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Topic1: PROPERTIES OF MATTER

The Kinetic theory of matter

Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. Soil, water, gases, metals, wood,
stones, e.t.c are all examples of matter. Matter is made up of very small particles called
atoms which are held together by forces. According to the kinetic theory of matter,
the particles of matter possess kinetic energy and so they are always moving. When a
substance is heated the particles gain more kinetic energy move faster. On cooling
down, they lose the kinetic energy and begin to move slowly. The kinetic theory of
matter can be used to explain how the particles behave in solid, liquid or gas states.

Properties of the three states of matter according to the kinetic theory of matter
Solids
In solids the particles are held together by very strong forces and are in fixed positions.
Figure 1.1 below shows a regular arrangement of particles in a solid state.

Figure 1.1

According to the kinetic theory of matter, the particles in the solid state are always
vibrating from side to side in their fixed positions.
When a solid is heated, the forces between the particles become weak as they gain
more kinetic energy and thus increasing their vibrations. This causes the particles to
push each other further apart and makes the solid to expand. If more heat is applied, a
point is reached whereby the particles are knocked off from their fixed positions. At
this point the solid turns into a liquid. The solid is said to be melting. The temperature
at which this happens is called the melting point of the substance.

Liquids
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In liquids, the forces between the particles are very weak. These weak forces enable
the particles to move from one point to another by sliding over each other, in addition
to vibrating from side to side. The particles are not regularly arranged as shown figure
1.2 below.

Figure 1.2
When a liquid gains more heat, the kinetic energy of its particles increases. This results
in increasing the speed of movement of the particles until they begin to jump and
escape from the liquid. This process is called boiling and the temperature at which this
happens is called the boiling point.

Gases
There are no forces to hold together the particles in the gas state. Therefore the
particles in the gas state are always moving randomly at high speeds and in the process
they always collide with each other and with anything that is on their way. They
change direction after each collision.

Figure 1.3
The random movement of the particles is called the Brownian movement.
When a gas is heated the particles gain more kinetic energy and move faster than
before. This makes them to collide with each other and with the wall of their containers
more often and with much greater forces.

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Molecular motion and gas pressure

Consider a balloon fitted to a mouth of an empty conical flask and heated in a bath of
hot water as follows;

Figure 1.4

As time goes, the balloon expands, even though no more air particles are added to it.
Why does this happen? When the air or gas particles inside the balloon are heated they
gain more kinetic energy and so they move faster. When they move faster, they strike
the walls of the balloon (or container) more often and with greater forces. Thus the
pressure exerted by the particles on the walls of the balloon from inside. The balloon
expands consequently.

Effect of temperature on molecular speed

When water is heated, its temperature increased and its particles moved about in the
container with more energy and higher speed. This shows that when the temperature
of a substance increases, the speed of motion of its particles (molecules) increases as
well. This happens because when a substance is heated, its particles gain more kinetic
energy and so move faster and the temperature increases.

Absolute Temperature
As the temperature of a substance is decreased the motion of its particles decreases as
well. This happens because the particles of the substance lose their kinetic energy in
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the form of heat, so hence move slowly. If the substance continues losing heat, both
the temperature of the substance and the kinetic energy of the particles decrease. This
implies that the temperature of a substance is related to the kinetic of its particles.
Temperature is, therefore the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of
a substance. The temperature measured in terms of the kinetic energy of the particles
of a substance is known as the absolute temperature.
The absolute temperature is measured in kelvins (K) on a kelvin scale of temperature.
The kelvin scale is also known as the absolute scale of temperature. On the absolute
scale of temperature, zero kelvin (0K) is called the absolute zero. There is no
temperature that can be measured below the zero kelvin temperature. At zero kelvin
all the particles of any kind of matter have zero kinetic energy, which is the lowest
kinetic energy of the particles and so, they do not move at all.

Temperatures scales
Temperature can be measured in various scales. Some of the common ones are as
follows;

Scale Symbol
degree Fahrenheit F
o
degree Celsius C
Kelvin K

It is necessary to know how to convert temperature from one scale to another. For
instance to convert temperature from degrees Celsius to kelvins you are supposed to
add 273 to the temperature given in degrees Celsius.

Examples
20 oC = 20 + 273 = 293K and
100 oC = 100 + 273 = 373K
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To change the temperature given Kelvins the temperature in degree Celsius ( oC) you
must subtract 273 from the temperature in degrees Celsius.

Examples
298K = 298 – 273 = 25 oC
273K = 273 – 273 =0 oC

Exercise
1. Convert the following Kelvin temperatures to degrees Celsius temperatures
(a) 175 K (b) 295 K (c) 0K

2. Convert the following degree Celsius temperatures to Kelvin temperatures:

(a) 37 oC (b) -73 oC (c) 273 oC

Evidence of molecular motion

Consider a crystal of potassium permanganate which is carefully dropped into a
beaker of water. The colour of the water in the beaker changes from colourless to
purple. This shows that the particles of potassium permanganate, which are purple in
colour, spread out and mix with the particles of water. The spreading out and mixing
of particles is known as diffusion. Diffusion shows that the particles substances are
always moving. Diffusion mainly takes place in liquids and gases because the
particles in these states can move from one place to another.

The gas laws

The behaviour of any gas depends on its pressure, volume and temperature. A change
in any of these factors always produces a change in at least one of the other two factors.
The behaviours of the gases are described in the following gas laws; the Boyle’s law,
the Charles’ law and the pressure law.

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The Boyle’s law

When a fixed mass of a gas in a bicycle pump or syringe is squeezed, its pressure
increases. This is because when the volume is decreased, the distance travelled by the
gas particles before hitting the wall of the inside of the syringe decreases. As a result
the particles hit the walls of the container more often and harder, hence the pressure
increases.
The relationship between the pressure and the volume of a fixed mass of a gas at a
constant temperature is known as the Boyle’s law. The law states that at constant
temperature, the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its
volume or simply p 1/V. If we introduce a constant k, we get p = k/V. Provided the
mass of the gas is constant, we can also say that P 1V1 = P2V2, where subscripts 1 and
2 refer to two pressure and volume readings for the same mass of gas at different
conditions, ie P1 = initial pressure, V1 = initial volume, P2 = final pressure and V2 =
final volume.

Exercise
A gas of volume 1.5 m3 exerts a pressure of 2000 N/m2. If the volume is increased to
3.5m3, what will be the pressure of this gas?

The Charles’ law

If a certain mass of gas is enclosed in a syringe whose piston can move freely, the
piston moves out when the syringe is placed in a hot water bath and moves in when
the syringe is paced in a cold water bath. The movement of the piston is in response
the changes in the kinetic energy of the particles of the gas in the syringe so that the
pressure is kept constant. The relationship between volume and temperature of a fixed
mass of a gas at a constant pressure is known as the Charles’ law. It states that at
constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of a gas varies directly as its temperature
increases or mathematically V T. Introducing a constant, k we get V = kT . This
implies that V1/T1 = V2/ T2.
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The Pressure law

Consider a syringe set at the 10 ml mark and the opening closed tightly. It is easier
to push the piston with a thumb until the volume of the air inside the syringe is
reduced to 2 ml while the temperature is low. But it is difficult to reduce the volume
of the same mass of air to 2 ml if the temperature is high. These observations
suggest that, at a constant volume, the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas increases as
its temperature increases. This relationship is called the pressure law.
Mathematically, PT, which implies that P = kT and P1/T1 = P2/T2.

According to the kinetic theory of matter the kinetic energy of the particles increases
when their temperature increases. When this happens, the particles move faster and
strike the walls of the container more often and harder thereby increasing the pressure.

A mnemonic might be useful here! Of the three variables; temperature, pressure or

the volume, the variable which is kept constant in each of the three laws, might be
remembered using the following expression; From Blantyre, Bt, to Chitipa, Cp, by a
Passenger vehicle, Pv. Where Bt means in Boyle’s law temperature is kept constant,
Cp means in Charles’ law pressure, is kept constant and Pv means in the pressure law,
volume is kept constant.

Exercise
The pressure of a gas at 300K is 2000 Pa. Find the pressure of the gas at 500K.

The general gas equation

All the three gas laws we have looked at so far rely on the fact that at least one variable
(T, P or T) is constant. But this is not the case all the times, it is, therefore, useful to
combine the laws into one equation. Theses laws are as follows; Boyles’ law; P 1/V
and the pressure law; PT. Combining these laws we have P varies inversely as V and
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directly as T or in short PT/V. Introducing a constant k we get P = kT/V and after

rearranging we get PV/T = k.
If we have a fixed mass of a gas then we can say P1V1/ T1 = P2V2/ T2, where subscripts
1 and 2 refer to two pressure, volume and temperature readings for the same mass of
gas at two different conditions,
ie P1 = initial pressure, V1 = initial volume and T1 = initial temperature and P2 = final
pressure, V2 = final volume and T2 = final temperature.
Important note! In all the calculations involving the gas laws, the temperature must
be in kelvins, K.

Example
1. A gas occupies a volume of 600cm3 at a pressure of 760mmHg and a temperature
of 25oC. What volume would it occupy at pressure of 780mmHg and a temperature of
50oC?

Working out
(P1V1)/ T1 = (P2V2)/ T2

P1 = 760mmHg, V1 = 600cm3, T1 = 25 + 273 = 298K, P2 = 780mmHg, T2 = 50 + 273

= 323K.
Therefore; (760mmHg x 600cm3) /298K = (780mmHg x V2)/ 323K

 (760mmHg x 600cm3 x 323K)/(298K x 780 mmHg) = V2

 V2 = 633.7 cm3.

Exercise
(1) 20 x10-3m3 of gas at 25oC exert a pressure of 4000Pa. Find the pressure exerted by
this at 47oC in a container of volume 40 x 10-3m3.
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Liquid pressure
Liquids exert pressure on the sides of the container as well as anything within the
liquid itself. This pressure is transmitted in all directions and increases with depth. So
what is the formula for the pressure of a column of a liquid? Consider the liquid in the
container shown in figure1.6 below;

Figure1.20

Calculating pressure exerted by the liquid at the bottom of the container.

Pressure = (force)/(area) or pressure = f/A
But force = weight of the liquid and
weight = mass x gravitational field strength (mg)
pressure = (mg)/A
But mass = volume x density (vd)
pressure = (vdg)/A
volume = Base area x height of the liquid column (Ah)
pressure = (Ahdg)/A
pressure = hdg

The unit of pressure

Consider the following example;

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A liquid of density 1000kg/m3 fills a container up to a height of 2m. What is the

pressure exerted by this liquid at the bottom of the container if the gravitational field
strength is 10 N / kg?

Working out
Liquid pressure = h d g
h = 2m
d = 1000kg/m3
g = 10 N / kg
 pressure of the liquid =(2m x 1000kg x10 N)/(m3 kg)
=20 000 N/m2
The unit of pressure is, therefore, N/m2 . The unit N/m2 is called pascal (Pa) in honour
of sir Blaise Pascal, the man who investigated and contributed a lot to the
understanding of air pressure. Pa is the SI unit of pressure. Other units that are used
to measure pressure are; millimetres of mercury, (mmHg), atmospheres, (atm). The
gravitation field strength, g in the formula liquid pressure = h d g is constant; its value
is always approximately equal to 10N/kg on the earth’s surface. Therefore, the
pressure exerted by a liquid at the bottom of a container depends only on its density,
d, and height, h.

Exercise
1. If density of paraffin is 800 kg/m3, what is the pressure due to the paraffin at
the bottom of a tank 2m deep?
2. A pressure of 50 000 Pa is exerted by a column of water at the base of a
container. Calculate the height of the water column. (Density of water=1000
kg/m3;g=10/m2)
3. A dam is 100m high, what is the pressure at the bottom?

Uses / applications of liquid pressure

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Liquids display a number of properties. Some of the properties are as follows; liquids
flow, take the shape of the container, and, if placed in a sealed container, a liquid
distributes applied pressure evenly to every surface in the container, and liquids do
not compress significantly. The pressure exerted by liquids increases with depth.
Liquids do not compress significantly, except under extremely high pressures. The
pressure in liquids at rest is independent of the shape (area or slope) of the container.
These properties of liquids enable a number of applications of liquid pressure in
everyday life. Some of the applications of the liquid pressure include hydraulic
machines, dams, domestic water supply and manometers.

Hydraulic machines
Figure 1.21 below shows the basic principle of hydraulic machines:

Figure1.21

If a downward force, f, acts on a piston of a small area, a. The pressure transmitted

throughout the liquid is given by f / a.
 pressure = f / a
This pressure acts on a second piston of a larger area, A, producing a larger upward
force, F;
F = pressure x area, A
 pressure = F / A
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On the smaller piston; pressure = f / a

On the larger piston; pressure = F / A.
Since pressure is the same throughout the liquid;
F/A=f/a
 F = (f A)/ a

Example
A force of 1N is exerted on a piston of area 1/100m2of a hydraulic machine. Calculate
the force that acts on the other piston if it has a larger area of ½ m2.

Working out
F = (f A)/ a
 F = (1N x ½ m2)/(1/100) m2
= 50N
This means a force of 1N could lift a load of 50N. The hydraulic machine has
multiplied the smaller force 50 times.

Examples of Hydraulic machines

i. Hydraulic car jack.
ii. Hydraulic car brakes
iii. Hydraulic fork lifts.

Dams
A dam is thicker at the bottom than at the top since pressure at bottom is the greatest.
Large dams are built at for hydroelectric generation. The high pressure on the deep
side of the dam causes water to flow through the holes at great speed turning the
turbines in the holes and generate electricity.

Domestic water supply

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The main water comes from a reservoir, but in order to maintain a constant high
pressure to a consumer it is pumped to a top of a water tower located at a high ground.

Manometer
A manometer is an instrument used to measure the pressure of a gas from a supply
such as lungs. Consider air blown from the lungs into a manometer shown below;

The pressure of the air from the lungs changed the levels of the water in the
manometer. The open end of the tube is acted upon by the atmospheric pressure. This
means that the pressure of the air supplied by the lungs is balanced by the atmospheric
pressure plus the pressure by the water column given by the differences in the water
levels. Therefore the lung pressure = water pressure in column h + atmospheric
pressure.

Example
What is the pressure supplied by the lungs in the figure below, if the atmospheric
pressure is
100 000 Pa, density of water is 1000kg/m3 and gravitational field strength is 10N/kg?

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Working out
The height difference = 30 mm.
 h = 30 mm x (1m)/(1000mm) = 0.03m
d = 1000kg/m3
g = 10N/kg
 the pressure by the 30mm column of water = 0.03m x 1000kg/m3 x10N/kg
= 300Pa
The pressure supplied by the lungs = pressure of the 30mm of water + 100 000 Pa of
the atmospheric pressure.
Hence the pressure supplied by the lungs = 300Pa + 100 000Pa
= 100 300Pa
Normally the pressure of a gas supply is measured in millimetres of mercury (mmHg).
In this case the liquid used in the manometer is mercury and the pressure supplied by
the gas supply is found as follows;
1. working out the difference in the levels of mercury in the manometer in
millimetres (mm)
2. add the pressure of the column of the mercury in the units of mmHg to the
atmospheric pressure also in mmHg.

Example

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The diagram in figure below shows a manometer with which a student used to measure
the pressure of her lungs. If the atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg, find the pressure
supplied by the lungs.

Working out
From the diagram, h = 95mmHg – 55mmHg
= 40mmHg
 the pressure supplied by the lungs = 40 mmHg + 760 mmHg
= 100mmHg

Thermal expansion of matter

Generally, matter expands when heated and contracts when cooled. According to
kinetic theory of matter the molecules solids and liquids vibrate faster and push each
other further apart when are heated. When cooled the molecules vibrate slowly and
move closer to each other. This is contracting. If these changes are resisted, large
forces are created. Some of the uses of expansion and contraction of solids are
separating stuck glass tumblers and removing tightly screwed bottle covers.

Practical applications of matter

The forces created because of expansion or contraction can have many practical uses
such as; shrink fitting and riveting metal plates.

Shrink fitting
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This is used to produce a tight fit between two pieces of metal, such as an axle and a
wheel;

Figure1.23

The axle, which is slightly larger than the hole on the wheel, is dipped in cold, liquid
nitrogen, which is at about -200oC.
The axle contracts when it cools and fits exactly into the wheel. Upon regaining the
normal temperature, it expands and produces a tight fit.

Riveting Metal Plates

This is the process of fixing two metal plates together using rivets. To rivet metal
plates together a hot rivet is placed in a rivet hole and the end is hammered flat. On
cooling, the rivet contracts and pulls the plates together tightly (Figure 1.24).

Figure1.24

Review questions
1. Mention two uses of each of the following in everyday life;
i. liquid pressure
ii. thermal expansion of matter.

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2. Explain why the base of a dam is made thicker at the bottom.

3. Two identical jars were filled with liquid mercury (density 13.6g/cm3) and water
(density 1g/cm3) respectively. Explain the difference in pressure at the base of the
two
jars.
4. If density of water is 1000 kg/m3, calculate the pressure due to the water at the
bottom
of a swimming pool 2m deep.
5. Explain why gas pressure increases with increase in temperature of the gas.
6 a. Define diffusion.
b. In which state doesn’t diffusion take place? Give a reason.
7. The pressure in a vertical water pipe in the ground floor of a building is 4 x 105 Pa,
but
three floors up the pressure is 2 x 105Pa. What is the height of the building between
the
ground floor and the third floor? (Density of water = 1 x 103 kg / m3)
8. A bicycle pump contains 50cm3 of air at 17oC and a pressure of 1.0 atm. Find the
pressure when the air is compressed to 10cm3 and its temperature rises to 27oC
9. The volume of a gas in a container is 6m3 and has pressure of 4 atm when the
temperature is 27oC. Calculate its pressure when the volume is reduced to 3m3 and its
temperature is raised to 177oC.
10. Derive a formula to show that the pressure of a liquid depends on its density and
depth.
11. At atmospheric pressure a mercury barometer reads 0.76m. If one atmosphere is
equal
to 101 000 Pa, calculate the density of mercury.
12. A gas of volume 2m3 at 27oC is cooled to -137oC at constant pressure. What is its
new volume?

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13. A container holds a gas at 0oC. To what temperature must it be heated for its
pressure
to double at constant volume?
14. A mass of gas occupies volume of 200 cm3 at temperature of 27oC and a pressure
of
1 atm. Calculate the volume when;
(i) the pressure is doubled at constant pressure.
(ii) the temperature is doubled at constant pressure.
(iii) the pressure is 1 ½ atm and the temperature is 127oC.
15. (a) State two factors on which the pressure exerted by a liquid depends.
(b) The atmospheric pressure on a particular day was measured as 750mmHg.
What is
this pressure when it is measured in Pascals, Pa (N/m2) ? (Density of mercury
is
13 600kg / m3 and the gravitation field strength is 10 N/ kg)
16. In a hydraulic machine, a force of 20N is applied to a piston of area 0.2m2. The
area
of the other piston 2.0 m2. What is;
(i) the pressure transmitted through the liquid?
(ii) the force on the other piston?
17 (a) Why must a liquid and not a gas be used as the fluid in a hydraulic machine?
(b) On what other property of a liquid do hydraulic machine depend?

TOPIC 2: ELEMENTS AND CHEMICAL BONDING

The Structure of the Atom
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An atom is the smallest particle of any type of matter. It is made up of three sub-
atomic particles namely protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons are positively
charged particles and each proton has a charge of +1. Electrons are negatively charged
and each electron has a charge of -1. Neutrons are not charged. Each neutron has a
charge of zero. They are said to be neutral. Table 2.1 below is the summary of the
characteristics of the sub-atomic particles.

Sub-atomic Symbol Mass Charge

particle (amu)
Proton p 1 Positive ,
Neutron n 1 +
Electron e 0 None
Negative,
-

Table 2.1
In any atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of the electrons. For
example Carbon has 6 protons therefore, it also has 6 electrons. So it has [6 x (+1)] =
+ 6 positive charges and [6 x (-1)] = - 6 negative charges. The overall charge of the
atom is [6 x (+1)] + [6 x (-1)] = 0. All atoms are therefore, electrically neutral.

The arrangement of the sub-atomic particles in the atoms

Protons and neutrons are contained in a region at centre of the atom known as nucleus.
The protons and the neutrons are fixed in their positions.
Electrons are found outside the nucleus in regions called shells or orbits. They are
always moving at high speed in their orbits circulating the nucleus.

Electron configuration

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The term electron configuration refers to the way electrons are arranged in an atom of
an element. It is also called the electron structure. Each orbit holds a fixed number of
electrons. The first orbit, which is the lowest energy level holds a maximum of
electrons 2 because it is small, the second and the third energy levels hold a maximum
of 8 electrons, as shown figure 2.1 below. The shells are at different energy levels,
with the one closest to the nucleus being the lowest energy level.

Figure 2.1

To write electronic configuration we write as n.n.n....where the first n stands for the
first shell, second stands for the second shell and so on. For instance, magnesium has
12 electrons and so has an electron configuration of 2.8.2
The electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons. Magnesium has two
valence electrons. Figure 2.2 below shows the structure of the magnesium;

Figure 2.1

Atomic Number and Mass Number

An atomic number is the number of protons of an element (or atom).It is represented
by the symbol Z. The atomic number of an element its identity. i.e. Each element has
got its own atomic number and there are no two or more elements with the same
atomic number.

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The number of protons plus the number of neutrons of an atom is referred to as the
mass number. It is also known as the nucleon number because it refers to the number
of particles in the nucleus. The mass number is represented by the symbol A. The
atomic mass is related to the atomic mass and the number of neutrons (N) by the
following equation: A = Z + N.
The mass number (A) and the atomic number (Z) and the chemical symbol of the
element (X) are represented using the following short hand;

.
Table 2.1 below shows the Atomic numbers and the mass numbers of the first 20
elements.
Element Symbol Atomic Number Number of Mass
number of neutrons number(A)
(Z) electrons (N)
Hydrogen H 1 1 0 1
Helium He 2 2 2 4
Lithium Li 3 3 4 7
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 9
Boron B 5 5 6 11
Carbon C 6 6 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 14
Oxygen O 8 8 8 16
Fluorine F 9 9 10 19
Neon Ne 10 10 10 20
Sodium Na 11 11 12 23
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 24
Aluminium Al 13 13 14 27
Silicon Si 14 14 14 28
Phosphorus P 15 15 16 31

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Sulphur S 16 16 16 32
Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 35
Argon Ar 18 18 22 40
Potassium K 19 19 20 39
Calcium Ca 20 20 20 40
Table 2.1
Electron Configuration and the Periodic Table
When the first twenty elements are arranged according to the number of electrons in
their outer shells and according to the number of shells each element has, a table with
vertical columns and horizontal rows is arrived at. This table is referred to as a periodic
table because as we follow the list of the elements in the order of increasing atomic
numbers from an atomic number of one to twenty, the numbers of the electrons in the
outer shells and the properties of the elements are repeated periodically. Table 2.3
below shows how the first twenty elements are arranged in a periodic table.

Table 2.3: the periodic table of the first 20 elements

Groups / families
The vertical columns in the periodic table are known as groups. They are also called
families. The groups are numbered in roman numerals from left to right up to group
seven. The last group is called group O. The number of electrons in the outer shell of
an element corresponds to the group number in the periodic table to which the element
is found, except for elements in group O. All the elements in group O, have their outer
shells completely filled. Completely filled outer shell means that the element has 2

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electrons if it has one shell or 8 electrons in the outer shell if the element has more
than one electron shell.

