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993), positive mood
(Eisenberger et al., 2005), in-role and extra role work behaviors (Demerouti,
2006), organizational spontaneity (Eisenberger et al., 2005), and overall physical
as well as psychological well-being (Steele, 2006).
A number of studies have highlighted the positive effects of flow in creative
fields like journalism. Flow was found to influence enjoyment at work and sense
of professional efficacy in journalists (Burke & Mattheisen, 2004). Studies 187
Positive Cognitive are abound in the positive effects of flow in sports and creative activities.
States and Processes However there is dearth of studies of flow in the other work context like
academics. Flow can have many relevant outcomes in the workplace such as
improved performance and organizational citizenship behaviour. Additionally
it can be promoted by various job characteristics like leadership, freedom,
autonomy, open communication channels etc. at work; thereby making flow an
empirically modifiable variable, which can be enhanced by changing specific
job characteristics. Therefore pleasurable absorption and enjoyment resulting
from flow, can lead to positive work outcomes in diverse fields and have the
potential to reduce stress at work and promote well-being. Although studies
in the domain are limited, it has been found that flow can be concluded by
work characteristics in the academic context and brings about better physical
and psychological well-being in students (Steele, 2006). Findings from flow
experience can be utilized in aiding institutional practices to enhance students’
involvement in studies and academic work in general.
Exercises to trigger a Flow Experience:
• When faced with a challenging situation, try taking not a standard route
instead a different approach, stretching your imagination.
• Think outside of the box and look at the problems from an
unconventional angle.
• Try taking part in activities that you never took part in, explored or
never thought to be a possibility for you like playing a new sport,
exploring a new place etc.
• Practice immersing yourself in new experiences and environments
• Chalk your personal mission statement – identify your competencies
and write your personal goals and ask yourself, “What do I want to
achieve?”
Flow is thus an internally rewarding experience, when individuals are completely
immersed in any activity, to the extent of forgetting their identity, self, sense
of time, and everything else in their background but the activity itself. People
can experience this at the time of writing a novel, dancing, participating in
sports, playing a musical instrument, and all other kinds of activities where a
person feels involved and skillful. There are many dimensions to it, however
the defining characteristics of flow include deep involvement at the moment,
challenge and skill balance, and autotelic in nature. This functioning at one’s
fullest capacity is rewarding in itself and gives a feeling of bliss and the need
to relive the experience again and again. The flow experience can be assessed
by using a variety of methods, which can be qualitative, quantitative or both.
Interviews are the most popular means to attain qualitative measures of flow.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Who has contributed to the concept of ‘Flow’?
2. Name a few characteristics of flow experience.
3. The concept of flow has parallels in which Hindu philosophy?
188
 Flow and
11.7 MINDFULNESS Mindfulness
What most of the respondents in Csíkszentmihály qualitative interview study
experienced in the state of flow was a feeling of connectedness (mind, body
and action), bliss and peace resulting from intense focus and concentration in
the act being performed. One wishes to be in this state again and again. What
is actually causing this bliss in action is mindfulness. This brings us to another
related topic of mindfulness, defined by heightened awareness or being in the
moment.
Mindfulness, an attribute of consciousness, plays an important role in improving
the psychological well-being of people. One of the major stressors of life for most
of the individuals is worrying about future or getting stuck in the past leading
to negative feelings like guilt, regret, resentment, grievance, anxiety, bitterness
etc. A healthy state of mind requires one to focus one’s attention in the present.
However, day-dreaming, worries, excessive planning cause individuals to act
mechanically without conscious awareness, thus develop behavioral patterns
which are unhealthy and mindless.
A disconnect between mind, body and heart is a very common and accepted
way of being in the world for so many of us. People of all age groups can be
prone to this and particularly those who have to balance and manage multiple
roles, responsibilities and relationships at a given time. However, this can have
serious effects on individuals’ physical and mental health, particularly their
emotional well-being.
A number of psychological, philosophical and spiritual schools of thought have
underscored the relevance of development of consciousness for the presence
and improvement of well-being. An aspect of consciousness that has been much
discussed and studied with respect to well-being is Mindfulness. In simple
terms it is construed as the state of being attentive to and aware of what is going
on in the present. It helps one to train its mind to stop being bothered about
what has happened in the past or can happen in future and respond effectively
to what is happening in the moment - not only to the events outside, but paying
close attention to one’s inner states like thoughts, sensations, feelings and
emotions. This can promote well-being by facilitating self-regulatory behavior
and positive mental health.