Periods/ Series
Periods are the horizontal rows in the periodic table. Periods are also called series.
The periods are numbered in Arabic numerals from the top going down wards.

Periodicity in the periodic table

Periodicity means periodic repetition. All the elements in the same group;
a) have same number of electrons in the outer shells.
b) have similar properties. However the properties may change slightly as we go
down the group due to changes in sizes of the atoms.

Predicting the Group and the Period of an Element Given the Atomic Number
To predict the group and the period of an element
1. first write down its electron configuration.
2. the number of electrons in the outer shell of an atom of an element is equal to
the group number.
3. the number of shells of an element is equal to its period in the periodic table.

Example

What is the group, the period and the name of the following element; .

Working out
The element has 14 protons; therefore it has also 14 electrons.
So its electron configuration is 2. 8. 4.
Therefore, the element belongs to group 4 and period 3.
Its name is sulphur, S.

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Exercise

Identify the following elements in the periodic table; (a) (b) .

Stable Electron Configuration

An electron configuration with a completely filled outer shell is a stable electron
configuration. Atoms with completely filled outer shells stable and do not normally
react with other atoms. Therefore, all the atoms of the elements in group O are stable.
These elements are called noble gases because of their stability.
All atoms with incompletely filled outer shells are not stable. In order to attain stability
the atoms with incompletely filled outer shells react and combine with other atoms.
During the reaction, they attain the stable electron configuration by losing / gaining
electrons or by sharing the outer shell electrons. After gaining/ losing or sharing the
electrons, chemical bonds are formed between the atoms.

Chemical bonds
A chemical bond is the force that holds two atoms together to form ions or molecules.
Chemical bonds form when electrons of one atom are attracted to the nucleus of
another atom. The electrons that participate in chemical bonds are valence electrons,
which are the electrons in the valence (outer) shell. The electrons that are used to form
the chemical bonds are either completely lost by one of the atoms and gained by the
other atom or are shared between the two atoms depending on the electronegativities
of the atoms involved. Electronegativity is the measure of the attraction of an atom
involved in a bond for shared electrons in a chemical bond. Non-metal elements have
high electronegativities since they have high attraction for any shared electrons. Metal
have low electronegativities because they have weak attraction for shared electrons.
The number of chemical bonds a given atom can form or has formed with one or
more other atoms is called valency. The valency of an element depends on the
number of the valence electrons that may be involved in forming the bonds. An atom
with a valency of one can form one bond and that with two can form two bonds and
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so on. Valency is like strings with which the atom can be attached to other atoms.
For example, a magnesium atom loses two valence electrons in order to achieve a
stable electron configuration therefore, its valency is 2. We can visualise this as two
strings with which the magnesium atom can attach to other atoms as follows;

Figure 2.4
The strings are free to move to any side of the atom. The combing powers of other
atoms such as sodium, aluminium, chlorine, oxygen and carbon may be represented
as follows;

Figure 2.5

With the strings the atoms can attach to each other to form compounds or elements
as follows;

Figure 2.6
The group number of an element in the periodic table can be used to determine its
valency as follows;
(a) In groups, I, II, III and IV valency of each elements is equal to its the group
number.
(b) In groups V, VI and VII valency is equal to 8 minus the group number.
(c) Elements in group O have a valency of zero.

Covalent bonds
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When two atoms of non-metal elements with equal or approximately equal

electronegativities react together, none of them is ready is lose its electrons because
both have high electronegativities. So, in order to achieve a stable electron
configuration, they share their valence electrons.

Figure 2.6
The shared electrons experience a force of attraction from both nuclei. This positive-
negative-positive attraction holds the two atoms together. This attraction is what is
called a chemical bond and it is very strong. One pair of electrons constitutes one
bond. In a normal covalent bond, eg in H2, O2 or HCl, each atom donates one electron
to the bond. A group of atoms that are joined together by a covalent bond is called a
molecule. The molecules then join together to form a substance, using weak
intermolecular forces such hydrogen bonds, dipole- dipole moments or the van der
waal’s forces. In molecular substances there are, therefore, two types of bonds; the
covalent bonds which are the bonds between the atoms, inter atomic forces, and the
bonds between the molecules, the inter-molecular forces. If the covalent bond is
formed by one of the atoms donating both electrons to the bond then it is called dative
(or coordinating) bond. The best example of this is one of the bonds in ammonium
ion, NH4+.
Figure 2.19 below depicts the forces that exist in a water molecule.

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Figure 2.19

Properties of molecular (or covalent) substances

1. Most molecular substances have low melting and boiling points. This is because the
inter-molecular forces are weak. Therefore a lower amount of energy is needed to
break them and separate the molecules.

2. They do not readily dissolve in water. If they do, their solutions do not conduct
electricity. This is because ions are needed to conduct electricity in an aqueous
solution. However, molecular substances dissolve into molecules rather than
dissociate into ions.

Dot and cross diagrams representing covalent bonds

To draw a dot and cross diagram to represent a covalent bond, all the valence electrons
are represented. Dots are used to represent valence electrons of one atom and crosses
to represent the valence electrons of the other electrons as follows;

a) Hydrogen molecule
A hydrogen atom has only one electron. But it can become stable if its shell can hold
two electrons.

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Figure 2.12

When two hydrogen atoms get close enough, their shells overlap and then they can
share electrons. A single bond is then formed between them. The dot and cross
diagram representing the oxygen molecule is as shown in figure 2.13 below.

Figure 2.13

Each atom, then has two electrons in its shell, hence they are stable. The two electrons
shared between the two atoms constitute one covalent bond between the two atoms.

b. Oxygen molecule
The formula for oxygen is O2, so each molecule must contain two atoms. Each oxygen
atom has 6 outer electrons; it needs a share in two more electrons to reach a full shell.

Figure 2.14

When the two atoms get close together, their outer shells overlap and share four
electrons, two from each atom as shown in figure2.5 below.

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Figure 2.15

A double bond is then formed between the two oxygen atoms.

c. Nitrogen molecule
The formula for nitrogen is N2. Each nitrogen atom has 5 electrons in the outer shell,
so it needs a share in three more electrons to reach full outer shell.

Figure 2.16 (a)

The three pairs of the shared electrons result in three bonds being formed between the
two nitrogen atoms.

d. Water molecule
The formula of water is H2O. In each water molecule, an oxygen atom shares electrons
with two hydrogen atoms to reach full shells. The dot and cross diagram representing
a water molecule is as follows;

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Figure 2.18

When a dash is used to represent a bond, it represents a pair of electrons. In the

following representations each dash is representing two electrons;
a) hydrogen molecule; .
b) oxygen molecule; .
c) Nitrogen molecule; .

d) water molecule;

Ionic bonds
When an atom looses or gains electrons it becomes an ion. An ion contains an unequal
numbers of protons and electrons. An ion is therefore, a charged atom. When an atom
loses electrons, it becomes a positively charged ion which is known as a cation.
Normally it is metal atoms which lose one electrons to become a cations. For example
a sodium atom loses one electrons to become a cation as follows; Na  Na+ + e.
Other examples of cations are; K+, Mg2+, Al3+.
When an atom gains electrons, it becomes a negatively charged ion. The negatively
charged ions are called anions. Non metal atoms normally gain electrons to become
anions. A chlorine atom gains an electron and become an anion as follows; Cl  2e
+ 2Cl. The examples anions are Br -, O2-.

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The size of the charge on the ion is equal to the valency of the element. For example
the following atoms have a valency of 1; K, Na, Cl and Br, while Mg, and O both have
a valency of 2.
Just as with the opposite poles of a magnet, when a positive and a negative ions
approach one another, a very strong force of attraction is formed. This is called an
ionic bond (or an electrovalent bond). The transfer of the electrons from one atom to
another to achieve a stable electron configuration is referred to as ionic bonding.
During ionic bonding, metal atoms lose electrons and become cations while the non-
metals gain electrons to become anions.
The ionic bond results in the formation of an ionic compound. An ionic compound is
formed when massive numbers of positive and negative ions gather and arrange in a
systematic fashion to form a solid. In the ionic compound, positive ions are surrounded
by negative ions, and negative ions are surrounded by positive ions as shown in figure
2.12 below.

Figure 2.12
This systematic arrangement of ions is known as a crystal lattice.

Properties of ionic compounds

1) Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points.
High temperatures are required to break the strong ionic bonds in the ionic
compounds. Therefore, a lot of energy is required to melt ionic compounds or cause
them to boil.

2) Ionic compounds conduct electricity when they are dissolved in water.

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This is because when ionic compounds are dissolved in water the dissociated ions are
free to conduct electricity through the solution. Molten ionic compounds also conduct
electricity.

3) Ionic solids are good insulators.

Although they conduct in molten form or in aqueous solutions, ionic solids do not
conduct electricity very well because the ions are bound so tightly to each other.

4) Ionic compounds are hard and brittle.

Ionic compounds are hard because the positive and the negative ions are strongly
attracted to each other; therefore they are difficult to separate. However, when
pressure is applied to an ionic crystal then ions of like charges may be forced closer
to each other. The electrostatic repulsive forces can be strong enough to split the
crystal. This is why ionic solids also are brittle.

Dot and cross diagrams of ionic compounds

When using dot and cross diagrams, only the valence (outer) shells of the atoms are
shown. When drawing the dot and cross diagrams of ionic compounds, the ions must
not touch. So, to isolate each ion in space, they are supposed to be enclosed in square
brackets.

a) Sodium chloride
The valence shell of a sodium atom has one electron while the valence shell of a
chlorine atom has seven.

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When the two elements react together to form an ionic compound, the sodium atom
donates its valence electron to the chlorine atom. The seven valence electrons of
chlorine now become eight, a full third shell, and the sodium atom also has a full outer
shell (the second shell).

b) Magnesium and Fluorine

The valence shell of a magnesium atom has two electrons while the valence shell of
each fluorine atom has seven.

When the two elements react together to form an ionic compound, the magnesium
atom donates its two valence electrons and since each fluorine atom requires only one
electron to have its outer shell completely filled, then two fluorine atoms are required
to take the two electrons from the magnesium atom. The seven valence electrons of
fluorine now become eight, a full third shell, and the magnesium atom also has a full
valence shell (the second shell).

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Working out formulae of compounds given valencies

All compounds are electrically neutral and their formulae must show this neutrality
by balancing the valencies (or the charges). In working out the formulae we can
consider all compounds (ionic or covalent) as being made up of ions and then use the
charges on the ions to come up with the formula. The valency of the element gives
the size of the charge while group of the element in the periodic table can be used to
determine the sign of charge (whether positive or negative. Elements in groups I to III
have positive charges and those in groups V to VII have negative charges. The charge
of those in group IV can be positive if bonded to a more electronegative element and
negative if bonded to a less electronegative element.

Example
Work out the formula for aluminium oxide. (Valencies; Al=3, O=2).

Working out
Ions present;Al3+ O2
Al3+ O2
O2
_________________

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Total charge 6+ 6
__________________

the formula for aluminium oxide is Al2O3.

Note that the number of the atoms of each element is written as a subscript after the
chemical symbol of the element in the formula. Also note that the metal ion is written
first. Polyionic ions should be placed in brackets e.g. Fe (NO3)2.
Some metal elements can have multiple valencies. For example, copper can form two
different compounds with chlorine; CuCl and CuCl2. For all elements with multiple
valencies, the valence that has been used in the particular compound is indicated in
Roman numerals in brackets inside the name of the compound immediately after the
name of the metal ion. E.g. Copper (II) chloride or Iron (III) iodide.

Exercise
Write down the formulae of the following compounds.
a) copper (I) oxide b) aluminium sulphide c) methane (made up of carbon and
hydrogen atoms)
(valencies; Cu=1, O=2, Al=3, sulphur=2, C=4, H=1)

Polar and Non-polar molecules

Both the sulphuric acid and the sugar are held together by covalent bonds. However a
solution of sugar does not conduct electricity while the solution of sulphuric acid does
conduct electricity. Why does it happen this way? This happens because molecules
of sugar are not polar while the molecules sulphuric acid are polar. A polar molecule
is a molecule which is partially charged by having a small positive charge at one end

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and a small negative charge on the other end (figure 2.31 a). Non polar molecules do
not have charges at their opposite ends (figure 2.31 b).

When dissolved in water, the sulphuric acid dissociates into H3O+ and SO42. It is these
ions which conduct the electricity through the solution. This happens because when
dissolved in water, the water molecules which are also polar, surround the molecules
of sulphuric acid with ends with opposite partial charges facing each other.

The water molecules pull the sulphuric cid apart. The end result is that the molecule
of sulphuric acid is split into a positive ion and a negative ion as shown below;

The sugar molecule is not split by water molecules when dissolved in the water
because sugar molecules are not polar.
Now the question is why are some molecules polar while others are non polar? For a
molecule to be polar or non polar, it depends on whether the pair of the bonding
electrons is shared equally or not, between the two atoms.

Non polar covalent bonds

When two atoms bonded by covalent bond have the same electronegativity the
bonding electrons are shared equally. For instance the bonding electrons are shared
equally between two chlorine atoms.

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Figure2.38
A covalent bond in which the pair of bonding electrons is shared equally is called a
non polar covalent bond or a pure covalent bond. It is only atoms of the same element
that can have the same electronegativity; therefore, a pure covalent bond only exists
between two atoms of the same element. This implies that pure covalent bonds are
formed only in elements such as chlorine, oxygen, hydrogen e.t.c.
All molecules made up of pure covalent bonds are non polar. So, chlorine, oxygen,
hydrogen molecules are non polar molecules.

Bond polarity

In most covalent compounds the pair of bonding electrons is not shared equally
between the atoms. The atom with the higher electronegativity takes a greater share
of the electrons as shown in a hydrogen chloride below;

Figure 2.31
This makes the bond to be polar, with the more electronegative atom having a slight
negative charge (designated as) while the less electronegative atom has a slight
positive charge (designated as +).

The polarisation of charge in HCl bond is due to different electronegativities of

chlorine and hydrogen. The separation of charge is referred to as polarity.
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Thus a polar covalent bond is a covalent bond with unequal electron sharing due to
difference in electronegativities of the atoms involved in the bond. The separation of
charge at the bond is called dipole (which means two poles). The separation of the
charge in the molecule can be represented by an arrow indicating a dipole (i.e. two
charges separated by a distance). The tip of the arrow points towards the more

electronegative atom .

Polarity of molecules
Bond polarity is measured by its dipole moment. This is a force created in the bond
due to the existence of the two opposite charges. Polarity of the molecule is the sum
of all the bond polarities in the molecule. Since dipole moment is a vector quantity
(with both magnitude and direction), molecular dipole moment is the vector sum of
the individual dipole moments. Consider the molecular dipole moments of methanal
( an aldehyde) and carbon dioxide. Both contain a polar carbonyl ( ) group.
However , we find that methanal is highly polar while carbon dioxide is non polar.
This is so because carbon dioxide is a linear molecule and so, the individual dipoles
cancel each other, whereas in methanal the individual dipole moments add to give a
resultant.

Water is a bent molecule with polar OH bonds. The bond dipole moments add to
give a resultant dipole directed towards the more electronegative oxygen as shown
below;

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Polar molecules have permanent dipole moments. Since opposite charges attract,
when polar molecules approach each other, they orient themselves in a head-to-tail
manner.

Metallic Bonding
Metals contain only one to three electrons in the outer shell. When an element has
only one to three electrons in the outer shell, the bond between these electrons and the
nucleus is relatively weak. So, for example when aluminium atoms are grouped
together in a block of a metal, the outer electrons leave the individual atoms to become
part of a common sea of electrons.

In this arrangement, the valence electrons are able to move freely throughout the block
and are able to conduct heat and electricity easily. Thus the electrons are said to be
delocalised, hence the bond is also delocalised.
These electrons form a sea of electrons around the positive ions (cations). Metallic
bond is the force of attraction between the cations and the sea of the free electrons.
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It should be noted that in a metallic bond, the bonding electrons are shared by all the
atoms in the metal block, unlike the covalent substance where the bonding electrons
are shared between two atoms.

Properties and uses of Metals

Property Use

Metals conduct electricity. This is

because metals have a sea of free They are used in electrical wiring
electrons.

Metals are good conductors of heat. They are used to make cooking
This is because they have free pots.
electrons.

They are malleable and ductile. This They are drawn into wires and are
is because the atoms can slide over used to make sheets
each other when the metal is
deformed due to the delocalised
nature of the bond.

Table 2.6

The Halogens
Halogens are elements in group 7 of the periodic table. They include elements such as
fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine and iodine.
The halogens are electronegative non-metals. They exist as diatomic molecules as
follows F2 (F-F), Cl2 (Cl-Cl), etc.
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(i) Physical properties of the halogens

a. Halogens are coloured elements.
Fluorine ----pale yellow
Chlorine-----greenish yellow
Bromine----- reddish brown
Iodine---------purple black

b. The melting points and the boiling points increase as we go down the group. This
is because as we go down the group the sizes of the molecules increase and therefore
the sizes of the intermolecular forces increase as we go down the group.

Table 2.7

The stronger in intermolecular forces mean that more heat is needed to separate the
molecules, hence the increase in the melting and the boiling points as we go down the
group.

Exercise

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1. a. Using the data given in the table below, plot a graph of boiling point against
relative molecular masses of the halogens.

Element Relative molecular Melting Point Boiling Point

mass (oC) (oC)
F2 36 -220 -188
Cl2 70 -101 - 34
Br2 100 -7 59
I2 132 114 184

Table 2.8

b. From your graph, what is the relationship between the relative molecular masses
and the boiling points of the halogens?
c. Explain the shape of the graph.

2. Chemical properties of halogens

a. The reactivity of the halogens decreases as we go down the group. This is because
(i) The atomic radius increases as we go down the group. Atomic radius is the distance
between the nucleus and the outermost shell as shown below;

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Figure2.41

(ii) The effective nuclear charge decrease as we go down the group. Effective nuclear
charge is the force of attraction from the nucleus of the atom which is felt by the
electrons in the outer shells. When more shells are added to the atom, the electrons in
the outer most shells are shielded from the nuclear charge by the electrons in the inner
shells. Therefore, it becomes difficult for the nucleus to attract electrons from other
elements.

b. Halogens undergo displacement reactions. This is the reaction where a more

reactive halogen displaces a less reactive one from its compound. For example when
chlorine water was added to Potassium chloride solution no colour change is observed.
This shows that no reaction takes place. But when chlorine water is added to the
solution of potassium iodide, the colour of the solution changes from colourless to
brown. This shows that a chemical reaction has taken place. Chlorine has displaced
potassium from the compound of potassium iodide. The reaction is as follows;

Chlorine + Potassium iodide  Potassium chloride + iodine

(yellow) (colourless) (colourless) (brown)

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Chlorine can displace both bromine and iodine from their compounds. Bromine can
displace iodine only from its compound while iodine can displace neither chlorine nor
the bromine from their compounds. Therefore the halogens up in the group are more
reactive and can displace the ones that are lower in the group.

Uses of the halogens

Fluorine
1. It is added to drinking water to prevent tooth decay.
2. It is used in toothpaste because it hardens the enamel.
3. It is used to make poly tetra-fluoroethane (PTFE), which is used to make non stick
frying pans and soles
of iron.

Chlorine
1. to make PVC pipes
2. to sterilize drinking water
3. to make household bleaches such as javel.
4. to make DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane)

Bromine
1. to make disinfectants
2. to coat photographic films as silver bromine (AgBr2)

Iodine
1. to treat wounds
2. to make photographic chemicals such as silver iodide (AgI2)
3. to make dyes and printing inks
4. to make antiseptics
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5. It is added to salt to be used in the body to prevent goitre.

Sulphur
Sources of sulphur
1. Volcanic regions
2. Crude oil such as organic sulphur compounds and natural gases such as hydrogen
sulphide.
3. Metal ores, such as Iron sulphide (FeS2), Lead sulphide (PbS), Zinc sulphide (ZnS).
4. Tissues of living plants. For example the substance that makes people cry when
slicing onion is a sulphur
compound. And the smells of garlic, mustard, cabbage are due to sulphur
compounds.

Physical properties of sulphur

1. It is a brittle yellow substance
2. It is made up of crown shaped molecules, each with eight atoms, S8 as shown figure
2.42.

Figure2.42

3. It Sulphur has a low melting point

4. It is insoluble in water
5. It does not conduct electricity
6. It has two allotropes; rhombic sulphur and monoclinic sulphur. Rhombic sulphur
exists at room
temperature while monoclinic sulphur exists at temperatures above 94.5 oC.

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Allotropes are different forms in which an element can exist in the same physical state.
Of the two allotropes of sulphur, rhombic sulphur is more stable than the monoclinic
sulphur.
This is because of the interlocking arrangement of the sulphur molecules in rhombic
sulphur is more stable than the staked arrangement of the molecules in monoclinic
sulphur as shown in following diagrams:

Rhombic sulphur

Figure2.43

Monoclinic sulphur

Figure2.44

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If the sample of monoclinic sulphur is left at room temperature, it will change to its
more stable form, the rhombic sulphur.

Chemical Properties of Sulphur

a) Sulphur reacts with metals to form sulphides.
Sulphur reacts with magnesium to form magnesium sulphide; Mg + S  MgS. It
also reacts with Iron to form Iron Sulphide; Fe + S  FeS.
b) It burns in oxygen to produce Sulphur dioxide; S + O2  SO2

Uses of Sulphur
Sulphur has a number of importance uses in our lives as follows;
1) to produce sulphuric acid.
2) to vulcanise rubber. Vulcanisation means adding sulphur to rubber in order to
toughen it.
3) to make matches, pesticides, drugs and paper.
4) to make sulphur concrete.
5) to manufacture gun powder.
6) to manufacture plastic flowers.

Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

The major use of sulphur is the production of Sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid is
produced by a process known the contact process. The process has the following steps.
(a) Sulphur is burnt in oxygen to produce sulphur dioxide; S (s) + O2 (g)  SO2
(g)
(b) Sulphur dioxide is reacted with oxygen to produce sulphur trioxide 2SO2 + O2
 2SO3.
(c) There are two routes that can be used to produce the acid;
i. The sulphur trioxide is mixed with water to produce sulphuric acid; 2SO 3 + H2O
 2H2SO4
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However this route has some disadvantages;

- the reaction is very violent so that it is very dangerous.
- the acid produced is very thick and too concentrated.
ii. To produce a good sulphuric acid with required concentration, a different the
following route can be followed;
1)Sulphur trioxide is mixed with concentrated sulphuric acid to produce a substance
known as oleum
(H2S2O7)
2) The oleum is then added to water to produce sulphuric acid of the required
concentration;
H2S2O7 + H2O  2H2SO4

Uses of Sulphuric Acid

Sulphuric acid is important because it is used in the following ways, such as;
1) to manufacture fertilisers e.g. sulphate fertilisers
2) to make paint and dye stuff
3) to make fibres; eg in the manufacture of nylon.
4) as acid in car batteries
5) to make detergents and soaps.
6) as a dehydrating agent. When sulphuric acid is added to sugar a reaction, which
gives out a lot of heat,
takes place and the sugar turns into a black staff. In this reaction the concentrated
sulphuric acid
removes water from the sugar molecules (C6H12O6(s)) leaving behind the black
mass of carbon. The
removal of water from a substance is called dehydration. Dehydration reaction
gives out a lot of heat,
which causes the water to boil off. The equation for the reaction is as follows;
Conc. Sulphuric acid

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C6H12O6(s)  6C(s) + 6H2O (g)

Sulphates
Sulphates are salts formed by the reaction of sulphuric acid with metals, bases or
carbonates.
Examples
Zn + H2SO4  ZnSO4 + H2
(metal)

2NaOH + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + H2O

(Base)

Uses of Sulphates
1. to manufacture fertilisers, e.g. ammonium sulphate fertiliser (NH4)2SO4.
2. in diagnostic medical X-ray studies, e.g. barium sulphate.
3. to make Plaster of Paris (P. O. P), e.g. calcium sulphate
4. as a laxative in medicine, e.g. magnesium sulphate.

Review questions
1. a. The atomic numbers for each of the following seven elements are as follows:
aluminium, Al = 13, carbon, C = 6 ; Boron, B = 5 ; oxygen, O = 8; nitrogen, N = 7;
phosphorus, P = 15; and sulphur, S =16 .
For each of these elements write down:
i. The periodic table to which it belongs
ii. its group number in the periodic table.
iii. the number of electrons in the atom.
iv. its electron configuration
v. The number of outer – shell electrons in one atom.
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b. Which of the above elements would you expect to have similar properties? Why?

c. For the reaction between aluminium, Al and oxygen, O;

i. Draw the atomic structures of the elements.
ii. Draw the structure of each ion formed.
iii. Draw a dot and cross diagram for the compound formed.
iv. Write a chemical formula for the ionic compound formed.
v. Write the name of the compound.
(RAM; Al = 27, O = 16)
3. a. Why are noble gases chemically unreactive?
b. Which electrons in an atom are involved in chemical bonding?
c. What is considered a stable electron configuration?

4. Define the following; a. Covalent bonding. b. Metallic bonding c. Intermolecular

forces. g. Intramolecular forces.

5. Oxygen molecules, O2 have double covalent bonds between the atoms, and the
bonds are very strong. Why does oxygen have very low melting and boiling points?

7. Calcium chloride is made up of charged ions. Why does it not conduct electricity
when in solid state?

8. Draw dot and cross diagrams of each of the following compounds;

a. Lithium oxide, Li2 O
b. Magnesium iodide, MgI2

9. Atoms of elements X, Y and Z have 8, 9 and 12 electrons respectively.

a. Determine the formulae of the compounds formed by the combination of the
elements;
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i. X and Y. ii. Y and Z iii. X with itself.

b. In each of the cases shown in a. (i) – (iii) above name the type of chemical bond
formed.
c. Give the properties you would expect to be shown by the compounds formed in;
a. (ii). a. (iii) and a.(iv)

10. a. Why does the reactivity of the halogens decrease as the group descends?
b. Predict what would happen in the following reactions;
i. Fluorine + Potassium chloride ?+ ?
ii. Bromine + Sodium chloride ? + ?
iii. Bromine + Potassium iodide ? + ?

11. a. Name three sources of sulphur in the Earth’ crust?

b. Sulphur burns in air to produce sulphur dioxide. Write an equation for the
reaction.
(Valences; S = 2, O = 2)
c. Explain what happens when rhombic sulphur is heated to about 95 oC.

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3. CHEMICAL REACTIONS I

Chemical reactions
A chemical reaction is the rearrangement of atoms to form new substances. For
example, when a piece of aluminium metal is thrown into a beaker with hydrochloric
acid, the aluminium metal disappears and a gas comes out from the beaker. This shows
that a chemical reaction has taken place because both the aluminium metal and the
acid disappear and new substances form. The reaction can be represented by the
following chemical equation; Al(s) + HCl(aq) → AlCl3(aq) + H2(g) .
However, the equation is only telling us that aluminium reacted with hydrochloric acid
and produced aluminium chloride (AlCl3) and hydrogen gas (H2). It is not telling us
the exact quantities of the substances that reacted together, and the products. To find
the exact quantities we need to balance the equation. Chemical equations can be
balanced by trial and error or by a systematic method.

Examples
Balance the following equations;
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a. Al(s) + HCl (aq) → AlCl3(aq) + H2(g)

Working out
Since to balance an equation we need to whole numbers (coefficients) in front of the
chemical symbols so that the numbers of the atoms of each kind are the same on both
sides of the equation;
-let the balanced equation be aAl(s) + bHCl(aq) → cAlCl3(aq) + dH2(g).
-then we have to make equations using the numbers of the atoms of each kind on both
sides of the equation.

Using the number of the Al atoms on both sides of the equation , we have;
a = c ........(i)

Using the numbers of the H atoms, on both sides, we have;

b = 2d .......(ii)

Using he numbers of the Cl atoms on both sides, we have;

b = 3c.......(iii)

let a = 1, then substituting 1 for c in (i) we have;

c=1
substituting 1 for c in (iii) we have,
b = 3x1
b=3
substituting 3 for b in (ii) we have;
2d = 3
d = 3/2

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Therefore, the balanced chemical equation is 1Al(s) + 3HCl(aq) → 1AlCl3(aq) +

3/2H2(g) .
However, all the coefficients must be whole numbers, therefore, the whole equation
must be multiplied by 2 to make 3/2 to remove the denominator, 2 as follows; 2[1Al(s)
+ 3HCl(aq) → 1AlCl3(aq) + 3/2H2(g)].
Therefore, the correct equation is; 2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) +3 H2(g)

Exercise
Balance the following
Na(s) + H2O (l)  NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

The mole
Different objects are counted in different units such as shown in table 3.1;

unit Number of objects in one unit Example of objects

dozen 12 batteries
gross 144 pencils
ream 500 sheets of paper
mole 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 atoms, molecules or
000 ions
(or in standard form; 6.02 x
1023)

Table 3.2
The counting units represent a number consistent with their use and the size of the
objects. For example, a wholesale shop owner sells a dozen of batteries because 12 is
a practical number for that purpose. On the other hand, we buy a ream of paper which
is 500 sheets of paper. But a ream of batteries is not a practical amount to buy because
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500 batteries is too big a number of batteries for practical purposes. Similarly
counting atoms, molecules or ions in dozens or reams would not be practical because
the sizes of these particles are very small. It is therefore practical to count these
particles in moles. One mole = 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 particles, (i.e. 6.02
x 1023 particles). A mole means an amount of substance containing 6.02 x 10 23
particles. The unit of a mole is mol. One mole of oxygen atoms contains 6.02 x 1023
oxygen atoms, ‘O’ and one mole of oxygen molecules contains 6.02 x 10 23 oxygen
molecules, ‘O2’. The number 6.02 x 1023 is called Avogadro’s number, L.

Relationship between number of moles of different substances and their masses

The relationship between the number of moles of the particles of any substance and
the mass is as follows; the mass of one mole of the particles of any substance is equal
to the sum of the relative atomic masses (RAM) of the atoms in the molecule of the
substance in grams. For example, the relative atomic mass of oxygen atoms is 16.
Therefore one mole of oxygen atoms is 16g, while the mass of one mole of oxygen
gas (O2) is 32g.

Molar mass
Molar mass is the mass of one mole of any substance. It is the relative formula mass
(RFM) or the relative atomic mass (RAM) expressed in grams. The molecular mass
of any substance is found as follows;
a. Writing the chemical symbol or formula of the substance.
b. Finding the RAM or the RFM of the substance.
c. Expressing the mass in grams.

Example
What is the mass of each of the following?
(RAMs: H = 1, S = 32, O = 16)

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Working out
(The RFM of a sulphuric acid molecule (H2SO4)
= 2 x 1 + 1 x 32 + 4x 16 =
= 100
Therefore, the molar mass of H2SO4 is 100g

Exercise
1. Calculate the molar masses of each of the following;
(i) CO2
(ii) NaCl

2. What is the mass of each of the following

(i) 0.2 moles of HCl
(ii) 3 moles of NaOH
(iii) 0.6 moles of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

(RAMS: C = 12, O = 16, Na = 23, H = 1, Cl = 35.5)

Mole calculations
Sometimes we need to convert the mass of a substance to the number of moles of the
substance and vice versa. In order to do this we can use cross multiplication.

Examples
1. How mans moles of sodium Na, are there in 46 g of sodium, Na? (RAM; Na =23)

Working out
Let x be the number of moles of Na in 46 g Na
Since 23g Na = 1 mol
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 46 g Na = x mol
Cross multiplying, we have; 23 Na x x mole = 46g Na x 1mole
Making x the subject; x = (46g Na x 1 mole)/(23Na x mole)
=2
 there are moles of Na in 46g Na.

2. Calculate the mass of 2 moles of Iron. (RAM of Iron = 56)

Working out
Let x be the mass of 2 mol Fe
Since 1mol Fe = 56g
 2 moles Fe = x g
Cross multiplying; 1 mol Fe x x g = 2moles x 56g
Making x the subject; x = (2moles x 56g)/(1mole Fe x 1g)
=112
the mass of 2 moles of Fe is 112g

Exercise
1. How many moles are in 12g Mg?
2. Calculate the number of moles in 20g N
3. What is the mass of 2.5 moles of carbon, C?
(RAMs: Mg =24, N = 14, C =12)

Empirical Formula
Empirical formula is the formula that shows the simplest ratio in which atoms combine
in a compound. The empirical formulae of compounds are determined experimentally.

Example

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An experiment shows that 2.4g magnesium combines with 1.6g oxygen to form
magnesium oxide. What is the empirical formula of magnesium oxide.

magnesium oxygen
mass 2.4g 1.6g

Moles 2.4 x (1mole)/24g =0.1mol 1.6 x

(1mole)/16g = 0.1mol

Divide each result above (0.1mol)/(0.1mol) = 1 (0.1mol)/(0.1mol)

=1
by the smallest result

 the atoms combine in the ratio 1:1 to form the compound.

the empirical formula of the magnesium oxide is Mg1O1 or simply MgO.

Exercise
1. An experiment shows that 32g of Sulphur combine with32g of Oxygen to form the
compound Sulphur dioxide. What is the empirical formula of the compound Sulphur
dioxide? (RAMs; S = 32, O = 16)
2. A hydrocarbon has a percentage composition by mass of 85.7% of carbon and
14.3% of hydrogen. Calculate the empirical of the hydrocarbon. (RAM; C = 12, H =
1)

4. Molecular formula
Molecular formula is the formula that shows the actual numbers of atoms that combine
the molecule.
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Molecular formula differs from the empirical formula in that the empirical formula
shows only the simplest ratio of the atoms in the molecule while the molecular formula
shows the actual numbers of the atoms. It is worked out as follows;
1. Work out the empirical formula.
2. Calculate the empirical formula mass.
3. Identify the actual (molecular) mass.
4. Find the ratio: (actual formula mass)/( empirical formula mass)
5. Multiply the subscripts in the empirical formula by the result you find in step (iv)
above to find the
molecular formula.

Example
An alkane has percentage composition is 84.2 % carbon and 15.8% hydrogen. Its
formula mass is 114g. What is its molecular formula?
(RAM; C = 12, H = 1)

Working out
Carbon Hydrogen
Mass 84.2g 15.8g

Moles 84.2g x (1 mole/12g) = 7.02moles 15.8g x (1

mole/1g) = 15.8moles

Divide each result above by (7.02 moles)/(7.02) = 1 (15.8 moles)/(7.02)=

2.25
the lowest result;

Multiply each result by 4 to make 1x4 = 4 2.25 x 4 = 9

2.25 a whole number
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This implies that 4 carbon atoms combine with 9 hydrogen atoms. Therefore the
empirical formula is C4H9
Empirical formula mass = (12g x 4) + (1g x 9)
= 57g
Actual formula mass = 114g

Actual formula mass = 114g = 2

Empirical formula mass 57g

The molecular formula = C4x2H9x2

= C8H18.

Exercise
1.2g of magnesium combines with 3.55 g of chlorine. If the formula mass is 94g, work
out the molecular formula of the compound.
(RAM; Mg = 24, Cl = 35.5).

Concentration
Concentration of a solution means the amount of solute dissolved in a given volume
of solution.
Concentration = (amount of solute)/volume

Ways of expressing concentration

(i) moles per unit volume
e.g concentration = (number of moles)/ volume of solution
When the concentration is expressed as moles volume its units can be mol/cm3, mol/
litre or mol/ dm3.

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Molarity
The concentration expressed as number of moles per cubic decimetre, mol/dm3 or
mole/litre is referred to as molarity. The unit of molarity is molar, and is abbreviated
M. For example, if a solution contains 3 moles of solute per cubic decimetre of
solution, its molarity is 3 mol/dm3 or 3 M.

Calculating number of moles given concentration of a solution

Number of moles (n) = concentration x volume.

Example
How many moles of NaOH are there in 0.5 dm3 of NaOH of concentration 2M?

Working out
n = concentration x volume.
= 2mol x 0.5dm3
dm3
= 1 mole.

NB; 1dm3 = 1 litre

= 1000 cm3
= 1000ml

Examples
(1).What is the molarity of H2SO4 in a solution made by dissolving 49g of H2SO4 in
250 ml of solution? (RAM; H=1, S=32, O=16)

Working out
Molarity (m) = number of moles (n)
volume (v) in dm3
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number of moles = mass x 1mole

molar mass
mass of H2SO4 given = 49g
molar mass of H2SO4= (1x2) + (32x1) + (16x 4)
= 98gmole
so, number of moles = 49g x 1 mole
98g
volume in dm3 =250ml x dm3
1000ml
Therefore, molarity of H2SO4 = 49g x 1 mole 250ml x dm3
98g 1000ml
=49 g x 1 mole x 1 x 1000ml
98 g 250 ml dm3
= 2 mol/dm3 (or 2M)
Exercise
1. What is the concentration of a solution containing 4 moles of NaOH in 2dm3 of
solution?
2. What is the concentration of sodium carbonate solution containing 53g of the salt
(Na2CO3) per dm3?
(RAM; Na = 23, C = 12, O = 16, H = 1)

(ii) Mass concentration

Mass concentration means mass (g) of solute present in a given volume of solution in
cubic decimetres (dm3).
Mass concentration = mass (g) of solute
Volume (dm3)
For example, the concentration of NaOH made by dissolving 40g of NaOH in 2dm3
of water = 40g/2dm3
= 20g/ dm3
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Exercise
1. What is the mass concentration of a solution containing 4 moles of NaCl in 2dm 3
of solution?

Standard Solutions
A standard solution is a solution whose concentration is known. Standard solutions
are used for volumetric analysis ( i.e in titrations to standardize other solutions).
Standard solutions can be prepared in the following ways;
a. Dissolution of solid solutes
b. Dilution of stock solutions

(a) Dissolution of solutes (i.e. dissolving Solutes)

This is a process whereby a solid solute of a measured mass is dissolved into a solution
of known volume. To prepare a standard solution by solute dissolution we need to
know the concentration and the volume of the solution to be prepared. The following
steps are then followed;
1)Calculate the required mass of the solute as follows:
- if the concentration is given as mole concentration (or molarity), convert it
to
mass concentration by multiplying it with molar mass / mole.
- convert the mass concentration to mass;
- mass = mass concentration x volume (of solution to be prepared)
2) Weigh out the calculated mass of the solute using a beam balance.
3) Dissolve the solute completely in a beaker.
4) Transfer quantitatively into a volumetric flask of the required volume of the
solution to be
prepared. Quantitatively means nothing must be left in the beaker. The beaker must
be rinsed
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thoroughly.
5) Fill the flask with more distilled water up to the up to the mark, put the stopper and
shake to mix
thoroughly.

Example
Describe how you can prepare 250ml of 2M Potassium carbonate (K2CO3) solution.
(RAM; K = 39, C =12, O = 16)

Working out
1) Calculate the required mass of K2 CO3 as follows;
- mole concentration = 2moles / dm3 .
- mass concentration = (2mol/dm3) x 138g/1 mol = 276g/dm3
- mass of the K2CO3 required = 276g/dm3 x 0.25 dm3.= 69g
2) Weigh out 69g of K2CO3 and place it into a 250ml volumetric flask.
3) Add just enough distilled water into the beaker to dissolve the pellets.
4) Transfer the solution into the volumetric flask quantitatively.
5) Rinse the beaker with distilled water three times adding into the volumetric
flask.
6) Add distilled water up to the 250ml mark
7) Mix thoroughly.

Exercise
Describe how you can prepare 200ml of 0.2M Na Cl solution.

(b) Dilution of stock solutions

Some standard solutions are kept so that other standard solutions can be prepared from
them by dilution. These standard solutions are highly concentrated and are known as
stock solutions. Dilution means making less concentrated a highly concentrated
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solution. In order to make a standard solution from a more concentrated solution, we

need the following information; the volume of the solution to be prepared, the
concentration of the diluted standard solution to be prepared and the concentration of
the stock solution.
The following dilution formula is used when preparing standard solutions from stock
solutions.
c 1 v 1 = c2 v 2
Where c1 = concentration of the stock solution
v1 = volume to be transferred from the stock solution (ml or dm3)
c2 = concentration of the dilute solution to be prepared
v2 = volume of the dilute solution to be prepared (ml or dm3)

Steps to be followed;
1) calculate the volume, v1 to be transferred from the stock solution.
v1 = (c2 v2)/ c1
2) measure the calculated volume of the stock solution using a measuring cylinder.
3) transfer it into an appropriate volumetric flask.
4) rinse the measuring cylinder with some distilled water and transfer the water
into the
volumetric flask.
5) add more distilled water to the volumetric flask up to the mark, put the stopper
and shake.

Example
Describe how you can prepare 250 cm3 of 0.2 M hydrochloric acid from 2M
hydrochloric acid solution.

Working out

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(i) Calculate the volume (v1) of the 2M hydrochloric solution to be taken as

follows:
c1 v 1 = c 2 v 2
c1 = 2M, v1 =? ,
c2 = 0.2M, v2= 250cm3.
2M x v1 = 0.2M x 250ml.
v1 = (0.2M x 250cm3)/ 2M
= 25cm3
(ii) Pour out 25cm3 of the 2M hydrochloric acid and transfer it into a 250cm3
volumetric flask.
(iii) Add distilled water up to the 250cm3 mark and shake to mix.

Exercise
Describe how you can prepare 500ml of 0.555M HCl from 11.3M HCl.

Finding Concentration of a Substance in Solution

The process of finding the concentration of a solution is referred to as standardization.
One way of standardizing solutions is by titration.

Titration
Titration is a process of adding a solution of one reactant drop by drop from a burette
or syringe to a solution of another reactant in a conical flask or beaker until reaction
is just complete.
The concentration of a solution of the unknown concentration can be worked out using
the following steps;
a) Find the volume of the standard solution (in dm3).
b) Find number of moles (n) of the standard solution using the given concentration
and the volume.
Use the formula n = c v.
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c) Find the reaction ratios from the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
d) Find number of moles of the standard solution using the reaction ratios.
e) Find the concentration of the standard solution using the number of moles and
the given volume.

Example
25.0 cm3 of 0.1M of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution required 23.5cm3 of dilute
hydrochloric acid(HCl) for neutralisation. Calculate the concentration of the HCl.

Working out
Balanced chemical equation;
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
The experiment used 25.0 of 0.1M NaOH solution,
n= cv
c(NaOH) = 0.1M or 0.1 mol/dm3
v (NaOH) = 25.0 cm3 or 0.025dm3
Therefore number of moles of NaOH, n(NaOH) = 0.1mol/dm3 x 0.025dm3
Reaction ratios = 1:1
n(NaOH) / n (HCl) = 1/1
n (HCl) = 0.1mol/dm3 x 0.025dm3
v(HCl) = 23.5cm3 = 0.023dm3
Hence c(HCl) = (0.1mol/dm3 x 0.025dm3)/0.023dm3
= 0.106 mol/dm3 or 0.106 M

Facts about practical titration

 During titration there are two different solutions; a titrant and the analyte.
 Titrant is a standard solution whereas the analyte is the solution whose
concentration is to be
known.
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 During titration a titrant is added slowly from the burette in small volumes to
the analyte until the amount of the solutions have just reacted to completion.
The concentration of the analyte can be worked out by measuring the volume
of the titrant that is needed to react with the analyte.
Titration procedure
1) Arrange the apparatus as shown figure 3.3 below;
2) Put a measured volume of the analyte into a conical flask.
3) Adding a few drops of indicator into the flask (the function of the indicator is
to indicate the
point when the reaction is complete).
4) Pour the titrant into the burette.
5) Drip the titrant from the burette into the conical flask slowly, while swirling
the flask
continuously.
6) Stop when there is a colour change of the indicator. This is the end point.
7) Record the new level of the solution in the burette.
8) Find the volume of the solution used. (Volume used = final volume – initial
volume),
9) Calculate the concentration of the solution whose concentration is not known.

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Figure 3.3
NB: A syringe can also be used instead of the burette. In this case the volume used =
initial volume – final volume.

Possible sources of errors when carrying out titrations

-Inaccurate readings of the volumes of the solution.
-overshooting. This means adding more than enough solution from the burette.

Example
Describe how you can determine the concentration of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
using a
0.2M hydrochloric acid (HCl).

Working out
1) Pour the acid into a burette and note the level.
2) Pipette 25cm3 of the sodium hydroxide solution into a conical flask.
3) Add a few drops of indicator into the conical flask (the colourless solution
changes to
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pink, if the indicator used is phenolphthalein) .

4) Drip the acid drop by drop slowly into conical flask, swirling continuously.
5) Stop adding the solution when there is colour change on the indicator.
6) Calculate the volume of the acid used; volume of acid used = final volume –
initial volume
7) Calculate the concentration of the NaOH used as follows;
i. calculate the number of moles of HCl used;
number of moles = molarity x volume (dm3)
ii. Write down the balanced chemical equation for the reaction between HCl
and
NaOH ie. NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O.
iii. From the balanced chemical equation, write down the ratio of number of
moles;
number of moles of NaOH : number of moles of HCl = 1:1
iv. Use the ratio of the number of moles and the number of moles of HCl
used to find
the number of moles of NaOH used.
v. Concentration of NaOH= (moles of NaOH )/(volume(dm3) of NaOH
used).

Exercise
Describe how the concentration of 20cm3 of sodium solution can be determined by
evaporation method.

Molar gas volume

Molar volume is the volume of one mole of a gas. The volume of any type of gas
depends on its pressure and temperature. At room temperature and pressure (rtp) one
mole of a gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 (or24 l). Room temperature and pressure
is 20oC and 1 atm respectively.
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At standard temperature and pressure, stp, one mole of a gas occupies a volume of
22.4 dm3. Standard temperature and pressure is 0oC and 1atm respectively.

Figure 3.4

Example
How many moles of CO2 gas are there in 60 litres of CO2 gas at rtp?

working out
Let the number of moles be x.
At rtp; 24 dm3 of a gas = 1mol
60dm3 of a gas = x mol
Cross multiplying; 24 dm3 x x mol = 60dm3 x 1 mol
Making x the subject; x = (60 dm3 x 1 mol)/ 24dm3mol
x = 2.5 moles

there are 2.5moles of CO2 in 60 dm3 of CO2 gas.