11.8 MEANING OF MINDFULNESS

The term mindfulness is a translation of the word Sati in Pali language, and
has its roots in Buddhist traditions, though its origin dates back at least as far
as the third millennium B.C.E. as part of the Brahmanic traditions in the Indian
subcontinent, from where emerged the Buddhism (Cousins, 1996, cited in
Lomas et al, 2017 p. 133]. Mindfulness is generally used to indicate both: (i) a
state or quality of mind; and (ii) a form of meditation that helps one to bring up
and nurture this particular state/quality (Lomas et. al., 2017).
Kabat-Zinn (2003) defines mindfulness as “the consciousness that comes through
paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to
the flow of experience moment by moment” (Lomas et. al., 2017, p. 133).
The main attributes of mindfulness involve a ‘pre-conceptual awareness’ and 189
Positive Cognitive ‘acceptance’ of one’s experiences; flexible control of attention; a detached
States and Processes or unbiased openness to experience; and an orientation to be ‘here-and-now’
(Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007a; Howell, 2008, p. 773).
Nyanaponika Thera (1972) called mindfulness “the clear and single-minded
awareness of what actually happens to us and in us at the successive moments of
perception” (Brown and Ryan, 2003, p. 822). Hanh (1976) defined mindfulness
as “keeping one’s consciousness alive to the present reality” (Brown and Ryan,
2003). However, ‘paying attention’ here indicates concentrating on what one
is doing, at the same time being aware of one’s affective state, thoughts, and
memories that arise in that moment, and also observing when the mind digress
so that it can be refocused (Baer & Krietemeyer, 2006).
According to Siegel (2014), there are three components of mindfulness:
awareness, present experience and acceptance. Mindfulness requires training
to devote our focus to what is occurring at the moment, with open-minded
inquisitiveness and approval (Kabat-Zinn 1996, in Weare, 2014, p.4). Shapiro,
Carlson, Astin and Freedman (2006) specified three components of mindfulness:
intention (i.e., motivation for paying attention in this way); attention (i.e., the
cognitive mechanisms through which said attention is enacted); and attitude
(i.e., the emotional qualities with which one imbues one’s attentive focus, like
compassion) (Lomas et. al., 2017, p. 133).
As a meditational practice, mindfulness meditation, specifies a diversified
realm of activities relating to mind, with a common purpose of teaching the
self-regulation of attention and awareness (Lomas, Ivtzan, & Fu, 2015), with
the aim of improving one’s control of mental processes, leading to enhanced
sense of wellbeing (Walsh & Shapiro, 2006, in Lomas et al 2017, p.134). Its
foundation lies on conventional mindful meditation but as a psychological
concept is separate from spiritual beliefs and Buddhist practices (Kabat-Zinn
1982, cited in Khan and Zadeh, 2014, p.70). Mindfulness meditation is often
used reciprocally with Vipassana, a form of meditational practice that derives
from Theravada Buddhism (Gunaratana, 2002; Young, 1997). Vipassana is also
a Pali word for insight and clear awareness and carried out in a manner to
gradually enhance mindfulness (Gunaratana, 2002 in Davis and Hayes, 2011,
p. 199).
Mindfulness meditation came to be popular in the western world owing to the
efforts of Kabat-Zinn (1982), who utilized it for a novel “mindfulness-based
stress reduction” (MBSR) programme. There are number of interventions based
on mindfulness meditation that we will discuss later on in this unit.
Dimensions of Mindfulness
Based on the above discussion on the meaning of mindfulness, Shapiro et al.,
(2002) outlined the following qualities of mindfulness, which a person can
experience during the ‘moments of mindfulness’.
• Non-judgmental: Witnessing the passing thoughts and the present moment
without evaluating or putting them in any categories.
• Non-striving: Not trying to achieve any specific goals, not getting attached
to desirable outcomes.
190
• Acceptance: Being open and accepting of things as they are in the present. Flow and
It does not indicate passive resignation or unwillingly accepting, but Mindfulness
recognizing one’s experiences with awareness and openness.
• Patience: Having a composed mind to let things unfold at their own
pace. Being patient with ourselves, people around, situations and present
moment.
• Trust: Having trust in one’s body, one’s feelings and that whatever is
happening in life it is supposed to be like that
• Openness: Receiving everything as it is happening for the first time.
Recognizing possibilities by being fully in the present moment.
• Letting Go: Not getting attached to any thought, feeling or experience
• Gentleness: Quality of being soft, tender and considerate.
• Generosity: Being and giving in the present with love and compassion
without getting attached to gains in return.
• Empathy: Trying to understand other person feelings, perspective and
situation in the present
• Gratitude: The quality of appreciating and feeling grateful for the present
• Loving-Kindness: The feeling of forgiveness, compassion and unconditional
love

11.9 BENEFITS OF MINDFULNESS

Research has shown a number of benefits and positive effects of mindfulness in
different facets of people’s life.
(a) Mindfulness and Well-being
Keyes (2005) regarded well-being as constituting of three domains: emotional
well-being, involving the combination of positive emotions and life satisfaction;
psychological well-being, involving contentment with one’s achievements
and believing in having a larger purpose in life and developing as an person;
and social well-being, including the quality of one’s proclivity toward others.
(Howell, Digdan & Buro, 2010, p. 419).
Researchers have contended that mindfulness not only has a direct effect on
well-being, but it is also an indirect predictor of wellbeing through its impact
on enhanced self-regulated functioning (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Brown, Ryan,
& Creswell, 2007b; Shapiro & Schwartz, 1999, 2000 in Howell, Digdan &
Buro, 2010, p. 420). Shapiro et al. (2006) propounded that reperceiving/
decentring can have a beneficial impact upon wellbeing (in Lomas et al, 2017,
p.134). Mindfulness is regarded to be leading to increased levels of well-being;
particularly, mindfulness is believed to be directly enhancing well-being by
making any experience more richer and fuller. Mindfulness can indirectly
promote well-being by boosting healthy self-regulation, including a heightened
focused attention to, openness and approval of one’s personal needs or values
and an enhanced ability to act in accordance to them (Brown & Ryan, 2003;
Brown et al., 2007a, in Howell et al, 2008, p. 773). 191
Positive Cognitive (b) Mindfulness and Physical Health
States and Processes
Research studies indicate that mindfulness meditation results in number of
health benefits like enhanced immune functioning (Davidson et al., 2003; see
Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt, & Walach, 2004, in Davis and Hayes, 2011,
p. 201). Randomised control trial methodology (RCTs, involving comparison
of two groups, one who receives the intervention and the other does not, with
randomly distributed participants) indicate that mindfulness leads to a decrease
in varied physiological problems including chronic pain, fatigue, heart disease,
type-2 diabetes, cancer etc. both in adults and youth (Baer 2003; Mental Health
Foundation, 2010 in Weare, 2014, p.6). Mindfulness is associated with better
heart functioning through a reduced degree of cigarette smoking, greater
physical movement, and a healthier body mass index (Loucks, Britton, Howe,
Eaton, & Buka, 2015). Furthermore, mindfulness is also positively related with
improved blood pressure (Tomfohr, Pung, Mills, & Edwards, 2015), successful
weight loss for obese adults and improved eating behaviours (Rogers, Ferrari,
Mosely, Lang, & Brennan, 2017 [cited in Ackerman, 2017.
Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) has been carried out for patients
with a vast variety of chronic clinical ailments, as well as among groups of
comparatively healthy individuals who have made efforts in the direction of
developing their capacities for coping with stressors of day-to-day life. Initial
reports have indicated significant improvement for individuals suffering from
chronic pain, fibromyalgia, cancer, anxiety disorders and depression (Arcari,
1997, Astin, 1997, Baime, 1996 in Grossman,Niemann, Schmidt, & Walach,
2004, p. 36).
(c) Mindfulness and Cognitive Functioning
To be able to function and perform to the fullest capability, one requires optimum
cognitive functioning like attention, memory, thinking, reasoning, decision
making, language etc. When we engage in multitasking, it becomes difficult
to carry out focused attention when it is required. Focused attention is not only
important for better performance but also for one’s sense of psychological well-
being. Low level of focused attention can also result in experiencing greater
anxiety as our thoughts get us to worry about the future (Cabrera, 2016). The
practice of mindfulness meditation can help people to pay focused attention to
the present moment and enhance their sense of well-being by reducing stress
levels.
Corcoran et. al. (2010) propound that mindfulness meditation develops
metacognitive awareness, reduces rumination by way of disconnection from
persisting cognitive activities, and promotes attentional abilities through
improvement in working memory; these cognitive benefits, consecutively add
to effective emotion regulation strategies (in Davis and Hayes, 2011, p. 200).
Mindfulness-based interventions diminish those mechanisms that produce and
cause cognitive distortions (Ong, Shapiro, & Manber, 2008; Yook et al., 2008
in Howell et al, 2010 p. 419).
Thus it is helpful to healthy sleep-related functioning.