Exercise
1. A reaction produces 100 cm3 of hydrogen gas at rtp. How many moles of H2 is this?
2. What volume does 48g of an oxygen gas, O2 occupy at (a) rtp (b) stp?
3. What is the mass of 56 dm3 of hydrogen gas at stp?

Molar Volume and Reacting Masses

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In many chemical reactions, gases are produced or used up. The numbers of moles or
the masses of substances react in ratios related by balanced equations. When volumes
of gases react or are produced during the chemical reactions, these volumes are also
related by balanced equations;
H2SO4(aq + 2Na OH(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
1mole 2mol 1mol 2mol

Examples
1. Given the balanced chemical equation;
2 Al (s) + 6 HCl (aq)  2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2 (g),
what mass of Al is needed to produce 50 dm3 of H2 at stp? (RAM: Al = 27)

Working out
Let the mass of Al needed be y
From the balanced equation given;
2mol Al produces 3 mol H2 gas

Mass of 2mol Al;

Let the mass be xg
1mol Al = 27g
2mol Al = xg
Cross multiplying: (1mol Al )x (x g) = (2mol Al) x (27g)
Making x the subject; x = (2mol Al x 27g)/(1mol Al g)
=54
 The mass of 2 mol Al = 54g
Volume of 3mol H2 gas at stp;
Let the volume be v
1mol of gas at stp = 22.4 dm3.
3mol of gas at stp = v dm3
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Cross multiplying; 1mol of gas at stp x v dm3 = 3mol of gas at stp x 22.4 dm3
Making v the subject; v = (3mol of gas at stp x 22.4 dm3)/( 1mol dm3)
v = 67.2
 The volume of 3 molH2 gas at stp = 67.2 dm3

 54g Al = 67.2 dm3 H2 gas

y g = 50 dm3 H2 gas
Cross multiplying;
(y g) x(67.2 dm3 H2 gas) = (54g Al) x (50 dm3 H2 gas)
Making y the subject;
y = (54g Al) x (50 dm3 H2 gas)/(67.2 dm3 H2 gas)g
y = 40.18
Hence the mass of Al needed to produce 50 dm3 of H2 at stp is 40.18g

Exercise
Given the balanced chemical equation,
4NH3 (g) + 5 O2 (g) → 4 NO (g) + 6 H2O (l), what volume of NO gas measured at rtp
will be produced from 19.5g of O2? (RAM; N =14, H = 1, O = 16)

Heats of Reactions
During reactions chemical bonds between the particles in the substances that are
mixed together are broken and new bonds are formed when new substances are
formed. For example, when aluminium metal and hydrochloric acid are mixed
aluminium chloride and hydrogen gas are formed. The chemical equation for the
reaction is 2Al (s) + 6 HCl (aq)  2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2 (g). For this reaction to take
place the chemical bonds between the particles in the aluminium metal and in the
hydrochloric acid must break. When these bonds are broken, new bonds between the
particles in aluminium chloride (AlCl3) and between the particles in hydrogen gas (H2)
are formed.
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Energy, in the form of heat is used to break chemical bonds. This energy is taken from
the surroundings, such the solution in which the reaction is taking place, containers
like beakers or test tubes where the reaction is taking place and/or the surrounding air.
When the new chemical bonds are formed between the particles in the new substances,
energy, in the form of heat is given out to the surroundings. Bond breaking and bond
formation take place simultaneously. So when heat is taken in from the surroundings
to break the bonds, heat is also given out to the surroundings immediately.

In most reactions the amount of heat energy taken in from the surroundings to break
bonds is not the same as the amount of heat energy given out to the surroundings when
new bonds are formed. The difference between the heat energy taken in to break the
existing bonds and the heat energy given out when the new bonds are formed during
chemical reactions is called heat of reaction. Heat of reaction is found by subtracting
heat given out form the heat taken in. The symbol for the heat of reaction is ∆H,
mathematically, ∆H = heat energy taken in – heat energy given out.

Exothermic and endothermic reactions

There are two types of reactions depending on how the amount of the heat energy
taken in to break the bonds compares with the amount of the heat energy given out
when the new bonds are formed. The reaction in which the amount of the heat energy
given out is greater than the amount of heat energy taken in is known as an exothermic
reaction. This is because the overall result of the reaction is that heat energy is given
out to the surroundings. The prefix ‘exo-‘ means out, so the reaction gives out heat.

Since ∆H = heat energy taken in – heat energy given out, the value of the heat of
reaction for an exothermic reaction has a negative sign. Experimentally, an exothermic
reaction is identified by a rise in the temperature of the solution and the container in

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which the reaction is taking place. This means that the solution and the container in
which the reaction is taking place feels warmer or even hotter like in burning.

The reaction in which the amount of the heat energy given out is less than the amount
of heat energy taken in is called an endothermic reaction. This is because the overall
result of the reaction is that heat energy is taken in from the surroundings. The prefix
endo- means in, so the reaction removes heat from the solution and the container in
which the reaction is taking place. The value of the heat of reaction for an endothermic
reaction has a positive sign. An endothermic reaction is identified by a decrease in the
temperature of the solution and the container in which the reaction is taking place. The
container feels colder.

Energy Diagrams
When the bonds are broken during chemical reaction, the particles are temporarily
separated from each other. The separate particles are said to be in ionic or gas state.
In the gas state, the particles possess the greatest amount of energy. The particles use
some of the energy they form new bonds. The graphical depiction of the energy
changes that take place during chemical reactions is called an energy diagram.
Consider the reaction represented by the following thermo chemical equation;
CH4(l)+ 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) H = -728kJ.
A thermo chemical equation is the one that includes the value of the heat of reaction,
H. The negative sign of the heat of reaction at the end of the equation is telling us
that the reaction is exothermic, and so less amount of heat energy was taken in when
breaking the bonds in the reactants and more heat energy was given out to the
surroundings when new bonds were formed in the products. The energy diagram for
the reaction is, therefore, as follows

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Exercise
1. State whether the reactions represented by each of the following thermo chemical
equations are exothermic or endothermic. Explain your answer in each case.

(a) 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O ∆H = - 487kJ

(b) NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2 ∆H = +197 kJ

2. Draw an energy level diagram for each of the thermo chemical equations in
questions 1 above.

Review questions
1. a. How many particles are contained in one mole of particles? Give the answer
in
Scientific form.
b. The relative atomic mass of aluminium, Al is 27, how many moles of Al are
contained in 54g of Al?
c. What is meant by molar mass?

2. The equation for the reaction between ethanol and oxygen is as follows;

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C2H5OH(l) + O2 (g) CO2(l) + H2O(l) H = -

1371kJ/mol

i . Balance the equation.

ii. What does H = - 1371kJ/mol mean?
iii. Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic? Give a reason.
iv. Draw an energy level diagram for the reaction.
v. What volume of CO2 can be produced from 69g of C2H5OH measured at rtp?
(RAM: C = 12, H = 1, O = 16)

3. Explain the following;

i. bond making is exothermic
ii. bond breaking is endothermic
iii. H for exothermic reactions has a negative sign.

4. An organic acid has a percentage composition by mass of C = 40%, H = 6.6 %

and
O = 53.4%. Its relative molecular mass is 60. Calculate;
i. empirical formula of the organic acid.
ii. the molecular formula of the organic acid.
(RAMs ; C = 12, H = 1, O = 16)

5. Calculate the empirical formulae of the following ionic compounds from the
data given below;
i. 1.2g of magnesium combines with 3.55 g of chlorine.
ii. 7.67g of sodium combines with 11. 83g of chlorine.
iii. Lead combines with oxygen in the percentage composition by mass of
92.8% lead and 7.2% oxygen.
(RAM; H =1, O = 16, Mg = 24, Cl = 35.5 Na = 23, Pb = 207).
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6. What is the mass of HCl present in 155ml of a 0.54M solution?

7. What is the concentration of potassium hydroxide solution used in the following

neutralisation reaction? 20cm3 of 0.2M solution of hydrochloric acid just
neutralised 15cm3 of potassium hydroxide solution.

8. a. Calculate the mass of (a) 3moles and (b) 0.2moles of carbon dioxide gas,
CO2.
(RAM; C = 12, O = 16)
b. Calculate the number of moles of magnesium oxide, MgO in (a) 80g (b)
10g of the compound. (RAM; O = 16 Mg = 24)

9. a. Calculate the number of moles of ammonia gas, NH3 in a volume of 72dm 3

of the gas measured at (a) rtp (b) stp.
b. Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide gas, CO2 occupied by
(i) 5moles (ii) 0.5 moles of the gas at (1) rtp (2) stp.

4. FORCES AND MOTION

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Scalar and vector quantities

Scalars are quantities that are described by sizes (or magnitudes) only. Examples of
scalar quantities are mass, speed, distance, volume etc. Scalars can be added or
subtracted by ordinary arithmetic. Example; 2kg + 4kg = 6kg.
Vectors are quantities that are described by both their magnitude and direction.
Examples are forces, displacements, velocity, acceleration etc. Vectors are
represented by a straight line, drawn to scale, with an arrow. The length of the line
represents the magnitude of the vector while the arrow indicates the direction of the
vector. For example a force of 40N eastwards can be represented by a line 4cm long
(where the scale is 1cm: 1N), with an arrow pointing to the east as shown below;

40N

Differences between Vectors and Scalars

Scalar Vector
Described by size only Described by both size and
direction
Added by ordinary arithmetic Added geometrically

Table 4.1

Properties of Vectors

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(i) Vectors can be shifted from one place to another provided their sizes and directions
are maintained. This is because vectors which have the same sizes and directions are
equal. For example, the following vectors are equal

Figure 4.2

(ii) Each vector has its negative.

A negative of a vector is a vector which has the same size as the given vector but is
opposite in direction. For example the following vectors are negative to each other.

Figure 4.3

(iii) Every vector has multiple vectors to it.

A multiple of a vector is a vector which has the same direction as the given vector but
may have a different magnitude. For example the vectors in figure 4.4 are multiples
of each other because vector F = 2 xE.

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Figure 4.4

Vector Addition (combining vectors)

Two or more vectors can be added together to give a single vector. The combination
of two or more vectors is called a resultant vector. To find the resultant of vectors, the
vectors must always be drawn head-to-tail as shown below

(i) Adding vectors acting in the same direction along the same line of action
Two vectors acting in the same direction along the same line of action are already
head-to-tail. Therefore, their resultant is found adding the magnitudes while
maintaining their direction.

Example
A boy is cycling due east with a velocity of 21 km/h and wind also blows due east
with a velocity of 25km/h. What is the resultant vector?

Working out
The resultant of the two velocities is found by drawing the two vectors to scale (e.g.
1cm: 1N) and adding them head-to-tail as follows;

The resultant velocity is 46km/hr due east and has the same direction as the component
velocities.

(ii)Adding vectors acting along the same line of action but in opposite directions
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If two vectors are acting along the same line of action but in opposite directions their
resultant is found by reversing on of them so that they are head-to-tail.

Example
A girl is pushing a box with a force 20N due east. Another girl is pushing the same
box in the opposite direction with a force of 15N. Find the magnitude and direction of
resultant force.

Working out
The two vectors can be represented as follows

Figure 4.7
The resultant of the two velocities is found by drawing the two vectors to scale and
adding them head-to-tail (by reversing one of the vectors) as shown in figure 4.5.

Figure 4.8

The resultant vector is then found by adding the magnitudes of the two vectors (20N
+ (-15N) = 5N. The sign of the resultant gives its direction. It is the same as the
direction the vector with the larger magnitude.

(ii) Adding two vectors acting at an angle to each other

Two vectors acting at angle to each other, as shown below, can be added using rules
such as the triangle rule or the parallelogram rule.

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Figure 4.8

1. The triangle rule

The triangle rule for adding vectors says that if two vectors acting at angle to each
other are drawn ‘head-to-tail’ with each other with their magnitudes represented by
lengths of straight lines drawn to scale, then the vector that closes the triangle is the
resultant of the two vectors. Consider the vectors in figure 4.9 below

Figure 4.9

The resultant vector is always tail-to-tail with the vector that was not shifted and
head – to – head with the vector that was shifted.

2. The parallelogram rule

The parallelogram rule say that if two vectors acting at a point are represented, both
in magnitude and direction, by the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the diagonal
of the parallelogram passing through the point of intersection of the vectors is equal
to the resultant of the two vectors both in magnitude and direction. Consider the
vectors in figure 4.50:

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Figure 4.10

Vector subtraction
To subtract a vector means to add a negative of a vector. For example, A – B = A + (-
B)

a. The Triangle Rule for Vector Subtraction

To subtract a vector using the triangle rule, the vector to be subtracted is reversed so
that the two vectors are head - to – tail. The resultant is the vector that closes the
triangle. It is tail to tail with the vector that was reversed.

Example
Given two vectors, A = 10N and B = 15N, acting at an angle of 80o to each other, find
the resultant A – B.

Working out
To find the resultant vector,
1) draw vectors using an appropriate scale e.g 1cm: 5N at an angle of 80o to each other.
2) then reverse vector B to get vector –B.
3) close the triangle
4) measure the length of the line that closes the triangle. The length of this line
represents the magnitude of
the vector A –B. Vector A-B is head-to-head with vector A.
5) use the scale to find the magnitude of resultant vector A-B.

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Figure 4.51

b. The Parallelogram rule for the vector subtraction

When subtracting vectors using the parallelogram rule, the vectors are represented by
the adjacent sides of parallelogram with the vector to be subtracted reversed in
direction.
The diagonal of the parallelogram that passes from the ‘tails’ to the ‘heads’ of the
vectors is the resultant of the vectors.

Example:

Figure 4.51

Exercise
1. Two girls are dragging a crate eastward along a level ground by pulling a rope held
horizontally with forces 160N and 170N respectively. If the friction force opposing
the motion is 20N, what is the resultant force on the crate?

2. The velocity of an aeroplane is 250km/hr and its course is due north. It is carried
off course by wind blowing from the west at 80km/hr. Find its ground velocity.

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3. A pilot in an Air Malawi aeroplane travelling north at 500km/hr sees a South

African Airways aeroplane directly in front of him travelling south at 400km/hr. What
is the velocity of the South African Airways aeroplane relative to the pilot in the Air
Malawi aeroplane?

4 Two boys are pulling a bag of cement along a level ground by means of two ropes
held horizontally, at an angle of 20o from each other. If the boys are pulling with force
90N and 80N calculate the resultant force on the on the bag.

Components of vectors
A single vector, represented F, can be split into two vectors which are perpendicular
to each other. The two vectors are called components of the vector. The component
parallel to the vertical is known as a vertical component, V and the component parallel
to the horizontal is called a horizontal component, H. For example, in the figure below,
the single vector, F has two components, V and H.

Figure 4.52

When the two components V and H are taken together, they have exactly the same
effect as the single vector, F. The process of splitting a vector into its components is
called vector resolution.

How to work out magnitudes of the components

The magnitudes of the components of a vector can be calculated using either
trigonometry or scale drawing

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Using the trigonometric ratios

The trigonometry ratios used are the sine ratio and the cosine ratio. The sine ratio is
used to calculate the vertical component as follows; V/F = Sin , implying that V= F
Sin .The horizontal component is calculated using the cosine ratio; H = F Cos.

Examples
1. Work out the magnitudes of the components of vector below;

Figure 4.53

Working out
V= F Sin 
Where, F = 20N, and  = 30o
V = 20N x Sin 30o
=10N
H = F Cos 
H = 20N x Cos 30o
=17.32N

2. A person pushes a wheelbarrow along a road with the handle at an angle of 30o to
the horizontal, exerting a push of 120N. Calculate the force with which the
wheelbarrow is being pushed along the road.

Working out

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The force along the road is the horizontal component force, F x Cos.
F x Cos 30o = 120 N x 0.886
= 104 N

b. Scale drawing
The magnitudes of the components of a vector can be found by measuring the lengths
of the components and multiplying the lengths with the scale. The scale can be worked
out using the length and the magnitude of the vector given. For example, if the
magnitude of the vector is 40N and after measuring we find that its length is 4cm, then
a scale of 1cm : 10Ncan be used.

Example
Find the magnitude of the vertical component of the vector given in the figure below;

Working out
Choose a scale; let it be 1cm: 10N.
Let’s assume that after measuring we find that the length of V is 1.5cm
Then we multiply the length by the scale; 1.5cm x 10N/cm = 15N
Therefore, the magnitude of the vertical component is 15N.

Exercise
1. Find the magnitudes of the components in the following figure.

Figure 4.55

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2. A box is being pulled along the floor by means of a rope making an angle of 30 o
with the horizontal. If the pull on the rope is 80N, calculate;
(i) the effective part of the force pulling the box.
(ii) the force tending to lift the box off the ground.

3. A person is walking along a street in a direction 30 o north of east. If the person

walks 250m, what is the easterly component of the person’s displacement?

Distance and displacement

Consider figure 4.56 below. Suppose a person wants to travel from point A to point D
by road. Because of the lake between point A and D the road passes through B and C
before reaching D. The total length of the road the person has to travel from A to D
will be 43 km (10km + 8km + 25km). However, upon reaching point D, she will be
24km north of A.

Figure 4.55
The total length of a specified path followed by an object in motion is called distance.
Distance is a scalar quantity; for example, we can say that the distance between Limbe
and Zomba is 50 km.
Displacement describes how far and in which direction one point is from another.
Displacement is distance in a specified direction. The letter s is used the represent

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displacement. Since displacement is described by distance and direction, it is a vector

quantity. Displacement can therefore, be positive or negative. As a vector,
displacement can be represented by a straight line with an arrow. For example, 5km

due north may be represented as and 5km due south may be

represented as .

Distance – time Graphs

A distance-time graph describes how the distance covered by an object in motion
changes as time goes. It is important to know how to interpret the distance-time
graphs. The table below gives meanings of some shapes of these graphs.

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Example
Figure 4.55 below shows a distance – time graph representing the motion of a cyclist.
Describe the motion of the cyclist represented by each section of the graph.

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Figure 4.55

Working out
On section AB: Change in distance covered per given time is constant. Therefore, the
cyclist is
moving with constant speed..

On section BC: Change in distance covered per given time is zero. Therefore, the
cyclist is
moving with zero speed. In other words, the cyclist is not moving.

On section CD: Change in distance covered per given time is constant. Therefore, the
cyclist is
moving with constant speed. However the cyclist is moving with less
speed than on

On section DE: The cyclist is stationary.

On section EF: Change in distance covered per given time is constant. Therefore, the
cyclist is
moving with constant speed.. However, she is returning.

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The gradient (or slope) of the Distance – Time Graph

Figure 4.56

Gradient = Vertical side

Horizontal side
= RS / RO
RS represents the change in the distance travelled and RO represents the time taken.
Gradient = (change in the distance)/ time
= speed
Therefore the gradient of the distance – time graph gives the speed of the object.

Speed, velocity and acceleration

Speed means the total distance covered per given time. Mathematically, speed =
(distance)/ time. For example, if a car travels a distance of 90m in 10s, then its speed
is 90m / 10s = 9m/s. Speed is a scalar quantity.
Average speed = (total distance)/ total time.

Velocity, v
Velocity is speed in a specified direction.
Therefore, velocity = (displacement)/time
displacement = velocity x time

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Since distance in a specified direction is displacement, which is a vector quantity,

therefore, velocity is also a vector quantity. For example; 10m/s to the right may be

represented as and 10m/s to the left may be represented as

Acceleration, a
Acceleration is the change in velocity of an object per given time. Therefore,
acceleration = (change in velocity) / time.
For an object undergoing uniform acceleration;
average velecity = (u + v)/ 2 and
Acceleration = [(Final velocity, v) – (initial velocity, u)] / (time). That is
a = (v – u)/t and

Example
The velocity of a car changes from 2m/s to 14m/s in 4 seconds. What is the
acceleration of the car.

Working out
a = (v – u) /t, u = 2m/s, v = 14m/s and t = 4
a = [(14 – 2) m/s /4s]
a = (12/4) m/s2
a = 3 m/s2

Speed – time Graphs

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Table 4.3

Example
Describe the motion of a motorist which is represented each section of the graph in
figure 4.57 below.

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Figure 4.57

On AB: Change in speed per given time is increasing. Therefore the motorist is
moving increasing speed. She is moving with increasing acceleration.

On BC: Change in speed per given time is constant. Therefore, the cyclist is moving
with constant
acceleration .

On CD: Change in speed per given time is decreasing. The motorist is moving
decreasing
acceleration.

On DE: Change in speed per given time is zero. The cyclist is moving with zero
acceleration.
Therefore, she is moving with constant speed.

On EF: Decrease in speed per given time is increasing. The motorist is moving with
increasing
deceleration.

On FG: The decrease in speed per given time is constant. The motorist is moving with
constant
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deceleration.

On GH: The decrease in speed per given time is decreasing. The motorist is, therefore,
moving with
decreasing deceleration.

The Gradient of the Speed – Time Graph

Figure 4.58

The gradient of the graph line = (MN)/OM

The gradient of the speed – time = [change in speed (m/s)] / [time taken (s)]
= acceleration
Therefore, the gradient of the speed – time graph = acceleration (m/s2).

Area under the Speed – Time Graph

(a) The area under the speed – time graph of an object travelling with constant speed.

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Figure 4.59

The area under the shaded rectangle = 15m/s x 6s

= 90m
= distance travelled.

(b) The area under the speed – time graph of an object travelling with increasing speed.

Figure 4.60
The area under the shaded triangle = 1/2 x 4s x 16 m/s, = 32m
= the distance travelled
Therefore, the area under the speed – time graph = the distance travelled by the object.

Exercise
1. The speed – time graph represents the journey of a motorist travelling along a
straight line.

Figure 4.61

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a. What is the motorist’s maximum speed?

b. What is the acceleration during first 10 second?
c. What is the deceleration during the last 7.5 seconds of the journey?
d. What is the distance travelled during the first 20 seconds?
e. What is the total distance travelled?
f. What is the motorist doing between B and C?
g. What is the time taken for the whole journey?
h. What is the average speed for the whole journey?

2. Figure 4.61 (a) shows the distance – time graph for a car, and (b) shows the speed
– time graph for another car.

Figure 4.61(a) Figure 4.61(a)

Describe the motions of the cars in the parts;

a. UV c. XY
b. VW d. YZ

Types of Accelerations
Since acceleration is a vector quantity, we can have a positive acceleration, negative
acceleration or indeed zero acceleration. The velocity-time graph below represents the
different types of accelerations.

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Figure 4.62

The area under the parallelogram ABCD represents the distance travelled by the object
in the forward direction while the parallelogram DEFG represents the distance
travelled in the reverse direction. The graph line A to G illustrates the following types
of accelerations; positive accelerations, zero accelerations and negative accelerations.

Positive acceleration
Acceleration, a = (v – u)/t. Between points A and B, u = 0m/s and v = 10m/s.
Therefore, between A and B a = [(10 – 0) m/s]/ 5 s
a = +2m/s2
Also between points F and G, u = - 10m/s and v = 0 m/s
So, between F and G the acceleration = 0m/s – (-10m/s)
5s
= +2 m/s2.
Hence positive acceleration means the following;
(a) Increase in the velocity of an object moving in the forward direction, or
(b) Decrease in the velocity of an object moving in the reverse (i. e negative) direction.