192
(d) Mindfulness, Emotional Well-Being and Psychological Health Flow and
Mindfulness
Mindfulness can help individuals to attain and maintain a positive state of mind,
an acceptance of one’s self and being comfortable with it. Mindfulness as a
trait perspective assumes some people to be more mindful than others; thus
people can be trained to be more mindful. Studies have shown dispositional
mindfulness (the extent to which a person is mindful) to be associated positively
with self-esteem, and self-acceptance (Thompson and Walz, 2008 in Weare,
2014, p. 14). Research has also shown that when mindfulness is improved
with the help of interventions like meditation training, it results in subsequent
increase in well-being (Falkenstrom, 2010; Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek, &
Finkel, 2008; Zautra et al., 2008 in Shutte and Malouff, 2011, p. 1116). Other
research studies point out that higher levels of mindfulness are linked with more
adaptive emotional functioning, termed as emotional intelligence (Baer, Smith,
& Allen, 2004; Brown & Ryan, 2003 in Shutte and Malouff, 2011).
Weinstein, Brown, and Ryan (2009) proposed that the more mindful individuals
gave more positive stress appraisals and displayed a lower use of avoidance
coping, resulting in higher subjective well-being (SWB). Studies have
also showed that mindfulness has the capacity to lower negative emotional
outcomes resulting from neuroticism (Barnhofer et al., 2011; Feltman et al.,
2009). Neuroticism is believed to lead to mood spillover effects because of its
association with rumination (Nolen-Hoeksema, Wisco, & Lyubomirsky, 2008).
Considering mindfulness intervention programs can reduce ruminative thinking
(Deyo, Wilson, Ong, & Koopman, 2009), it seems possible that mindfulness
will lower the effects of neuroticism on well-being. (Wenzel et al, 2015, p.
69).
An experimental study by Manas et. al. (2011) examined the effectiveness
of mindfulness training to lower the levels of stress and sick leave taken by
31 secondary teachers, wherein 16 were there in the experimental group and
15 were kept in the control group. Findings indicated significant decrease in
stress levels of teacher and the duration of sick leave, in addition to decrease in
feelings of pressure and feelings of being demotivated and better coping in the
experimental group as compared to the control group (Weare, 2014, p. 12).
(e) Mindfulness and Social Well-being
A healthy relationship with one’s family, society and community is integral to
experience a sense of well-being. Studies have also revealed mindfulness to be
effective in relationship building, and predictive of a higher sense of relatedness
and interpersonal proximity (Brown and Kasser, 2005; Brown and Ryan, 2003
in Weare, 2014, p. 14). Many scholars in the field are trying to find the link
between mindfulness and interpersonal behavior and are examining concepts like
“mindful relating” (Wachs & Cordova, 2007), “mindful responding” in couples
(Block-Lerner, Adair, Plumb, Rhatigan, & Orsillo, 2007), and “mindfulness-
based relationship enhancement” (MBRE) (Carson, Carson, Gil, & Baucom,
2006) [in Davis and Hayes, 2011, p. 201].
There is research evidence to support that trait mindfulness predicts a number of
interpersonal issues and behaviors such as ability to manage relationship stress
constructively, competence in identifying and expressing emotions to partner,
193
Positive Cognitive relationship satisfaction, frequency of relationship conflict, level of negativity,
States and Processes and empathy (Barnes, Brown, Krusemark, Campbell, & Rogge, 2007; Wachs
& Cordova, 2007). Barnes et al. (2007) report that individuals with better
dispositional mindfulness expressed low level of emotional stress when faced
with relationship conflict and reported low level of anger and anxiety during
conflict discussion. Studies also show that mindfulness is conversely related to
‘distress contagion’ and positively linked to the tendency to be aware in one’s
actions in social situations (Dekeyser, Raes, Leijssen, Leyson, & Dewulf, 2008
in Davis and Hayes, 2011, p. 201).
The above mentioned benefits relating to physical, psychological and social
well-being is achieved and maintained by a number of mindfulness based
interventions, some of which are discussed below.