Zero Acceleration

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Consider the portions of the graph between points B and C, and between E and F.
Between B and C, u = 10m/s and v = 10m/s and between E and F, u = -10m/s and
v = -10 m/s.
So between B and C, a = 10m/s – 10m/s
5s
= 0m/s2
And between F and G, a = [-10m/s – (-10m/s)]
5s
= 0m/s2
Therefore, zero acceleration means constant velocity. This ‘constant velocity’ can be
either in the forward direction or in the reverse direction.

Negative acceleration
Consider the parts of the graph between points C and D, and between D and E;
Between C and D, u = 10m/s and v = 0 m/s.
Therefore a = 0 m/s – 10m/s
5s
= -2m/s2
And also between D and E, u = 0 m/s and v = -10 m/s
Therefore, a = -10 m/s -0 m/s
5s
= -2m/s2
Hence negative acceleration means;
(a) Decrease in the velocity of an object moving in the forward direction.
Decrease in the velocity of an object moving in the forward direction is also known
as deceleration.

(b) Increase in velocity of an object moving in the reverse direction.

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Equations of motion
Since, for an object undergoing uniform acceleration;
Average velocity = (u + v)/2
....................................................................................................... (1)

and acceleration = (v – u) / t
.......................................................................................................... (2)
also displacement, s = average velocity x time, then
s = [(u + v)/2] x
t.............................................................................................................................. (3)

u+v=
(2s)/t...............................................................................................................................
.. (4)

From equation (2), a = (v – u)/ t

 v–u=
at.....................................................................................................................................
. (5)
u + at = v
v=u+
at.....................................................................................................................................
. (6)
From equation(4), u + v = (2s)/t and from equation (5), v – u = at. Multiplying
these equations together gives
(u + v) x (v – u) = (2s)/t x at
v2 - u2 = 2as
v2 = u2 +
2as............................................................................................................................ (7)
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Substituting equation (6), v = u + at in equation (4), u + v = (2s)/t , we get

2u + at = 2s/t
[(2u + at) x t] / 2 = s
That is; s = [(2u + at) x t] / 2
 s = (2ut + at2)/2
s = ut + ½
at2....................................................................................................................... (8)
Problems on objects moving with constant acceleration in a straight line can be solved
using the following four equations of motion which should be remembered;
1. v = u + at
2. s = ut + ½ at2
3. s = ½ (u + v) x t
4. v2 = u2 + 2as
Where u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, a = acceleration, s = displacement and t
= time taken. To use any of these equations we need to know any 3 of v, u, a, s and t
and then we can find the fourth variable by substitution into an appropriate equation.
Note that for an object travelling with constant velocity, v = u and a = 0, these
equations reduce to
s = ut.

Examples

Newton’s Laws of Motion

In 1600 AD sir Isaac Newton, an English scientist having studied forces and motions
of objects formulated three laws of motion popularly commonly known as ‘The
Newton’s laws of motion’.
The laws are stated as follows;

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The Newton’s first law of motion

Activity: 4.1
Aim: To investigate if objects resist changes to their state of motion.

Materials:
- a piece of cardboard paper
- a coin
- a bottle

Procedure:
(i) Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 4.63 below.

Figure 4.63

(ii) Give the paper a sharp push with your finger.

Discussion
What happened to the coin when the cardboard paper was flicked away?
Explain your observations.

Activity: 4.3
Aim: To find out if objects in motion require a force to stop them.
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Materials:
- a plastic bag filled with sand
- a plastic bag filled with cotton wool
- 2 clamps
- 2 clamp stands
- 2 strings, each 30 cm long

Procedure
(i) Arrange the apparatus as shown below

Figure 4.64

(ii) set the bag in motion by slightly pulling it to one side and releasing it.
(iii) Try to stop it with your hand.
(iv) Repeat steps (i) to (iii) with a plastic bag filled with cotton wool instead of sand.

Discussion
Which bag is easier to stop?
Explain the results.

Observations

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In activity 4.1, when the paper is given a sharp push, the coin continues to stay as it is
when the paper moves away. In activity 4.2, the bag filled with sand is more difficult
to stop than the bag filled with cotton wool. The results of these two activities show
us that objects which are stationary are reluctant to start moving. They require a force
(unbalanced force) to start them moving. Similarly, objects which are moving are
reluctant to stop moving. An unbalanced force is required to stop them.
The reluctance of an object to change what it is doing is called inertia. The bigger the
mass the greater the inertia, therefore, more force is required to change their state of
motion. Sir Isaac Newton summarised these observations in his Newton’s first law of
motion which states that;
If there is no unbalanced force on an object then;
- if it is at rest, it will always stay at rest and
- if it is moving, it will continue moving with constant velocity.

Newton’s second law of motion

Activity; 4.4
Aim: To find out which objects, with smaller masses or with greater masses,
accelerate more
when pushed by the same size of force.

Materials:
- 2 empty fanta bottle
- sand
- stoppers
- a long straight stick or metal rod.

Procedure
(i) Fill one bottle with sand
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(ii) Close both of them with the stoppers

(iii) Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 4.65 below.

Figure 4.65
(iv) Give both bottles a sharp push with the stick at the same time.

Discussion
Which bottle, the one with sand or the empty one, moved faster than the other?
Explain your observation.

Observation
The empty bottle moved faster than the bottle with sand. To make the bottle with the
more mass move as fast as the bottle with less mass, a greater force should be applied
to it.
This shows that the acceleration (a) of an object is directly proportional to the force
(f) applied to the object and indirectly to the mass (m) of the object. Isaac Newton
stated this in his Newton’s ’second law of motion which states that; a = f/m,
rearranging, we have f = ma.
This implies that objects with more mass require more force to accelerate than the
objects with smaller masses. When the mass is in kg, the acceleration in m/s 2, the unit
of force is kg.m/s2.

Example
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A force is applied to an object with mass 1kg and it accelerates by 1m/s 2. How much
force is applied to it?

Working out
f = ma
 f = 1kg x m/s2.
= 1kg.m/s2.
The unit kg.m/s2 is given the name newton, N, in honour of Sir Isaac Newton.
Therefore, 1kg.m/s2 = 1N.
A newton is, therefore, a force that causes an object of mass 1kg to accelerate by
1m/s2.
From the definition of acceleration,
a = v – u, and the Newton’s second law of motion, f = ma, we have;
t
F = m (v – u); or
t
F = mv – mu,
t
where u = initial velocity and v = final velocity of an object.
F = mv – mu, is the second version of the Newton’s second law of motion.
t
This version is used when given the mass, final velocity, initial velocity and the time.
The first version of the Newton’s second law of motion , F = ma, is used when given
mass and acceleration of the object.

Examples
1.A lorry of mass 15 000kg is travelling at 20 m/s. the driver puts on the brakes and
the lorry tops in 10s. What is the average braking force acting on the brakes?

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Working out
F = m (v – u);  F =15 000 (0 – 20)
t 10
F = - 300 000
10
F = - 30 000N
the braking force on the lorry is
–30,0000N
The negative sign means the force is acting in the opposite direction to the motion of
the car.

2. A force is applied to an object of mass 1kg and it accelerates from rest to 10m/s 2.
How much force is applied if the force is exerts on the object for;
(a) 1/100 second.
(b) 1/10 second

Working out
F = m (v – u)
t
→ Ft = m(v – u)

(i) t = 1/100s, m = 1kg, v = 10m/s, u = 0m/s

F x 1/ 100 s = 1kg (10 – 0)m/s
F = 10kgm/s x 100/1s
F = 1000kgm/s2.
or F = 1000N.

(ii) t = 1/10s, m = 1kg, v = 10m/s, u = 0m/s

F x 1/ 10 s = 1kg (10 – 0)m/s
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F = 10kgm/s x 10/1s
F = 100kgm/s2.
or F = 100N.

Example 2 shows us that the force is reduced when the time the force is exerted is
longer.

Applications of the Newton’s second law of motion

1. Seat belts stretch slowly. This reduces the force that stops you when the car stops
suddenly.
2. The front and the back of cars are collapsible (have crumple zones). This reduces
the force used to stop the car during a crush so that the passengers are not injured with
large forces.
3. Crush helmets are filled with soft foam to protect the head during collision.
4. When jumping from walls you should bend your knees before hitting the ground in
order to make the time the ground apples a force to stop you longer.

Newton’s third law of motion

Activity 4.5
Aim: To investigate what happens when one object exerts a force on another object

Materials:
- 2 spring balances that can measure up to 10N.
- clamp stand
- G- clamp

Procedure
(i) Clamp the clamp stand to the bench using the G- clamp as shown in figure 4.66.
(ii) Pull spring balance b until it reads 2N.
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(iii) Record the reading of spring balance b in a table like the one in figure 4.4.
(iv) Repeat steps (i) to (iii) with readings of spring a; 4N, 6N, 7N and 8N

Figure 4.66

Table of results
Reading of spring Reading of spring
balance a (N) balance b (N)
2
4
6
7
8

Table 4.4

Discussion
How do the readings of the spring balances compare?
Explain the results

Observation
The values of the readings of the spring balances in each pair are the same. This shows
us that when you pull the clamp stand with, the clamp stand pulls you at the same
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time. The force exerted by the clamp stand on you is equal in magnitude, but opposite
in direction to the force you exert on it. In fact, forces always act in pairs. The two
forces are always equal in magnitudes, but opposite in directions. These two forces
act on two different objects, so they cannot cancel each other out.
Sir Isaac Newton called these forces action force and reaction force, and stated his
Newton’s third law of motion as follows;
- The action force and reaction force are always equal in magnitudes, but opposite in
directions, or
- to every action there is equal but opposite reaction, or
- if body A exerts a force on body B, body B will exert an equal but opposite force
on body A
The Newton’s third law of motion implies that when you hit an object, the object hits
back at you with a force equal to the one you exerted on it. For example, when you hit
a ball with your toes, you feel some pain on the toes. When you hit it with a larger
force, you also feel a greater pain. This is because when you hit the ball with a certain
force, the ball hits back at toes with the same amount of force. Also when a car hits a
tree with a greater force, the tree hits back at the car with a greater force and it crushes
severely. .
Free Fall through Resistive Media
Resistive medium is the medium through which the motion of a falling object is
opposed by resistive forces. The examples of resistive media are fluids such as liquids
and air. The resistive forces on the falling object through a resistive medium are fluid
friction, Fr and up thrust, U

(i)Falling In Liquids
When an object is falling through a liquid, three forces act on it;
i. the weight ,W of the ball, which acts downwards,
ii. the upthrust, U of the displaced liquid onto the object
iii. fluid friction force, Fr, as shown below;
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Figure 4.67

The weight and the up thrust do not change during the fall through the liquid.
However, the fluid friction force (Fr) changes when the speed is changing.
As the speed increases, the fluid friction force increases as well. A point is, then,
reached when the fluid friction force becomes large enough so that the down ward
force is equal to the upward forces, W = Fr + U. At this point the speed of the ball has
reached its maximum value and the acceleration is zero. It begins to fall with
maximum constant velocity. The maximum constant velocity of an object falling
through a resistive medium is known as terminal velocity.

The value of the terminal velocity depends on;

i. Weight. A heavier object will have a higher terminal velocity than a lighter one of
the
same shape and size.
ii. Area at right angles to the direction of fall. The larger the area, the lower the
terminal
velocity.
iii. Shape. Roughly shaped objects have lower terminal velocity than stream lined
ones.

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(ii) Falling in air

In the figure 4.68 below, the ball bearing and feather are falling through the air in a
long tube. The two forces acting on both the ball bearing and the feather are;
(i) Weight, W
(ii) Air friction force, Fr. or air resistance.
The up thrust, in air is negligible because it is very smaller than the weight of the
objects. At first an unbalanced resultant force acts on both of them and they both
accelerate.

The motion of the ball;

The weight of the ball is much greater than the air friction force, Fr and so the
acceleration is very large. The ball continues accelerating until it reaches the bottom
because of the unbalanced resultant force, (W - Fr). It does not reach its terminal
velocity.
Although the air friction force, Fr increases a little as the speed of the ball increases,
it is always very small as compared to the weight of the ball.

The motion of the feather

The weight of the feather is much less that of the ball. The air friction force, Fr, is
much larger on the feather because of its shape and large surface area.
So the weight, W, and the friction force, Fr, are much closer to each other in value.
The unbalanced resultant force, (W - Fr) acts on the feather at the top of the jar and
by the Newton’s first law of motion, this force causes the feather to accelerate. The
increased speed of the feather causes the air friction force, Fr, to increase until W =
Fr.
When the weight and the air friction force are balanced, the resultant force is now
equal to zero. The feather then falls with a constant terminal velocity.

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Figure 4.68

Therefore, the ball reaches the bottom first because the average speed of the feather
is much less than that of the ball bearing.

(iii) Free Fall through Vacuum

This means the fall of objects under conditions of no air resistance (i.e. Fr + U = 0).
The only force that acts on an object falling in vacuum is the weight of the object.
Weight is the size of the gravitational force on an object of a given mass. The size of
the gravitational force on all objects near the earth’s surface is approximately 10N /
kg.
But 10N means 10kg.m/s2.
10N / kg =10kg.m/s2. = 10 m/s2.
kg

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10 m/s2 is, therefore, the acceleration of all objects falling freely under conditions of
no air resistance.
This means that all objects, heavy or light, falling freely in vacuum do so with an
acceleration of
10 m/ s2.
The acceleration of objects falling under conditions of no air resistance is known the
acceleration due to gravity, and it’s represented by the symbol g.
Consider the figure 4.69 below which shows a feather and a lead (metal) ball bearing
falling in vacuum.

Figure 4.69

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Both the feather and the ball bearing are falling with the same downward acceleration
of 10 m/s2.
So both the feather and the ball bearing will reach the bottom at the same time because
they are moving with the same acceleration.

Summary
Quantities that are described by magnitudes only are called scalar quantities.
Vectors quantities are the quantities that described by both magnitudes and directions.
When adding vectors, both magnitudes and directions are considered.
Each single vector can be split into two vectors that are perpendicular to each other.
These two vectors are called components of the vector. The process of splitting a
vector into its components is called vector resolution.
Distance is the total length of a path taken by an object in motion.
The gradient of a distance –time graph gives the speed of the object. Speed is distance
travelled divided by the time taken.
Velocity is speed in a particular direction. Velocity is a vector quantity.
The change in the velocity of an object is called acceleration.
The gradient of a velocity – time graph gives the acceleration of the object. There are
three types of accelerations;
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- positive acceleration
- zero acceleration
- negative acceleration
The area under the velocity – time graph gives the distance travelled by the object.
The Newton’s first law of motion states that if forces acting on an object are balanced,
then;
 if it is at rest, it will always stay at rest
 if it is moving, it will keep on moving with constant velocity.
The Newton’s second law of motion states that force = mass x acceleration.
The Newton’s third law of motion states that to every action there is equal but opposite
reaction.
Objects falling in a resistive medium reach a terminal velocity, which the maximum
velocity for the object. The size of the terminal velocity depends on the factors; mass,
shape of the object, area at right angles to the direction of fall of the object.
In vacuum there are no resistive forces; hence all objects fall with the same
acceleration of 10m/s2.

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Review questions
1. Which of the following quantities are scalar quantities?
(a) 4m north (b) 4m (c) 80kg (d) 2km/ h due east (e) 4N down ward.
2. Find by drawing or calculation the resultant of two forces each 5 N acting at a point
at an angle of 60o with each other.
3. A girl pushes on a handle of a loan mower with a force of 100N. If the handle of
the loan
mower makes an angle of 30o with the horizontal,
(a) Find the vertical and the horizontal components of the force.
(c) If the loan mower weighs 300N, what is the total down ward force on the ground
when
the loan mower is being pushed?
(d) If the loan mower is pulled rather than pushed using the same force of 100N on
the
handle, what is then is the total down ward force on the ground?
4. (a) A car has an acceleration of 2m/s2. What does this tell you about the velocity
of the
car?
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(b) Explain what is meant by an acceleration of -2m/s2 ?

5. In the figure below, is a velocity – time graph for a car travelling along a straight
road.

Velocity
(m/s)
20

0 5 10 15 Time (s)

(a) What is the acceleration of the car during the first 5 seconds?
(b) How far does the car travel after 5 seconds?
(c) How far does the car travel after 10 seconds?
(d) What is the average speed of the car during the first 10 seconds?
6. An object travelling at 10m/s accelerates at 4m/s2 for 8 seconds.
(a) What is the final velocity of the object?
(b) How far does it travel during the 8 seconds?
7. (a) A car of mass 1000kg is travelling at the velocity of 15m/s. It collides head –
on with a wall. Calculate the force of impact if it stops in (a) 0.5 sec (b) 0.01 sec.
(b) Which time interval is preferable from the point of passenger’s safety? Why?
8. a. What resultant force produces an acceleration of 5m/s2 in a car of mass 1000kg?
(b) What acceleration is produced in a mass 2kg by a resultant of 30N?
9. A block of mass 500g is pulled from the rest on a horizontal friction less bench by
a steady force, F and travels 8m in 2 sec. Find;
(a) the acceleration of the object.
(b) the value of F.

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10. A ball X of mass 2kg travelling at 2m/s has a head on collision with a an identical
ball Y at rest. X stops and Y moves off. What is Y’s velocity?
11. A metal ball is released from the surface of glycerine in tall glass tube. Explain
the change in velocity of the ball as it falls through the glycerine to the bottom of tube.

5. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Functional Group Chemistry

Organic Chemistry is the study of organic compounds. Organic compounds are the
compounds that contain the element carbon in their molecule (except CO2 and metal
carbonates)

1. Homologous series
Organic chemistry collects carbon compounds with similar chemical properties into
one family, which is known as a homologous series. Some of the homologous series
are; Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkanols and Alkanoic acids/ carboxylic acids.
The families are also grouped into classes such as hydrocarbons and oxycarbons.

(i) Hydrocarbons
This is a class of organic compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen atoms only in
their molecules. The members of this class are the Alkanes e. g methane, CH4 and the
Alkenes e. g. ethene, C2H4.

(ii) Oxycarbons
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These are organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms in their
molecules
Some members of the Oxycarbons are Alkanols (or alcohols), e. g ethanol C2H5OH,
and Carboxylic acids e.g. ethanoic acid, C2H5COOH.

General Properties of the Homologous Series/Families;

a. Functional group;
A functional group is a single atom or a group of atoms joined together that decides
the chemical properties of the members of the family. The only family that does not
have a functional group is the Alkanes family. The functional groups of the other
families are as follows;

Family Functional Name of the group

group
Alkenes -C=C- Carbon-carbon double
bond
Alkanols -OH Hydroxyl group
Carboxylic acids -COOH- Carboxyl group

Table5.1

b. General formula;
Each family has a general formula from which the formulae of different members of
the family can be worked out. The general formulae of some of the families are as
follows;

Family General formula

Alkanes CnH2n+2

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Alkenes CnH2n
Alkanols CnH2n+1OH
Carboxylic acids CnH2n+1COOH

Table5.2

c. Common nomenclature (i.e. naming system)

All the families have a common naming system for all the members in that family.
The first part (the prefix) of the names is the same for all the organic compounds and
it depends on the number of the carbon atoms in the compound. The suffix (i e the end
part) depends on the family as follows;

Number of Prefix Suffix for Suffix for Suffix for Suffix for
carbon Alkanes Alkenes Alkanols Carboxylic
atoms cids
1 Meth- -ane -ene -anol -anoic acid
2 Eth- -ane -ene -anol -anoic acid
3 Prop- -ane -ene -anol -anoic acid
4 But- -ane -ene -anol -anoic acid
5 Pent- -ane -ene -anol -anoic acid
6 Hex- -ane -ene -anol -anoic acid
7 Hept- -ane -ene -anol -anoic acid
8 Oct- -ane -ene -anol -anoic acid
9 Non- -ane -ene -anol -anoic acid
10 Dec- -ane -ene -anol -anoic acid

Table5.3

d. Increase in size of the molecules;

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In passing long each family;

- the sizes and the masses of the molecules increase.
- the strengths of the intermolecular forces increase.
The increase in the strengths of the intermolecular forces causes the physical
properties, such as melting points, the boiling points and the viscosity of the members
in each family to increase in passing along the family.

e. Chemical properties;
The chemical properties do not change much on passing long each family. This is
because the same functional group which is responsible for the chemical properties is
present in every member of the family.

(i) The Alkanes

These are hydrocarbons. Alkanes do not have a functional group; they use the C-H
and the C-C single bonds only. The alkanes are said to be saturated hydrocarbons
because all their
carbon – carbon bonds are completely used up and no other atom can be added to the
molecule.
Examples of the Alkanes are paraffin, diesel, and petrol grease e.t.c.

General Formula;
The general formula of the Alkanes is CnH2n+2
For example when n = 3, the formula is C3H2x3+2 = C3H8.

Nomenclature / Naming system;

The prefixes for the Alkane names are the same for as for all the organic compounds.
The suffix for all the Alkane names is –ane (ref table 5.4)

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Number of Formula Prefix Suffix

carbon Name
atoms
1 CH4 Meth- -ane Methane
2 C2H6 Eth- -ane Ethane
3 C3H8 Prop- -ane Propane
4 C4H10 But- -ane Butane

Table5.4

Physical properties of Alkanes

i. The melting and the boiling points of the Alkanes increase in passing along the
family. This is because the increase in sizes of the molecules in passing along family
causes the intermolecular forces to increase and this raises the melting and the boiling
points as more heat is needed to break the forces.

ii. Alkanes are insoluble in water.

“Like dissolves like” .The Alkanes do not dissolve in water because they are not ‘like’
water because (i) they do not have an – OH group which the water has,
(ii) they are nonpolar while the water is polar.
So when the Alkanes are mixed with water two layers are seen, one for the water and
another for the Alkane.

4. Chemical Properties of Alkanes;

i. They undergo combustion reaction (burning) with oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide and water vapour as follows; 2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O

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ii. They undergo substitution reaction with chlorine gas to produce chloroalkane;
A substitution reaction is the reaction where by the atoms of one substance are
replaced (substituted) by the atoms of another substance as follows;
CH4 + 4Cl2 CCl4 + 4HCl.
The product chloroalkane has the same properties as the Alkanes but it does not burn.

Inertness of Alkanes;
The strong covalent bonds in the Alkanes plus the absence of the functional group
makes the alkanes to be inert ( i. e unreactive).
Because of their inertness, the alkanes are used to store reactive metals such as
sodium, Na, potassium, K or lithium, Li.

The Alkenes
This is a family of the organic compounds that belongs to the hydrocarbons.
Examples of alkenes are; cooking oils.

a. Functional group
The functional group of the alkenes is the carbon-carbon double bond, –C=C-.
One of the bonds in the double bond is weaker than the other.
The weak bond in the alkenes makes in the –C=C- functional group breaks easily
during chemical reactions. This makes the alkenes to be more reactive than the
alkanes.

b. General formula
The general formula of the alkenes is CnH2n.

c. Nomenclature;
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Names of the alkenes end in – ene. E.g. but- + -ene =Butene.

d. Physical properties
i. The melting and the boiling points of the alkenes increase with increase in molecular
size.
ii. Alkenes do not dissolve in water.

e. Chemical Properties
i. Alkenes undergo combustion reaction with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, CO2
and
water, H2O;
C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O
Alkenes burn with sootier flames than alkanes. This is because they have a higher
carbon percentage in each molecule than the corresponding alkanes. ‘Soot is carbon’.

ii. They undergo addition reactions;

An addition reaction is a reaction where by the atoms of one substance are added to a
molecule of another substance.
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons because not all their carbon atoms are bonded
by single bonds to other carbon atoms. The carbon-carbon double bond, -C=C-, has
not been completely used up so that more atoms can be added to the molecule as
shown below;
1. Addition reaction of alkenes with halogens;
C2H4 + Br2 C2H4Br2
ethene Bromine Bromoalkane
When the alkenes react with bromine, the bromine solution changes its colour from
red- brown to colourless. This is because bromoalkane is colourless.
2. Addition reaction with hydrogen;
CH2=CH2 + H2 CH3-CH3
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ethene hydrogen ethane

Testing for the Alkenes

The presence of the carbon-carbon double bond,-C=C-, can be detected by using a
bromine test.

Activity: 5.1
Aim: To identify the test for alkenes

Materials
- an alkane ( hexane or liquid paraffin)
- an alkene (cyclohexene or cooking oil)
- an alkanol (ethanol)
- a carboxylic acid (ethaoinc acid)
- 4 test tubes
- bromine solution

Procedure
(i) To 15 drops of bromine solution add 2 to 4 drops the hexane.
(ii) Record the observations in a table like the one in table 5.5
(iii) Repeat steps (i) and (ii) with cyclohexene, ethanol and ethanoic acid respectively.

Test liquid Observation

Hexane
Cyclohexene
Ethanol
Ethanoic
acid

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Table5.5
Discussion
What is the colour of bromine solution?
Which of the solutions decolourised the bromine solution?
What can you conclude from this activity?

Observation
The colour of the bromine solution changes from red/ brown to colourless when an
alkene is added to, but it does not change when the other compounds are added to it.
Therefore it is alkenes only that decolourise the bromine solution. This shows that we
can use the bromine test to identify alkenes.

The Alkanols
Alkanols are a family of organic compounds that belong to class of Oxycarbons.This
is because they contain an oxygen atom apart from the carbon and the hydrogen atoms.
Alkanols are also called alcohols.

a. Functional group
The functional group of the alkanols is a hydroxyl group, -OH.

b. General formula
The general formula of the alkanols is CnH2n+1OH. For example if the number of the
carbon atoms is 3, n = 3, then the formula will be C3 H2x3 + 1OH, which is C3H7OH

c. Nomenclature of the Alkanols

The names of the alkanols end with the suffix – anol. For example Meth- + -anol =
Methanol.
The position of the –OH group in the group is indicated by a number before the –ol.
The number is found by counting the carbon atoms in the formula in such a way that
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the carbon atom to which the –OH group is attached is given the lowest number
possible (ref table 5.6)

Table 5.6
The structures of the first 10 primary alcohols

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Table 5.6

Deducing the Molecular Formula and the Structure of an Alkanol given the
Percentage composition by mass
The general formula of the alkanols can be used to deduce the molecular formula and
the structure of an alkanol given its percentage composition of the masses its elements.

Example;
An alkanol contains 64.6% carbon, 13.6% hydrogen and 21.6% oxygen by mass.

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i. Find the formula of the alkanol

ii. Draw the structure of the alkanol.

Working out;
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
mass compositions 64.8g 13.6g 21.6g

Convert the masses 64.8g x 1 mole 13.6g x 1 mole 21.6g x 1 mole

to number of moles; 12g 1g 16g
= 5.4moles = 13.6 moles = 1.35 moles

Dividing by the smallest 5.4 moles = 4 13.6 moles = 10 1.35 moles =

1
Result 1.35moles 1.35 moles 1.35moles

The formula: C4H10O1

From the general formula of the alkanols; CnH2n+1OH, the molecular formula of this
alkanol is
C4 H2x4 +1 OH which is C4 H9OH. The structure of the alkanol will be as follows;

Exercise
An alkanol contains 72.4% carbon, 13. 8% hydrogen and 13.8% oxygen.
i. Find the molecular formula of the alkanol
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ii. Draw the structure of the alkanol.

Ethanol
Ethanol is the most common of all the alkanols.
It is an important alkanol because of the following reasons;
- It is the ingredient in alcoholic drinks that makes people drunk
- It is a good solvent for many substances such as glue, printing ink, deodorants
because it evaporates easily

a. Preparation of ethanol
Ethanol is produced from the fermentation of sugars as follows;
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2.
sugar ethanol

During the fermentation, carbon dioxide is also produced as shown in the equation
above.
In industries, yeast is added to the sugar to speed up the fermentation process.
The yeast acts as a catalyst for the fermentation of sugar to ethanol.
The solution of ethanol produced contains less than 10% ethanol. A solution with high
ethanol concentration can be obtained by distillation.
Ethanol can be obtained by distillation because it has a lower boiling point than the
other contents of the mixture.

b. Preparation of indigenous alcohols;

The indigenous name for ethanol is kachaso. Kachaso is prepared by mixing maize
bran (madeya) with sugar or sugarcane or juices of fruits such as mangoes, masuku.
The mixture is left for a few days (three to five days) for the fermentation to take
place. When the fermentation process stops, ethanol is then distilled from the mixture
using the apparatus shown in figure 5.1.
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Figure 5.1

When the mixture is heated, ethanol boils faster than the water because of its boiling
point is lower. The gaseous ethanol rises up in the pot and passes through the delivery
tube. The cold water in the condenser cools down the ethanol gas and it condenses and
can then be collected in the receiving bottle.

Physical properties of Alkanols

1. The melting points and the boiling points of the alkanols increase with the increase
in the molecular sizes.

2. The melting points and the boiling points of the alkanols are higher than those of
the corresponding hydrocarbons (i. e of the alkanes and the alkenes). This is
because the intermolecular forces are stronger. The hydrogen bonding between the
– OH groups of adjacent alkanol molecules are stronger than the weak van der Waal’s
forces between the hydrocarbon molecules as follows;

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3. The smaller alkanols dissolve in water.

Activity 5.2
Aim: To investigate the effect of the size of the molecules of alknols on their solubility
in water.

Materials
- water
- ethanol
- butanol
- octanol
- 3 test tubes

Procedure
(i) Pour 3 cm3 of water into a test tube.
(ii) Add 3 drops of ethanol to the test tube
(iii) Shake the test tube and wait for 2minutes
(iv) Record your observation
(v) Repeat steps (i) – (v) with butanol and octanol respectively.

Table of results
Liquid added to
water Observation

Ethanol

Butanol

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Octanol

Table 5.7
Discussion
How many layers did you observe in each test tube?
What can you conclude from the results of the experiment?

Observation
There was only one layer of the liquids in the test tube with ethanol , while in the test
tube with butanol there were two layers, but with no clear boundary whereas in the
test tube with octanol there were two layer with clear boundaries. This means that
ethanol is very soluble in water, butalnol is ppartially soluble in water while octanol
is insoluble in water. Alkanols are like water since the – OH group is common to both
water and the alkanols . However, as the size of the molecules increase, the effect of
the – OH group on the molecule decreases as well. Therefore, alkanols with bigger
molecules behave like alkanes i.e they do not dissolve in water.

The effects of the Relative size of the OH

The relative size of the – OH group has the following three effects as shown in table
5.7;
i - flame colour
ii - speed of reaction with sodium.
iii – solubility in water.

Effect on; Ethanol Butanol Octanol

Flame colour Blue/ yellow Yellow / little blue All yellow
Reaction speed Fast Medium Slow

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Solubility in soluble Partially soluble insoluble

water

Table5.8
Chemical properties of alkanols
1. They undergo combustion reaction.
e.g C2 H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O.

2. They react with sodium to form sodium alkanoxides and hydrogen gas.
e. g . 2C2H5OH + 2Na 2C2H5ONa + H2.
ethanol sodium sodium ethoxide hydrogen
gas
3. They undergo oxidation reaction to produce Alkanoic acids.
Oxidation means gaining an oxygen atom. For example the oxidation of ethanol to
ethanoic acid is as shown below;

The alkanols can be oxidized by oxygen from;

- the air
- acidified potassium dichromate, K2CrO7.
To oxidize alkanols to carboxylic acids by the acidified Potassium dichromate,
K2CrO7, the alkanol is heated with a mixture of potassium dichromate and sulphuric
acid.
An alkanol can also be oxidized by the oxygen from the air by leaving it standing in
the air for a long time.

Testing for Alkanols

Sodium test:
Activity: 5. 2
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Aim: To demonstrate how to identify alkanols using the sodium test.

Materials
- an alkane ( hexane or liquid paraffin)
- an alkene (cyclohexene or cooking oil)
- an alkanol (ethanol)
- a carboxylic acid (ethaoinc acid)
- 4 beakers of volume 50 ml each
- sodium metal

Procedure
(i) Pour 3 ml of hexane into a beaker.
(ii) Add 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator into the test tube.
(iii) Put a small piece of freshly cut sodium metal into the beaker.
(iv) Record your observations in a table like the one shown in table 5.8.
(v) Repeat steps (i) and (iv) with cyclohexene, ethanol and ethanoic acid respectively
.

Test liquid Observation

Hexane
Cyclohexene
Ethanol
Ethanoic
acid

Table 5.9
Discussion
Was there any colour change in any of the compounds? If yes in which solutions.
What other observations did you make?
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What can you conclude from this activity?

Observation
When the sodium metal was added to ethanol the solution which was formed turned
phenolphthalein indicator solution into pink. Also bubbles of a gas were formed.
These changes were observed only in ethanol. This activity is called sodium test and
it can be used to identify alkanols from different organic compounds.

Carboxylic acids / Alkanoic acids

This is a family of organic compounds that has a – COOH as their functional group.

a. Nomenclature:
They are named by adding a suffix – anoic acid to the stem indicating the number of
carbon atoms in the molecule including the carbon atom in the – COOH group. For
example;

Number of Prefix Suffix Name

carbon
atoms.
1 Meth- -anioc acid Methanoic acid
2 Eth- -anioc acid Ethanoic acid
3 Prop- -anioc acid Propanoic acid
4 But- -anoic acid Butanoic acid
5 Pent- -anioc acid Pentanoic acid

Table 5.9
b. The structures and formulae of the first 10 Carboxylic acids

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Table 5.10
b. General Formula;
The general formula of the carboxylic acids is CnH2n+1COOH.
The value of the ‘n’ in the general formula is not equal to the number of the carbon
atoms in the molecule. This is because the number of carbon atoms , ‘n’ in the general
formula does not include the carbon atom in the – COOH group.

Example
What is the molecular formula and the name of a carboxylic acid;
(i). where n = 6 (ii). with 6 carbon atoms.

Working out
i. The general formula is CnH2n+1COOH
so when n=6 the molecular formula will be;
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C6H2x6+1COOH
Therefore the molecular formula is C6H13COOH
Its name is heptanoic acid.

ii. The general formula is CnH2n+1COOH

so the molecular formula of the carboxylic acid with 6 carbon atoms will be;
C5H11COOH
Its name is hexanioc acid.

Exercise
What the molecular formula and the name of a carboxylic acid ;
i. with n = 7. ii with 8 carbon atoms.

11. Deducing the molecular Formula of a carboxylic acid given its Percentage
composition:
The molecular formula of a carboxylic acid can be worked out using its percentage
composition and the general formula of the carboxylic acids as shown in the example
below;
A certain carboxylic acid has the following percentages of elements by mass;
carbon = 48.7 %, hydrogen = 8.1% and oxygen = 43.2%.
i. Work out the molecular formula of the carboxylic acid.
ii. What is its name?

Working out;
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
mass compositions; 48.7g 8.1g 43.2g

Converting the 48.7g x 1mole 8.1g x 1mole 43.2g x 1mole

masses to moles; 12g 1g 16g
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= 4.0 moles = 8.1 moles = 2.7 moles

Divide by the 4.0 moles = 1.5 8.1moles = 3 2.7 moles = 1

lowest result; 2.7 moles 2.7 moles 2.7 moles

Multiply each above

result by 2 to make
1.5 a whole number; 1.5 x 2 = 3 3x2=6 1x2=2

Therefore the carboxylic acid has 3 carbon atoms, 6 hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen
atoms.
i. From the general formula, CnH2n+1COOH, then the molecular formula is
C2H5COOH
ii. Its name is Propanoic acid.
Exercise:
Work out the molecular formula and the structure of a carboxylic acid which has the
following percentage compositions by mass;
62.1% carbon, 10.3% hydrogen and 27.6% oxygen.

Physical properties of Carboxylic acids;

1. Their melting and boiling points increase with the increase in the molecular size.

2. They have higher melting and boiling points than those of the corresponding
alkanols. For example, the boiling point of methanoic acid is 101oC and it is
higher than that of either methanol, 64oC which has the same number of carbon
atoms, or ethanol 78oC which has the same relative molecular mass of 46.
The melting points and the boiling points of the carboxylic acids are higher than
those of the corresponding alkanols because of the following reasons;
-i Carboxylic acids form stronger hydrogen bonds than the alkanols. This is
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because the –OH group of the carboxylic acids is more polarised due to the
presence of the electron-withdrawing -C=O group as shown below;

-ii. Carboxylic acids exist as dimmers i.e. two molecules bonded together as follows;

3. Smaller carboxylic acids dissolve in water. They dissolve in water because of the
– OH group. But as the size of the molecule increases the effect of the – OH group
decreases and this makes the bigger carboxylic acids to be insoluble.

4. The carboxylic acids conduct electricity.

They conduct more than the alkanols because they ionize to a greater extent in
water.

Chemical properties;
1. They show acidic behaviours. For example;
a . they affect acid – base indicators as follows
- they turn litmus paper red
- they give pH values of less than 7.

b. They react with bases to form salts, for example;

CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O.
ethanoic acid sodium hydroxide sodium ethanoate water.
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2. They undergo esterification reaction.

Esterification is the reaction of carboxylic acids with alkanols to form esters as
follows;
carboxylic acid + alkanol Ester + water ;
Examples:
1.Ethanoic acid + Ethanol ethyl ethanoate + water
2. Butanoic acid + Methanol methyl butanoate + water.
An ester is an organic compound whose functional group is – COO –

Naming esters
The name of an ester is taken from the prefix of the alkanol from which the ester is
formed with the suffix – anol replaced by the suffix – yl (e. g ethanol becomes ethyl)
followed by a stem indicating the carboxylic acid with the suffix – oic replaced by
- oate. For example the ester formed from Propanoic acid and methanol is named
methyl propanoate.

How to work out the name an ester from its formula;

a. Divide the formula into two parts by mentally drawing a line after the bridging ‘O’
of the ‘–COO’ as follows;.

b. Name the portion that does not carry the ‘–COO’ group. This part is
an alkyl group – butyl in this example.
c. Name the part that carries the ‘–COO’ group. This part is a carboxylate group,
–propanoate in this example.
d. Combine b and c to give the name of the ester. – butyl propanoate.

Exercise
Write the equation and the products of the following reactions;

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a. ethanol and hexanoic acid

b. methanol and ethanoic acid
c. propan-1- ol and ethanoic acid..

Physical properties of esters

a. They have pleasant, fruit smells.
For example;

Ester Fruit smell

Ethyl butanoate Pineapple
Pentyl ethanoate banana

Table 5.11

b. They have lower melting and boiling points than the acids and alcohols of similar
molecular mass. For example, ethyl ethanoate boils at 77oC. This is because esters
have no free – OH groups so they do not form hydrogen bonds.
c. They are not very soluble in water compared with the acids and the alcohols.

Preparation of Esters
1. Esters can be produced naturally.
For example, the flavours and the smells of fruits and flowers are due to esters
produced naturally.
But natural esterification is a very slow process.

2. Esters can be prepared more quickly artificially as follows;

a - mixing an alkanol with a carboxylic acid in the ratio,
alkanol : Carboxylic acid = 2:1
b - adding a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid to the
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mixture to act as a catalyst

c- heating the mixture.

Uses of artificial esters

1. Flavouring e. g the flavours in sweets and biscuits
2. as fragrances in perfumes
3. as solvents in glues since they evaporate easily.

Natural Sources of carboxylic acids

Table 5.12 below shows some of the natural sources of carboxylic acids.
Source Name of acid Formula
Ant stings Methanoic acid HCOOH
Vinegar Ethanoic acid CH3COOH
Human breast Lactic acid CH3CHOHCOOH
milk
and cow milk
Citrus fruits Citric acid

Goat milk Hexanoic acid CH(CH2)4COOH

Table 5.12

13. Testing for carboxylic acids

Activity: 5. 2

Aim: To demonstrate how to identify carboxylic acids using the acid test.

Materials
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- an alkane ( hexane or liquid paraffin)

- an alkene (cyclohexene or cooking oil)
- an alkanol (ethanol)
- a carboxylic acid (ethaoinc acid)
- 4 test tubes
- sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH)
- phenolphthalein indicator

Procedure
(i) Pour 3 ml of sodium hydroxide solution into a beaker.
(ii) Add 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator into the test tube.
(iii) Record your observations in a table like the one shown in table 5.8.
(v) Repeat steps (i) and (iii) with cyclohexene, ethanol and ethanoic acid respectively
.

Test liquid Observation

Hexane
Cyclohexene
Ethanol
Ethanoic
acid
Table 5.13

Discussion
What was the colour of the phenolphthalein indicator in sodium hydroxide solution?
Was there any colour change in any of the compounds? If yes, in which solutions?
What can you conclude from this activity?
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Observation
The colour of phenolphthalein indicator changes from colourless to pink when it is
added to the sodium hydroxide solution. When carboxylic acid is added to the sodium
hydroxide, the colour of the solution changes from pink to colourless. This change is
observed with a carboxylic acid only. This activity is called acid test and it is be used
to identify carboxylic acids from other organic compounds.

Flow Diagram
A flow diagram is a picture-way of separating unknown compounds and the
identifying them by using special tests for each functional group.

Example
You are given the following organic compounds; an alkane, an alkene, an alkanol and
a carboxylic acid in bottles just labelled A, B, C and D not in order. Use a flow diagram
to identify them.

Working out
Carry out the tests and fill the brackets with the letters representing the compounds
until the compound in each bottle is identified as shown in the flow diagram below.

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Figure 5.2

Summary
Organic chemistry is the study of organic compounds. The organic compounds are
divided into classes, two of which are hydrocarbons and oxycarbons.
The compounds in each class are divided into families (also called homologous
series).
Some of the homologous series are;
- alkanes,
- alkenes
- alkanols
- carboxylic acids
Each family has,
- functional group ( except the alkanes)
- general formula
- common naming system
The common member of the alkanols is ethanol. Ethanol is produced from the
fermentation of sugar.
The melting and boiling points of the alkanols are higher than those of the
corresponding alkanes and alkenes because in alkanols there is hydrogen bonding,
which is a stronger intermolecular force than the weak van der Waal’s forces which
are used in the hydrocarbons.
Alkanols dissolve in water because they are like water because of the -OH group.
However, as the size of the molecule gets bigger, when going down the family, the
relative size of the –OH group gets smaller; hence its effect is reduced. Therefore,
bigger molecules do not dissolve in water.
Carboxylic acids are organic compounds whose functional group is –COOH.

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Carboxylic acids have higher melting and boiling points than the corresponding
alkanols because of the following reasons;
- the hydrogen bonding in carboxylic acids is stronger than it is in the alkanols because
it is more
polarises due to the presence if the –C=O.
- carboxylic acids exist as dimmers.
Organic compounds can be identified by testing the presence of a particular functional
in the compounds.

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Review Questions:
1. a. What are hydrocarbons?
b. What is the general formula of the alkanes?
c. Draw the structure of an alkane with 14 carbon atoms.
2. a. what is the functional group of the alkenes?
b. Describe the test for the alkenes.
3. The table below shows molecular formulae and the boiling points of some
compounds;

Compound Molecular Formula Boiling Point (

o
C)
A C2H4 - 104
B C2H5OH -79
C CH3COOH 118
D H2O 100
E C2H6 - 89

a. Which compounds in the table are hydrocarbons?

b. Which compounds in the table are soluble in water?
c. Which compounds in the table are gases at room temperature?
d. Explain why the boiling point of C is higher than that of B.
e. Describe the test that could be done to distinguish the compounds
(i) A and B.
(ii) C and D.
4. The figure below shows how ethanol and ethanoic acid are produced in industries;

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a. Give the names of;

(i) Gas A
(ii) Process B
(iii) Reaction C

b. Name the substance that is used in reaction C

c. What is the function of the substance in 4 (b) above.

5. Given below are the general formulae of some homologous series represented by
letters P, Q, R and S.
P: Cn H2n
Q: Cn H2n + 2.
R: Cn H2n + 1 OH.
S: Cn H2n + 1 COOH

a. Name the homologous series represented by the letters P and Q.

b. Which general formulae represent hydrocarbons?

c. Which class of the organic compounds does the general formula C n H2n + 1 COOH,
represent?

d. Draw the structure of a compound when n = 4 in homologous series P.

e. Name the compound drawn in 5d above.

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f. Explain how a compound of homologous series P could be distinguished from a

compound of the homologous series Q.

6. ELCTRICITY, MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION I

Electrostatics
Mostly electric charge (or electricity) comes from batteries and generators. But
electricity can also come from materials that become charged when are rubbed. The
charge on materials caused by rubbing is called electrostatic charge or static
electricity. Static electricity just builds up on materials but it does not flow. This is the
electricity which causes sparks and crackles when you take off a jersey.

Where does charge come from

- The Atom
An atom is made up of protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons and neutrons are
found in the nucleus and around the nucleus there are electrons.

Figure 6.1

Electrons are negatively charged (-) while protons are positively charged (+). Each
atom has equal numbers of protons and electrons. The charges cancel each other out
and the overall charge on the atom is zero. However when two materials are rubbed

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together electrons may be transferred from one material to the other. Eventually, one
material has more electrons than normal and the other has less.
The material with more electrons becomes negatively charged whereas the one with
fewer electrons becomes positively charged. For example, some insulators such as
polythene become negatively charged when rubbed with a woollen cloth. Electrons
are transferred from the cloth to the polythene.

Figure 6.2

The woollen cloth becomes positively charged because it has fewer electrons while
the polythene strip becomes negatively charged because it has more electrons.
Other insulators such as perspex become positively charged when rubbed by a woollen
cloth. In this case electrons are transferred from the perspex strip to the woollen cloth
upon rubbing.

Figure 6.2

The Law of charges between charged materials

When two charged polythene strips are brought together, they repel;

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Figure 6.4

When two perspex strips are brought together, they also repel each other;

Figure 6. 5

But when a charged polythene strip and a charged perspex strip are brought close
together, they attract each other.

Figure 6.6

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We can conclude, therefore, that like charges repel each other while unlike charges
attract. The repulsive and the attractive forces between the materials are greater when
the charges are closer.

Other Methods of charging:

Apart from rubbing (friction) materials can also be charged by;

(i) Contact
When an uncharged object is touched by a charged object the uncharged object takes
on a charge which is the same as that which is on the charged object.

Figure 6.7

(ii) Induction
Activity 6.1: Investigating what happens when a charged balloon is brought closer to
a wall.