11.10 MINDFULNESS-BASED INTERVENTIONS

Mindfulness meditation has been popularized in the West by Kabat-Zinn
who has conceptualized and developed a mindfulness-based stress reduction
program at the University of Massachusetts Medical Centre in 1979. In 1995,
he came up with ‘The Center for Mindfulness in Medicine, Health Care, and
Society’. The beneficial effects of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) in
the area of physical and mental health are supported by a plethora of research
and have been discussed above. Some of the most popular mindfulness-based
interventions are outlined below:
(a) Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)
MBSR was the first mindfulness-based program for relieving stress and
advancing physical-mental health and well-being of individuals. It involves an
8-week course structured in a group format in order for participants to learn and
benefit from their collective experience. It is designed to be both education-
based and experience-based, combining conventional Buddhist mindfulness
meditation techniques (where participants learn to center their focus on the
breathing and moving it towards a heightened awareness of other objects of
attention like sensations, feelings, thoughts), simple yogic and muscle stretching
exercises, practices like the ‘body scan’, whereby participants concentrate
on their bodily parts with mindful awareness and journal tasks to help them
integrate mindfulness into daily practice (Kabat-Zinn, 2003).
The program was conceptualized with the purpose of determining the possibility
of mindfulness and relaxation exercises to benefit people with chronic health
issues like BP problems, anxiety disorders and chronic pain. The intent is to
promote overall well-being by helping individuals to focus their attention
on their thoughts, feelings and internal states in the present (Mental Health
Foundation of New Zealand, 2011).
During the meditation, participants try to do (a) body scanning, which includes
nonjudgmental awareness of sensations and feelings in different bodily parts;
(b) meditation while sitting, where par­ticipants concentrate on their breath, at
the same time having a nonjudgmental awareness of any thoughts that crop up;
and (c) Hatha yoga involving stretching exercises for strength­ening and easing
the musculo-skeletal system. (Cabrera-Caban et al, 2016).
194
MBSR can be better discerned through the four processes suggested by Hölzel Flow and
and col­leagues (2011): (a) attention regulation, (b) body awareness, (c) emotion Mindfulness
regula­tion, and (d) change in self-perspective (cited in Cabrera-Caban et al,
2016, p. 122). Generally, participants first learn attention regulation by the way
of focused meditation, wherein they are cognizant of and pay attention to a given
thought, feeling, or object. Over a period of time, with practice, participants are
able to focus attention for a longer duration and are better equipped to filter out
distractions of the mind. Another technique, body awareness, entails focusing
attention on sensory experiences and breathing to help individuals to align their
thoughts and feelings with the outside world. This is expected to result in better
clarity (Marianetti & Passmore, 2009) and emotional intelligence (Keng et
al., 2011). The third process, emo­tion regulation, refers to the modification of
emotional responses from impulsive reactivity to reflective thinking assisting
participants in recognizing their experiences in an accepting, non-judgmental
manner. At the last, change in perception of the self refers to a transformation
from a feeling of static-rigid self-perception to a more dynamic self-image.
The belief here is when people feel less static about self, they become more
liberated and experience a more positive self-image (Flaxman & Bond, 2010,
cited in Cabrera-Caban et al, 2016, p. 123).
(b) Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT)
MBCT has its roots in the collective-based, eight-week programme MBSR, but
was developed by Zindel Segal, Mark Williams and John Teasdale (2002) to
be used by individuals who were suffering from or had experienced multiple
incidence of depression in their lives. It combines characteristics of cognitive
therapy with mindfulness practices. MBCT is different from cognitive therapy
as it involves non-judgmental acceptance of one’s thoughts and emotions,
instead of making an attempt to assess or modify the content of thoughts. This
idea of perceiving the mind as a place of ‘being’ rather than ‘doing’ reduces
rumination and helps depression-prone individuals to prevent relapse. In their
book Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy, Segal, Teasdale and Williams
(2002) proposed that:
‘The ultimate aim of the MBCT program is to help individuals make a radical
shift in their relationship to the thoughts, feelings and bodily sensations that
contribute to depressive relapse’. It also aims to ‘help participants choose