Materials
- a balloon
- a piece of woollen cloth
- a smooth wall

Procedure
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1. Rub the balloon with the piece of cloth (alternatively you can rub it against your
hair)
2. Bring the balloon closer to the wall, with the rubbed surface facing the wall.

Observation
The balloon sticks to the wall.

Explanation
When a charged object is brought near an uncharged object, the charge on the charged
object repels the like charge on the surface of the uncharged object.
The surface of the uncharged object remains with a charge opposite to that on the
charged object. Consider the example below;

Figure 6.8

This is how a negatively charged balloon is made to stick to a wall.

Uses / Applications of static electricity.

Static electricity is used in the following;
- Capacitors
- Photocopiers
- spray painting
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- Electrostatic precipitation.

i. The Capacitors
A capacitor is a device that is used to store charge in electric circuits. The simplest
capacitor consists of two small parallel metal plates separated by an insulator as shown
in figure 6.9 (a). Figure 6.9 (b) shows the symbol for capacitors.

Figure 6.9 (a) Figure 6.9 (b)

When connected to a battery current flows in the circuit. Electrons are stored in one
plate of the capacitor while in the other plate there is a shortage of electrons and so
positive charges are stored there. When the voltage between the plates is equal to the
applied voltage, the current stops flowing. At this point the capacitor is fully charged
and it can store the charge. When connected to a circuit where there is no battery, the
capacitor can make current flow until it is fully discharged.

ii. Photocopier
In electrostatic photocopiers a pattern of light and dark from the original copy is
allowed to fall on onto a positively charged plate. Charge leaks away from the area
exposed to light. The unexposed area, that is the dark part of the original copy, still
carries the positive charge. This positively charged image attracts the negatively
charged carbon powder, which is called toner. The blackened image on the plate is
then attracted onto a piece of paper with the help of a positive charge placed under the
paper. The paper is then heated to fuse the powder to the paper.

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iii. Spray painting

This is a method of painting metals, such as cars, using electrostatics. In spray
painting, cars are given a negative charge. Paint from spray guns becomes positively
charged by friction. The charged droplets are then attracted to the car without missing
it. This reduces loss and saves money.

iv. Electrostatic precipitation

This is a method of removing ash and dust that goes up in factory chimneys and power
station chimneys. Fine wire mesh which is negatively charged is placed inside the
chimney. The negatively charged wire mesh gives the negative charge to the rising
particles of the ash or the dust.
The negatively charged particles are then attracted to the positively charge metal plates
inside the walls of the chimney. The ash particles are, then, removed by washing.

Electrical Resistance

Activity 6.2: Finding the length of a resistor wire that has a given resistance.

Materials
- resistor wire (nichrome or constantan)
- 105cm long,
- ammeter,
-voltmeter,
- 6 connecting leads
- a switch
- 2 cells.

Procedure
(i) Connect a circuit as shown in figure 6.10 below.
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Figure 6.10

(ii) Connect 20 cm of the resistor wire in the gap XY.

(iii) Close the switch note the ammeter reading and the voltmeter reading.
(iv) Record the readings as shown in table 6.1.
(v) Calculate the resistance and fill the resistance column.
(vi) Repeat steps (ii) – (v) with the lengths of the resistor wire 40cm, 60 cm, 80 cm
and
100cm and record the results.

Length Voltmeter Ammeter Resistanc

(cm) reading reading e ()
(V) (A)
20
40
60
80
100

Table 6.1
(vii) Plot a graph of resistance against length.

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Discussion
From your graph,
- how does length affect the resistance of a resistor wire?
- what length of the resistor wire would give you the following resistances?
(i) 0.5 
(ii) 2

Observation
The longer the wire, the greater the resistance. Other factors that affect the resistance
of a wire are;
- thickness of the wire an.
- temperature

The Total Resistance (Rt) of Resistors Connected in Series and in Parallel in a

Circuit:

Activity6.2: comparing the total resistances of resistors connected in series and in

parallel in circuits.

Materials:
-Resistor wire
- ammeter
- voltmeter,
- connecting leads,
- switch
- 3V

Procedure

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(i) Cut a piece of the resistor wire that has a resistance of 2 and another with a
resistance of 4.
(ii) Arrange the two resistor wires in series in a circuit as below;

Figure 6.11
(iii) Close the switch and record the ammeter reading and the voltmeter reading in a
table as shown in table 7.2 below;

Ammeter reading
(A)
Voltmeter reading
(V)

Table 6.2
(iv) Calculate the total resistance, Rt of the two resistors; Rt =V/I
(v) Reconnect the two resistor wires in parallel in a circuit as shown below;

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Figure 6.12
(vi) Close the switch and record the ammeter and the voltmeter readings ;

Ammeter reading
(A)
Voltmeter reading
(V)

Table 6.3

vii) Calculate the total resistance, Rt.

Discussion
(i) Which arrangement gives greater total resistance of the two resistor wires?
(ii) How does the total resistance of the two resistors compare with the resistances of
the
individual resistors when the resistors are connected in;
(a) series?
(b) parallel?

Observation
The total resistance of the two resistors is higher in the series circuit than in the parallel
circuit. Electrical resistance means the opposition to the flow of electric charge. The
electrical resistance of a conductor depends on the voltage, V and the amount of
current, I and is given by the equation; R = V / I.
Resistance is measured in ohms, Ω.
The formula R = V / I, shows that V = IR and I = V/ R
R, V and I can be connected using the formula triangle shown below.
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R x I

Figure 6.13

(i) The Total Resistance, RT of Resistors in Series;

Figure 6.14

In a series circuit, current is the same at all points. That is I = I1 = I2. And the voltage
across the cell (the power supply) is equal to the total sum of the voltages across each
component, Vc = V1 + V2.
But V = IR. Therefore, IRT = IR1 + IR2 , since current is the same at all points , then
RT = R1 + R2.
So in a series circuit the total (or effective) resistance is equal to the sum of the
resistances of individual resistors.

(ii) The Total Resistance, RT of Resistors in Parallel:

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Figure 6.15

In a parallel circuit,
- the current, I, in the main branch is equal to the sum of the currents in the separate
branches, and
- voltage, V, is the same across all components i. e in a parallel circuit, I = I1 + I2
and V = V1 = V2

But I = V / RT
Therefore, the equation, I = I1 + I2
 V / RT = V / R1 = V / R2
Since voltage, V is the same then
1/ RT = 1 / R1 + 1/R2

Example;
6Ω, 3Ω, 5Ω and 1 Ω resistors are connected in parallel. Find the total resistance in the
circuit.

Working out
Let the resistances of the 6Ω, 3Ω and 5Ω resistors be R1, R2 R3 and R4 respectively;
Then RT = 1/ R1 + 1 / R2 + 1/ R3.
Therefore,1 / RT = 1 / 6 + 1/3 + 1/ 5
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1 =
R1
1 = 21
R1 30
RT = 30
21
RT = 1.4 Ω
the total resistance is 1. 4 Ω

Resistance of Resistors
A resistor is a device that is designed to give specific resistance in a circuit. Resistors
keep currents and voltages at the levels needed for other components to work properly.
The resistances of the resistors are marked on the resistors using either;
(i). colour codes
(ii) letter and number code.

i. The Resistor colour codes

Resistors are colour coded to show their resistances as follows;

Figure 6.16
-The first colour band gives the first digit of the value of the resistance of the resistor.
- The second colour band gives the second digit of the value of the resistance.
- The third colour band gives either;
(i) the number of zeros after the first two digits, or
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(ii) the decimal multiplier of the first two digits (if it is gold or silver).
- The fourth colour band tells us;
(i) the tolerance of the resistor,
(ii) to start reading from the other end, (if pink, gold, silver or no band).
The value colour codes are as follows;

Colour Code
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9

Table 6.4

Tolerances of resistors
Tolerance means limits of accuracy. The smaller the limit of accuracy of a resistor,
the more accurate its resistor is.

The tolerance of the colour codes are as follows;

Colour Tolerance
Pink + 1%

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Gold + 5%
Silver +10%
No band + 20%

Table 6.5
For example, if the colours are orange, blue, brown, and silver then the resistance is
3 6 0 +10 = 360 Ω +10 %

The order of the colour codes may be remembered using the following mnemonic
Black Brown Raped Our Young Girl But Violet Gave Willingly and Probably Gladly
Since Noon.
This can be interpreted as Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet White
Pink Gold Silver. If the third band is gold or silver, the value of the first two digits
must be multiplied by the decimal multiplier codes of gold or silver. The decimal
multiplier codes are as follows;

3rd Colour Code

band
Gold 0.1
Silver 0.01

Table 6.6

E. g If the colour bands on a resistor are Red, white, gold, silver, then the resistance
is
(red) 2 (white) 9 x (gold) 0.1 (silver) + 10% = 2. 9 Ω + 10%

Exercise
Calculate the resistance of the resistors with the following colour bands;
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a. grey, black, silver

b. green, violet, white, pink,
c. red, black, silver, silver.
d, orange, grey, gold, gold

(ii) The letter and number code the Resistances of the Resistors
In the standard notation, the codes of letters and numbers representing the resistances
are printed in on the resistors. The resistance of each resistor is given by figures and
two letters, for example;

Figure 6.17

The first letter may be R, K or M, where R represents the resistance in ohms,Ω

K represents the resistance in kilo ohms, k
Ω
M, the resistance in mega ohms, mΩ
The position of the first letter gives the position of the decimal point. The second letter
gives the tolerance of the resistor. The letter codes for the tolerances are as follows;

Letter code Tolerance

F + 1%
G + 2%
J + 5%
K + 10%
M + 20%

Table 6.7
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These letter codes may be remembered by using the following mnemonic;

Foolish Girls Join Kilometre Races with Metres.

Example;
Give the resistances of the following resistances;
a. 8M1M

b. R34G

Working out
a. 8.1m Ω +20% b. 0.34 Ω +2%

Exercise
1. Work out the resistances of the following resistors;
(i). K4 6 F,
(ii). 4M0J,
(iii). 96KK.

2. Figure 6.18 shows two resistors

Figure 6.18 (a)

Figure 6.18(b)

(a) Calculate the resistance of each resistor

(b) Which resistor is more accurate? Give a reason.

Electrical Power
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i. Charge, Q
Charge is the measure of the amount of electrons. It is measured in coulombs, C. One
coulomb of charge is equal to the charge on 6.25 x 10 18 electrons.

ii. Voltage, V
Voltage is the amount of energy given to one coulomb of charge by a battery. This
voltage is known as electromotive force, (emf). The energy given to the coulomb of
charge is transferred to an electrical component such as an electric bulb or a radio
receiver in a circuit. This voltage is called potential difference, p.d. This means that
when the electrons pass through a power supply such as a battery, they are given
energy. The battery does work on the electrons. And when the electrons flow around
the circuit they transfer the energy to the electrical components. The energy
transferred is observed as light, heat, sound e.t.c
 Voltage, v = =

 Work done, w = Q x v.
Voltage is measured in volts, V, by an instrument called voltmeter. The voltmeter is
made up of a wire of a very high resistance. When measuring voltage, the voltmeter
is connected in parallel to the component so that it measures the potential difference,
pd, between the ends of the component without altering the current that is flowing
through the component due to its high resistance wire.

Example
If a battery gives 12j of energy to each coulomb of charge, what is its voltage?

Working out;
Since it gives 12j to each coulomb of charge, then its voltage is 12 volts.

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iii. Current, I
Current is the amount of charge that leaves the battery every second.
I= )

Ixt=Q
Current is measured in amperes, A. It is measured by an instrument called ammeter.
The ammeter is made up of very low resistance wire. When measuring the current the
ammeter is connected in series with the component in the circuit so that it can measure
the current flowing through the component.

Example
If 4 coulombs of charge leave a battery every 2 seconds, how much current is flowing
through the circuit?

Working out
I= )

I =

= 2A
Power is the rate at which work is done, or the rate at which energy is changed from
one form to another.

Power =

Power is measured in watts, W

From the equation; Power =

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 Work done = Power x time(s)

But also, work done = Q x V.
 Q x V = Power x time(s)
 = Power or Power =

But = Current, I

 Electrical power = Voltage, V x Current, I

Electrical power = VI
Also from the equation, R = ,  I = ,

 Electrical power = V x ,

Electrical power = ,

Also V = IR, so the equation electrical power = VI becomes electrical power = IR x I

Electrical power = I2 R

Example
What is the power of a lamp rated 12v: 2A

Working out
Power = VI
= 12v x 2 A
= 24 watts

Exercise

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1. Calculate the power output of a resistor wire of resistance 5Ω, if the potential
difference across its ends is12v.

2. Find the current through a resistor wire of resistance 4Ω, if it uses 2J of electrical
energy per second.

Electrical Energy
Electrical energy = power x time. Electrical energy is measured in joules. 1 joule = 1
watt x 1 second.
1J = 1watt-second.
It is measured by an instrument known as joule meter.

Example
How much electrical energy does a 100 watt transfers in; (i) 5 seconds.(ii) 1 minute.

Working out;
Electrical energy = power x time (s).
i. Electrical energy = 100watts x 5 sec
= 500 J
ii. Electrical energy = 100watts x 60 sec.
= 6000 J

Cost of Electrical Energy

Electricity supply boards charge for the electrical energy which they supply. They
charge the electrical energy in kilowatt-hours (kWh). This is because a joule, which
is a watt-second, is a very small amount of electrical energy for practical purposes.
1 kWh = 1000watts x 3600 seconds.
= 3 600 000 watt-seconds
= 3 600 000 joules
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= 3.6 MJ
A kilowatt-hour is the amount of electrical energy used by a 1kw (or 1000 watts)
electrical appliance in 1 hour. For example, a 3 000W (or 3kw) appliance working
for 2 hours uses (3 kW x 2hours) 6kWh of electrical energy. The kilowatt- hours
(kWh) are usually called units.

Exercise
What is the cost of heating a tank of water with a 3 000 W water heater for 90 minutes,
if electricity costs K4.00 per kWh?

Flux / Field Patterns for a Conductor Carrying Electricity;

Activity 6.3: Investigating what happens around a conductor when current is flowing
through it.

Materials:
- a clamp and a clamp stand
- iron filings
- connecting leads
- a cell
- a switch
- a piece of card board paper
- a plotting compass

Procedure
(i) Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 6.19 below.

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figure 6.19

(ii) Close the switch.

(iii) Spread the iron filings around the conductor.
(iv) Tap the cardboard gently with your fingers.
(v) Observe the arrangement of the iron filings on the cardboard paper.
(vi) Mark the arrangement of the iron filings on the cardboard paper with a pencil.
(vii) Open the switch and remove the iron filings from the cardboard paper.
(viii) Place a compass near the conductor on the cardboard paper.
(viii) Observe the direction which the compass needle is pointing.
(ix) Move the compass around the conductor while taking note of the direction in
which the
compass needle is pointing each time the compass is moved.
(x) Draw arrows on the marks made in step (vi) to indicate the direction in which the
compass needle was pointing.
(xi) Repeat steps (i) to (x) with the terminals of the cell reversed.

Discussion
- How did the iron filings arrange themselves around the conductor?
- What does the arrangement of the iron filings represent?
- What does the direction of the compass needle represent?
- What is the relationship between the direction of the field lines and the direction
of current?
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- What do the results of this experiment tell you about the area (space) around
the current carrying conductor?

Observations
We have observed that the iron filings arrange themselves in circles around the
conductor. This shows that a magnetic field is created around a conductor through
which electric current is flowing. The arrangement and the direction of the magnetic
field lines is referred to as flux pattern. There is a relationship between the direction
of the current through the conductor and the direction of the magnetic field around the
conductor. The direction of the magnetic field around the conductor can be predicted
using the right hand grip rule, which states that if you grip the conductor with your
right hand, with the thumb pointing in the direction of current, then the fingers point
in the direction of the field lines. The direction of the magnetic field is also given by
the right hand screw rule, which states that if a right handed screw moves forward in
the direction of the current, the direction of the rotation of the screw gives the direction
of the field.

Figure 6.20

If the conductor is coiled into a solenoid the magnetic field lines run in the coils from
one face of the coil to the other. The magnetic field, similar to that produced by a bar
magnet, is produced and the solenoid acts as if it has a N-pole on one face and a S-
pole on the other face as shown in figure 6.21 below.

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Figure 6.21

The magnetic poles on each face of the solenoid depend on the direction of the electric
current flowing through the conductor. They are given by the right hand grip rule,
which states that if the fingers of the right hand grip the solenoid in the direction of
the current, then the thumb points to the north pole (N- pole) as shown in figure 6.22
below.

Figure 6.22

Magnetisation
Activity 6.4: Investigating what happens when a magnetic material is stroked with a
bar
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magnet

Materials
- a bar magnet
- a steel metal bar
- paper clips

Procedure
(i) Bring the steel metal bar close to the paper clips.
(ii) Observe and record what happens to the paper clips in a table of results as the one
shown
below.
(iii) Stroke the steel metal bar with one end of the bar magnet ten times in the same
direction,
lifting the bar magnet high up after each stroke.
(iv) Repeat steps (i) and (ii).

Table of results

Observations before stroking the Observation after stroking the steel

steel metal bar metal bar

Table 6.8

Discussion
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(i) What happened to the paper clip when the steel metal bar was brought close to it:
(a) before stroking it.
(b) after stroking it.
(ii) Explain your observations.

Activity 6.5: Finding out what happens to a steel metal bar when it is placed inside a
solenoid.
Materials
- a steel metal bar
- a solenoid
- 2 cells
- connecting leads
- a switch
- paper clips

Procedure
(i) Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 6. 23 below.

Figure 6.23
(ii) Bring the paper clips close to the ends of the steel metal bar.
(iii) Record your observations in a table of results.
(iv) Close the switch and repeat steps (ii) and (iii).

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(v) Open the switch and remove the steel metal bar from the solenoid.
(vi) Bring the steel metal bar close to the paper clips and record your observations.

Table of results

Observations Observations Observations after the steel

before closing the while the switch is metal bar is removed from
switch closed the solenoid.

Table 6.9

Discussion
- Explain your observations.

Observations
We have observed that the steel metal bar could not attract the metal paper clips before
it was stroked with a bar magnet. However, it was able to attract the paper clips after
it was stroked with a bar magnet.
A steel metal bar was also able to attract a steel metal bar while it was inside a solenoid
through which electric current was flowing. After removing it from the solenoid it was
still able to attract the paper clips.
The results of the two experiments above show that the steel metal bars become
magnets either when they were stroked with a magnet or when placed inside a current
carrying solenoid. The process of making magnets from magnetic materials is known
as magnetization. Therefore, magnetic materials can be magnetized by using either
stroking method or electrical method.
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The stroking methods

This method involves stroking (touching) steel bars with a magnet. There are two ways
of making magnets by stroking.

(a) Single touch

In a single touch the steel bar to be magnetised is stroked from end to end several
times (about 20 times) in the same direction and with the same pole of the magnet.
Between successive strokes, the magnet is lifted high above the bar as shown in the
diagram. This prevents the magnetism already induced from being weakened.

Figure 6.24
The pole produced at the end of the bar where the stroking ends is of the opposite kind
to that of the stroking pole. The single touch method is disadvantageous because it
produces magnets in which the one pole is nearer the end of the bar than the other.
(b) Divided / double touch
In the divided touch method, the bar to be magnetized is stroked from the centre
outwards with unlike poles of two magnets at the same time.

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Figure 6.25
The pole produced at the end of the steel bar where the stroke ends is of the opposite
to that of the stroking pole. If the steel bar is magnetized by divided touch using like
poles such as two S-poles, the bar will obtain N-poles at both ends, and a double S-
pole at the centre as shown in the figure below,

Figure 6.26
The bar of such kind is said to possess consequent poles.

(ii) Electrical Methods

To magnetize a steel bar by electrical method, the bar is placed inside a solenoid and
direct current (d.c.) of 6 – 12 v is switched on and off.

Figure 6.27

When the current is finally switched off permanently the steel metal bar stays
magnetized.
Magnetic and nonmagnetic materials

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Magnetic materials are these materials which can be attracted by magnets and can also
be magnetized. Nonmagnetic materials are those materials that cannot be attracted by
magnets and cannot be magnetized. Magnetic materials can be soft or hard.

Soft magnetic materials

These are materials that are easy to magnetize but also lose their magnetism easily.
An example of a soft magnetic material is iron. Soft magnetic materials are used in
electromagnets and as cores in transformers.

Hard magnetic materials

Hard magnetic materials are those magnetic materials which are difficult to magnetize
and do not lose their magnetism easily. Steel is an example of hard magnetic materials.
Hard magnetic materials are used to make permanent magnets.

The origin of magnetism

The magnetic effects of all materials originate from electric currents. In all types of
matter there are small magnetic fields created by electric currents of electrons as they
move around the nucleus. The path taken by each electron around the nucleus inside
the atom acts as a current carrying coil with one end being the north pole and the other
south pole.

Figure 6.28

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In atoms of some materials the small magnetic fields point in different directions and
they cancel each other out. The materials which are made of the atoms of that kind
cannot be magnetized. These materials are known as nonmagnetic materials.
In magnetic materials, the magnetic fields in each atom point in the same direction
and so do not cancel each other out. This means that each atom behaves like a small
magnet. When the small atomic magnets in a piece of material point in different
directions, then the material is unmagnetized. For the material to become magnetized
more atomic magnets must line up in the same direction.

Figure 6.29

Demagnetization
Activity 6.6: Investigating what happens when a magnetized material is hammered.

Materials
- a strongly magnetized steel metal bar
- a hammer
- paper

Procedure
(i) Bring a strongly magnetized material close to paper clips.
(ii) Observe and record what happens.
(iii) Hammer the magnetized steel metal bar.
(iv) Repeat steps (i) and (ii).
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Table of results

Observations before Observations after

hammering the magnetized hammering the magnetized
steel metal bar steel metal bar

Table 6.10

Discussion
Explain your observations.

Activity 6.8: Investigating what happens when a magnetized steel metal bar is heated.

Material
- a strongly magnetized steel metal bar
- a source of fire
- paper clips

Procedure
(i) Bring the magnetized steel metal bar close to the paper clips.
(ii) Observe and record your observations.
(iii) Heat the magnetized steel metal bar in a flame of fire.
(iv) Let if cool down.
(v) Repeat steps (i) and (ii)

Table of results

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Observations before heating Observations after heating the

the magnetized steel metal magnetized steel metal bar
bar

Table 6.11

Discussion
(i) What happened to the steel metal bar after it was heated?
(ii) Explain your observations

Observations
The magnetised metal bar did not attract the paper clips after it was hammered. It did
not also attract the paper clips after it was heated. This means that hammering or
heating the magnetized steel metal bar caused it to lose its magnetism. This is because
hammering or heating a magnet causes its atoms to vibrate faster and hence being
thrown out of their lines. The process of causing a magnet to lose its magnetism is
called demagnetization.
Alternating current (ac) can also demagnetize magnets. In this process the magnet is
placed inside a solenoid through which alternating current is flowing. Then, while the
current is flowing the bar magnet is pulled slowly to a distance away from the
solenoid.

Caring for magnets

Storing magnets improperly can cause them to be demagnetized slowly. Storing them
in the following ways can prevent them from losing their magnetism.

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(a) Storing them with keeper

Bar magnets should be kept with opposite poles together, with keepers across each
end and with a piece of wood or plastic between them as shown in the figure below.