the most skillful response to any unpleasant thoughts, feelings or situations
they meet’.
(c) Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT)
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) was given by Marsha Linehan, as a cognitive-
behavioural and mindfulness-based therapy for Borderline Personality Disorder
(BPD). It was the first psychotherapy propounded to be effective in successfully
treating BPD in controlled clinical trials. The essential dialect is between the
contradictory forces of change and acceptance, i.e., accepting the things as they
are, at the same time working towards their improvement. In DBT mindfulness
is learnt as a skill set with the help of systematic exercises. These involve
observing, comprehending and engaging in one’s present moment experience
in a non-judgmental, singular focus and effective way. DBT trains one in how
to make use of the ‘wise mind’ – the latent ability to have clear awareness of 195
Positive Cognitive one’s thoughts and feelings. DBT currently has a substantial research support
States and Processes and is regarded as one of the most effective therapy for BPD as evident from
the documented success rates.
(d) Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is a psychological intervention,
based on observations and experience, which aims to improve ‘psychological
flexibility’ in individuals by combining acceptance and mindfulness strategies,
with commitment and behaviour change strategies. It is regarded by American
Psychological Association as an empirically validated intervention for treating
depression. ‘Psychological flexibility’ here means complete engagement with
the present moment having full consciousness and, based on what the situation
entails, modifying or persisting with the behavior aligning with the person’s
preferred values. The therapy draws heavily from cognitive-behavioral
framework but diverge in its dominant application of mindfulness exercises to
help individuals in attaining flexibility.
The effectiveness of MBIs is undeniable based on the outcomes of meta-analytic
studies. However, there are a number of methodological rigor issues that interferes
in the global acceptance of MBIs as established psychotherapeutic interventions.
The validity of MBI studies gets limited by factors such as wide variations
in MBI program design; lack of adequate control for probable confounding
factors; paucity of long-term follow-up data assessing the maintenance effects of
MBIs; over-dependence on self-report measures etc. Questions have also been
raised about the trustworthiness and competence of MBI facilitators. Despite
these criticisms mindfulness has witnessed a tremendous increase in popularity
over the years and has carved a powerful niche in mainstream psychotherapy
(Shonin, Gordon, Griffiths, 2013).
Various assessment tools and psychological tests have been constructed to
assess mindfulness. This is important for those interested to work in this area,
and also to gain an insight about one’s own mindfulness. Mindfulness is not
limited to meditation exercises, it can be practiced in each and every action
of ours in daily living including day to day activities like speech, listening,
walking, eating, exercise etc. Some of the common practical applications of
mindfulness are given in the boxes below.
Mindful Eating
• Is an increased awareness of what, how, why and when one is eating
• Involves eating slowly and focusing on food while eating, avoid
distraction activities like watching Television or seeing mobile etc.
• being aware and able to distinguish between physical and psychological
hunger cues and triggers for eating
• Paying attention to the taste, colour, smell, flavors of the food being
eaten
• Is beneficial when trying to make changes in one’s diet, or lose excess
weight, avoid binge eating
196
 Mindful Stretching Exercises Flow and
Mindfulness
• Involves stretching body muscles, strengthening exercises and simple
yoga poses done at slow pace with increased awareness of one’s breath
at each moment
• Help reduce stress and calms one’s mind
• Helpful in connecting with one’s body
Mindful Breathing and Meditation
• Involves deep breathing and heightened awareness of one’s bodily
sensations at the here-and-now
• Choose any comfortable space to sit
• Can choose to place or not place a timer
• Focus on breathing, and each passing breath in and out of your nostril
• Witness the passing thoughts, watch them from a distance as an
observer
• Do not get bothered by wandering thoughts, come back again to focus
on breathing
• Attention can be focused on any object, sound, image, sensation,
thought
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. The term mindfulness is a translation of which word in Pali language?
2. According to Siegel (2014), what are the three components of
mindfulness?
3. What is ‘Vipasana’?
4. Name certain dimensions of mindfulness.
5. Who developed the mindfulness-based stress reduction program?
6. What is Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)?

11.11 LET US SUM UP

In the present Unit, you learned about flow and mindfulness, two important
positive psychology constructs. The meaning of flow was explained and it was
differentiated from engagement. Mindfulness was described in detail and the
benefits of mindfulness on our physical, mental, emotional and social well-being
was discussed. Research is abound with the positive impact of mindfulness on
different aspects of an individual’s being: physical, intrapersonal, interpersonal,
cognitive and other aspects. Various mindfulness-based interventions were
described such as MBSR, MBCT, DBT, and ACT. People of all age groups,
gender orientation, and societies can benefit from mindfulness based programs.
Mindfulness based approaches represent an emerging area in the field, one with
much potential promise. 197
Positive Cognitive
States and Processes 11.12 KEY WORDS
Flow is a feeling which is characterized by a state of concentration, fulfillment,
complete absorption, engagement and competency, and a disregard of the sense
of time, ego, bodily needs during the activity.
Autotelic refers to the activities like play, dance, games, artistic drawing etc.
which are inherently rewarding to the person doing those activities.
Mindfulness is the state of being attentive to and aware of what is going on in
the present.
Non-striving refers to not trying to achieve any specific goals, and not getting
attached to desirable outcomes.
Loving-Kindness refers to the feeling of forgiveness, compassion and
unconditional love.
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) trains one in how to make use of the
‘wise mind’ – the latent ability to have clear awareness of one’s thoughts and
feelings.

11.13 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Mihály Csíkszentmihályi (1975, 1990)
2. A few characteristics of the flow experience are altered sense of time,
merging of action and awareness, centering of attention, loss of ego etc.
3. Hindu philosophy of Karma Yoga
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Sati
2. The three components of mindfulness are awareness, present experience
and acceptance.
3. Vipassana is a form of meditational practice that derives from Theravada
Buddhism.
4. Non-judgemental, non-striving, acceptance, trust, patience, openness,
loving-kindness etc.
5. Kabat-Zinn
6. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is a psychological
intervention, based on observations and experience, which aims to improve
‘psychological flexibility’ in individuals by combining acceptance and
mindfulness strategies, with commitment and behaviour change strategies.

198
 Flow and
11.14 UNIT END QUESTIONS Mindfulness
1. Explain the meaning of ‘Flow’.
2. Differentiate between flow and engagement.
3. Discuss mindfulness as a meditational practice.
4. Explain how mindfulness contributes to our well-being.

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with University of Exeter.
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76, 408–421

11.16 SUGGESTED READINGS

Kabat-Zinn, J. (2005). Wherever you go there you are. Hachette Books
Mindfulvness meditation Video: https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=u4gZgnCy5ew

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