Figure 6.30

Horse shoe magnets should be stored with a keeper across the poles as shown in the
figure below.

Figure 6.31
ElectromagnetismElectromagnetism means the ability iron or steel bars placed inside
a solenoid to attract magnetic materials. The magnets made in this way are called
electromagnets.

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Figure 6.32

The magnetism of an electromagnet made by an iron bar is temporary and can be

switched on and off. The strength of electromagnets can be increased by;
i – Increasing the current.
ii – increasing the number of turns in the coil
iii –by making the poles closer as in the C shaped (horse shoe)magnet.

Uses of Electromagnets;
1. Electromagnets are used in electric bells

Figure 6.33

How electric bells work

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When the switch is closed, current flows through the coil. The electromagnet attracts
the hammer and the hammer hits the gong. The movement of the hammer towards the
gong switches off the electromagnet at the contact, and the springy metal strip pulls
the hammer back, and reconnecting the circuit. The cycle is repeated so long as the
switch is on, and continuous ringing occurs.

Uses of Electric bells

Electric bells can be used in the following ways;
(i) Fire alarms
(ii) Flood alarms

i. Fire alarms
In large forests, it can be difficult for people to realise the fire has started somewhere.
However, using fire alarm systems with bimetallic strips and contacts at different
locations in the forest can help to warn people whenever there is fire in the forest.
Consider figure 6.34 below.

Figure 6.34

Heat from fire makes the bimetallic strip to bend and complete the electric circuit and
so making the bell will ring.
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ii. Floods alarms

In flood prone areas, flood alarm systems can help to warn people whenever flooding
water is coming. Consider the figure below;

Figure 6.35

The contact with the salt crystal is placed in a shade at a place where flooding water
passes through. Water from the floods will dissolve the salt and the springy metal
contact will complete the circuit, and the bell will start ringing, thus warning people
that flooding water is coming.

Force on a conductor in a magnetic field: The Motor Rule

Activity 6.9: Investigating what happens when a current carrying conductor is placed
in a
magnetic field.

Materials
- a thin light and flexible conductor.
- 3 connecting leads
- 2 cells
- 2 bar magnets ( or a horse shoe magnet)
- a clamp stand

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Procedure
(i) Set up the apparatus as follows.

Figure 6.36

(ii) Bring the two bar magnets close the thin and flexible conductor side by side with
opposite
poles facing each other.
(iii) With the switch still open, observe what happens to the thin flexible conductor.
(iv) Record your observations.
(v) Repeat steps (i) to (iv) with the switch closed.
(vi) Reverse the terminals of the cells and repeat steps (i) to (iv).

Table of results

Observations Observations Observations when the

when the when the switch terminals of the cells are
switch is open is closed reversed and the switch is
closed

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Table 6.12

Discussion
(i) What happened to the conductor when it was placed in a magnetic field with the
switch
open?
(ii) What happened to the conductor when it was placed in a magnetic field with the
switch
closed?
(iii) How did the direction of movement of the conductor relate to the direction of the
magnetic field of the magnets and to the direction of the flow of the electric
current in the
conductor?

Observations
When a current currying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it experiences a force
(it is pushed). In fact, there are three directions of movements involved whenever a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, all perpendicular to each
other. These directions are as follows:
(i) the direction of the force (or thrust) on the conductor,
(ii) the direction of flow of current through the conductor and
(iii) the direction of field between the opposite poles of the magnets.
The direction of the force (the Thrust) on the wire is determined by the Fleming’s left
hand rule (also called the motor rule). The rule states that if you hold the thumb and
the first two fingers of your left hand at right angles to each other, then the First finger
points in the direction of Field, the seCond in the direction of Current and the Thumb
in the direction of the Thrust (force).

Explanation
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When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field of the magnets, then
two magnetic fields are involved; the magnetic field around the conductor and another
magnetic field between the poles of the magnets. On one side of conductor, the field
lines of the two fields point in opposite direction while on the other side they point in
the same direction as shown in figure 6. 36 below.

Figure 6.36
The magnetic field lines that point in opposite directions cancel each other out, while
those that point in the direction join together and reinforce each other. It is the resultant
magnetic field lines that push the conductor out as illustrated in figure 6.37 below.

Figure 6.37

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Application of the force on a conductor in a magnetic field

The force on a conductor in a magnetic field is applied in the following appliances
- ( i) electric motor
- (ii) loud speakers.

(i) The electric motors

Figure 6.38

An electric motor contains a rectangular coil of wire of many turns mounted on an

axle between two poles of a permanent magnet. Current passes into the coil via two
brushes that are pushed against a split-ring, known as the commutator. The
commutator rotates with the coil and reverses the current into the coil every half cycle
to ensure the current flows in the same direction near each pole and so the coil
continues to rotate in one direction.

How electric motors works

When current flows through the coil, forces are set up on the two sides of the coil
labelled

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CD and AB. These two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and
so cause the coil to rotate. When the coil reaches the vertical position, no current flows
for a moment, but the coil keeps on rotating because of its inertia.

(ii) The loud speaker

Figure 6. 39

The moving coil loud speaker consists of a cylindrical permanent magnet which
produces a strong radial magnetic field, a coil which is free to move short distances
backwards and forwards in the magnetic field and a stiff paper cone attached to the
coil.

How the moving coil loud speaker works

The wire in the coil lies at right angles to the magnetic field. If an alternating current
is passed through the coil, the coil is pushed alternately backwards and forwards. This
makes the paper cone to vibrate and sound waves are given out as a result. The nature

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of the sound produced depends on the frequency and the amplitude of the current
flowing through the coil.

Electromagnetic induction
Activity 6.10: Investigating if magnetism can induce an electric current.

Materials
- a bar magnet
- a solenoid
- connecting leads
- a zero centred galvanometer (or an ammeter)

Procedure
(i) Set up the apparatus as in figure 6.40 below
(ii) Observe the pointer as the magnet is being pushed into the solenoid.
(iii) Leave the magnet inside the solenoid and observe the pointer.
(iv) Pull the magnet out of the solenoid and observe the pointer again as the magnet is
being
pulled out.
(v) Record your observations

Figure 6.40

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Table of results

Observations Observations when the Observations when

when the magnet magnet is left inside the the magnet is being
is being pushed in solenoid pulled out.

Table 6.13

Discussion
(i) What happened to the pointer of the galvanometer when the magnet was;
- (a) being moved into the solenoid?
- (b) stationary inside the solenoid
- (c) being moved out from the solenoid?
(ii) What does the movement of the pointer mean?
(iii) What is the relationship between the direction of movement of the pointer and the
direction of movement of the magnet?

Activity 6.11: Investigating if magnetism in one coil can induce an electric current in
another
coil.

Materials
- 2 coils of insulated conductor with many turns
- a switch
- a zero centred galvanometer
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- 5 connecting leads
- 3 cells

Procedure
(i) Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 6.41 below.
(ii) Close the switch in the first coil and observe the pointer in the second coil as the
switch is
being closed.
(iii) Leave the switch closed and observe the pointer.
(iv) Open the switch and observe the pointer as the switch is being opened.
(v) Record your observations.

Figure 6.41

Table of results

Observations Observations when the Observations when

when the switch is switch is left closed the switch is being
being closed opened.

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Table 6.13

Discussion
(i) What happened to the pointer of the galvanometer as the switch was;
- (a) being closed?
- (b) left closed?
- (c) being opened?
(ii) Was there any relationship between the direction of movement of the pointer and
what
was being done to the switch?
(iii) Explain your observations.

Observations
We have seen that the pointer of the galvanometer was moving when the bar magnet
was being moved into or out of the solenoid and when the switch was being closed or
opened. There was no movement of the pointer when the bar magnet was stationary
inside the solenoid and when switch was kept closed or open. The movement of the
pointer indicates that current was flowing through the conductor. This means that an
emf, which caused the flow of the current, was induced in the coil which was
connected to the galvanometer either by the movement of the magnet in or out of the
solenoid or by the switching on and off of the current in the first coil.

How does the emf get induced?

As the bar magnet is being moved into or out of the solenoid its magnetic field lines
interact with (or are being cut by) the conductor. There is no cutting of the conductor
by the magnetic field lines when the magnet is stationary inside the solenoid. When
current in one coil is being used to induce emf in another coil, the magnetic field lines
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in the first coil interact with or are cut by the conductor in the other coil only when
the current in the first coil being switched on or off. When switching on, the magnetic
field lines are cut as they grow and when switching off they are cut as they die out.
Therefore, an emf is induced when magnetic field lines are being cut by the conductor.
The process of using magnetism to generate an electric current in a coil of a conductor
is called electromagnetic induction.

The Direction of the induced current

There is a relationship between the direction of the induced current and the magnetic
field that causes it. The direction can be determined by using the Lenz’s law or the
Fleming’s right hand rule.

i. Lenz’s law
The Lenz’s law states that an induced current always flows in a direction such that it
opposes the change in the magnetic field that produces it. Consider figure 6.42 below;

Figure 6.42
It can be observed the figure that when the magnet is being pushed into the coil,
current flows in one direction and makes the coil to become a magnet whose N-pole
opposes the approaching N- pole of the magnet (like poles repel/ oppose each
other).When the magnet pulled out of the coil, the current flows in the opposite

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direction and the poles of the coil are reversed so that the S-pole of the coil opposes
the moving out of the magnet by attracting it. The same also happens when current in
one coil induces current in another coil. When current in the first coil is switched on
the magnetic field lines grow around it. As the magnet field lines grow around it and
are cutting the conductor in the second coil, current flows in the second coil in such a
direction that the magnetic field lines around it should oppose the magnetic field lines
that are growing in the first coil. The opposite happens when the switch is being
opened. As such the induced current keeps on changing its directions. It is an
alternating current.

ii. Fleming’s right hand rule

The Fleming’s right hand rule states that if you hold the first two fingers of your right
hand at right angles to each other, then the First finger points in the direction of the
magnetic Field, the seCond finger points in the direction Current, and the Thumb the
direction of Motion.

Applications of electromagnetic induction

The electromagnetic induction has a wide application in our everyday life. For
instance, the use of magnet to induce emf is applied in generators and microphones.
While the use of current in one coil to induce current in another coil is applied in
transformers.

The generators
There are two types of generators; the alternating current (ac) generator and the direct
current (dc) generator

(a) Ac Generator (the alternator)

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An ac generator consists of a coil made up of an insulated copper wire which is rotated

by turning an axle, slip rings and carbon brushes. The slip rings are fixed to the coil
and rotate with it.
The brushes are two contacts which rub against the slip ring and keep the coil
connected to the outside part of the circuit.

How ac generators work

When the coil is rotated, it cuts magnetic field lines, so an emf is generated (induced).
This generated emf makes the current flow. As the coil rotates, each side travels
upwards, downwards, upwards, downwards… and so on. So an alternating current is
generated.
The size of the induced emf (and the current) can be increased by;
- increasing the number of turns on the coil.
- increasing the area of the coil
- using a stronger magnet
- rotating the coil faster.

(b) The dc generator

The dc generator, just like an electric motor, consists of a wire of many turns mounted
on an axle between two poles of a permanent magnet, brushes and split-ring or
commutators. The difference between the dc generator and the electric motor is that
in the motor, current is used to make the coil in the magnetic field rotate (turn), where
as in the dc generator, the coil is rotated physically in the magnetic field to produce
current.

How dc generators work

When the coil is rotated, an emf and current is generated in the coil. The split rings
reverse the connection with the outside circuit every time the coil passes through the
vertical. So the current in the outside circuit always flows in the same direction.
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Figure 6. 43

ii. The microphone

A moving-coil microphone contains a thin metal foil diaphragm and a coil attached to
the rear of the diaphragm in a magnetic field of a permanent magnet.
The current can be amplified (made larger) and heard in a loud speaker.

Figure 6. 44

How microphones work

When you speak into a microphone, the sound waves cause the diaphragm to vibrate.
This makes the coil to move in and out between the poles of the magnet. As the coil
moves in the magnetic field, a current is induced in it.
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The transformers
The induction of emf in the first coil, voltage by changing magnetic field in another
coil is referred to as mutual induction. Mutual induction occurs when the current in
the first coil is changing. Instead of switching on and off the current in the first coil,
the easiest way is to use the alternating current in the first coil because it is always
changing on its own.
Mutual induction is used in transformers to change (transforms) voltage and current
from one value to another. The transformer consists of two coils of wire wound on a
soft iron core. The soft iron core helps to increase the amount of the induced current
by concentrating and directing the field lines from the first coil into the second coil.

Figure 6.45

The coil connected to the ac supply is called primary, and the coil connected to the
induced output voltage is called secondary.

Types of transformers
The are two principal types of transformers; the step up transformer and the step down
transformer

(i) The step up transformer

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A step up transformer has more turns in the secondary coil than in the primary coil as
shown in figure 6.45 (a). Figure 6.45 (b) shows the symbol for the step up transformer
is as follows;

Figure 6.45 (a) Figure 6.45(b)

In a step up transformer the value of the output voltage (emf) is greater than the value
of input voltage.

ii. The step down transformer

A step down transformer has more turns in the primary coil than in the secondary
(figure 6.46 (a). Figure 6.46(b) shows the symbol for the step down transformer.

Figure 6.46 (a) Figure 6.46 (b)

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In a step down transformer the value of the output voltage in the primary coil is lower
than the value of the input voltage in the secondary coil.

Transformer Equation
The value of the induced emf (Vs) depends on the value of the primary voltage (Vp),
the number of turns of wire on the primary coils (Np) and number of turns of wire on
the secondary (Ns).
The primary voltage, the secondary voltage, the number of turns on the primary coil
and the number of turns on the secondary coil, are related by the following equation;
=

 =

Vs = x

Example
What is the output voltage if the input voltage is 12V, the primary coil has 100 turns
and the secondary coil has 25 turns?

Working out
=

 Vs = x

Vs = x

= 3v

Exercise

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A transformer steps down the mains supply from 230V to 10v to operate an answering
machine.
a. What is the turn ratio of the transformer windings?
b. How many turns are on the primary if the secondary has 100 turns?
c. What is the current in the primary if the transformer the current in the machine is
2A?

Transformer and Electrical Power

An electrical power = VI. In a transformer, the power in the primary coil = the power
in the secondary coil. If the current in the primary coil is Is and the current in the
secondary coil is Ip, then; Vp x Ip = Vs x Is.

 =

But =

 =

 Is = x Ip

In a step up transformer, Np is smaller than the Ns, therefore current is stepped down,
where as in a step down transformer, Np is greater than the Ns and so current is stepped
up. This means that in a step up transformer, it is the voltage that is stepped up while
current is stepped down, and in a step down, the voltage is stepped down while current
is stepped up and always Vp x Ip = Vs x Is.

The importance of transmitting electricity at high voltage and low current

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The power loss across a conductor = I2R. When electricity is transmitted from the
power stations to the consumers through the cables, some of the power is lost as heat.
The power lost = I2R.
To reduce the power loss the electricity is transmitted at a very high voltage and a very
low current so that the ‘I2’ is as small as possible.

Advantages of ac over dc
- ac in one coil can easily induce another current in another coil.
- ac can easily be transmitted long distances without losing much power because it
can
easily be stepped up and down in transformers.

Example
Cables of resistance 2 supply 2kW of power. Calculate the power loss in the cable
if power is transmitted at:
(a) 200 V (b) 2000 V.

Working out:
(a) P = VI
I=

=
= 10A

Power loss = I2R

= 102 x 2
= 200W

(b) I =

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=
= 1A
Power loss = I2R
= 12 x 2
=2W
Notice that the higher the voltage, the lower the power loss.

Exercise
The figure below shows an electrical transmission system. The resistance of the
transmission wire on each side is 4. The 6 V, 24W lamp is operated at its correct
rating.

Figure 6.47
Assuming no energy is lost in the transformer, calculate;
(a) the current through the bulb.
(b) the current through the transmission wire
(c) the power loss in the transmission wire

Energy loss in transformers

In transformers, not all the electrical energy in the primary coil is transferred to the
secondary coil. Some of the energy is lost in transformers due to the following factors;
the resistance of the wires in the coils, heating effect of eddy currents and leakage.

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Resistance of the wires in the coils

Energy in the form of heat is lost in both the primary coil and the secondary coil due
to resistance of the wire. In large transformers oil is used to cool down the wires to
avoid overheating.

Heating effect of eddy currents

The iron core is in a changing magnetic field of the primary coil. This induces an emf
and hence small circulating currents called eddy currents in the core. Some of the input
energy is lost as heat energy produced by these eddy currents.
The energy loss due to eddy currents is reduced by using laminated (layered) iron core
rather than a solid block. A laminated iron core is a core made up of sheets of iron
insulated from each other.

Leakage of field lines

Figure 6.48
All the field lines produced by the primary coil may not cut the secondary coil.
Energy loss due to leakage of field lines may be prevented by winding the primary
and the secondary coils one on top of the other as shown 6.45;

Review Questions
1. (a) A transformer is used on the 240 V a.c. supply to deliver 9 A at 80 V to a heating
coil. 10 % of the energy is lost in the transformer itself, what is the current in the
primary coil?

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(b) Give three reasons why transformers are not 100% efficient.

2. A step up transformer is designed to operate from a 20 V supply and deliver energy

at 250 V. If the transformer is 90 % efficient, determine the current its primary coil
when the output terminals are connected to a 250 V 100 W bulb.

3. a. Explain why a voltmeter is connected in parallel while an ammeter is connected

in
series.
b. What is the resistance of the following resistors?
(i)

Figure 6.52

(ii)
15RJ

Figure 6.53

.(i) Explain the difference between an electric motor and a d.c generator.
(ii) State two ways by which the speed of an electric motor can be increased.

d. (i) Explain how a steel bar can be magnetised by double touch method.
(ii) Explain why iron bars cannot be used to make permanent bar magn ets.

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4. a. The figure below is a circuit diagram

Figure 6.54

(i) Name components labelled X and Y.

(ii) Calculate the total resistance of the resistors.
(iii) Calculate the current in the 30  resistor.
(iv). Work out the voltage across the 10 resistor.

b. (i) Define a kilowatt – hour.

(ii) The power rating of a television is 150W. How much power in kilowatt – hours
will it use if it is on for 15hours.
(iii) If the cost of power is K5. 00 per kilowatt – hour, what will be the cost for
running
the television in b. (ii) for 8 hour per day for 5 days?

5. The following information appears on the rating plate of an electric heater in normal
use;

Electrical supply - 220V

Maximum power - 22000 W
WARNING: This appliance must be earthed
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a. Calculate the current that will flow through the element of the heater.
b. Calculate the resistance of the element of the electric heater.
c. How much electrical energy, in joules, would this heater use in 5 minutes?
d. If the electrical energy costs K4.00 per kwh, what is the cost of using this heater for
12 hours at its maximum rating?
e. Why is it important to earth this appliance?

6. a. What is the advantage of high power voltage transmission?

b. What is the main advantage of a.c power transmission over d.c. power
transmission?
c. What is the function of transformers in power transmission?
d. Cables of resistance 8 supply 4kW of power. Calculate the power loss in the
cable if the power is transmitted at;
(i) 200V
(ii) 2000V

7. a. A transformer has a primary coil with 100 turns and a secondary coil with 250
turns.
(i) The primary voltage is 12V. Is this a step up or a step down transformer?
(ii) Calculate the secondary voltage.
b. A current of 2A is passed through the primary coil of 50 turns.
The secondary coil has 400 turns. What current would be obtained from this
transformer?
c. A step – down transformer gives current of 5A at 12 V. If the primary Voltage is
240V, find; (i) the primary current
(ii) the power input
(iii) the power out put

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8. A magnet is used to induce current in a coil of wire. List three things that could be
done to increase the current produced.

9. a. Give two advantages of connecting bulbs in parallel.

b. The figure below is an electric circuit

Figure 6.55

(i) What does the ammeter read when the switch is open (OFF)?
(ii) What is the current through each of the 4 resistors when the switch is closed
(ON)?
(iii) What does the ammeter read when switch is closed?
(iv) What is the combined resistance of the resistors when the switch is closed?

c. Consider the resistor arrangement shown below;

Figure 6.56

Which arrangement, A or B has the lower resistance?

Show your working.

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13. With a well labelled diagram, describe how an a.c. generator is modified to
produce a
direct current.

1 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

Oscillations

Definition
An oscillation is defined as a to and fro, or an up and down, movement of an object
from its rest position. Examples of oscillating systems are pendulums and vibrating
springs. In each oscillating system there is an interchange of potential energy (PE) and
kinetic energy (KE) as shown in figure below:

Figure 1.1

A complete oscillation is made when the mass moves from position b to c and back
to b.
The graphs representing oscillating systems have a sinusoidal shape as shown in
figure below;
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Figure 1.2

Characteristics of Oscillations:
(i) Amplitude, a.
Amplitude is distance (or displacement) between rest position (i.e. equilibrium
position) and the
extreme positions of an oscillating system as shown in figures below:

(a) Pendulum

Figure 1.3

(b) Mass on spring system

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Figure 1.4
x = amplitude
b and c = extreme positions.
a = rest position.

Graphically the amplitude is represented as follows:

Figure1.5

The Amplitude in Ideal and Real Oscillations:

Ideal oscillations are the perfect oscillations whereby both potential energy and kinetic
energy are conserved. The amplitude of an ideal oscillation remains constant as shown
in figure 1.6 below:

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Figure1.6

The ideal oscillations cannot be achieved due to:

(i) air resistance on the bob
(ii) friction at the pivot
(iii) gravitational force on the bob.
In real oscillations the potential and kinetic energies are not conserved. The amplitude
(a) of the oscillating system decreases with time as shown in the figure 1.7 below

Figure1.7
(ii)Period, T.
The period of an oscillating system means the time taken for one complete oscillation.
i. e. from b to c and back to b, or from c to b and back to c.

T = Total time taken

Number of complete oscillations.
The SI unit for period is second, s.

(iii)Frequency, f:
Frequency means the number of complete oscillations made in one second.

f = Number of complete oscillations

Total time taken

The SI unit for frequency is hertz, Hz.

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The relationship between the frequency, f and period, T

f = 1/T or
T = 1/ f.

Question
The graph in figure 1.8 shows the oscillations of a swinging pendulum;

Figure1.8
a What name is give to a graph of such shape?
b. What was the initial amplitude of the pendulum?
c. How many complete oscillations were made in 5 seconds?
d. Calculate the period T of the pendulum.
e. Calculate the frequency of the pendulum.
f. Why does the amplitude of the pendulum decreasing with time?
g. Comment on PE and KE in the system.

Activity 1.1
Aim To investigate the effect of mass on the frequency of vibrating spring

Materials:
- Spring
- 50g mass slots (50g bags of sand)
- Clamp stand
- Wrist watch or stop clock

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Procedure:
(i) Arrange the apparatus as shown in the figure below:

Figure1.9

(ii) Pull the mass vertically downwards a few centimetres, and release it so that it
oscillates up and
down above and below its rest position.
(iii) Find time taken for the mass to make 10 complete oscillations.
(iv) Record the time in the table as shown below.

Mass Time taken for 10 Period , T Frequency, f

(g) complete oscillations (s) (Hz)
(s)
50
100
150
200

Table 1.1

(vi). Repeat steps (i) to (iv) with a mass of 100g, 150g, and 200g.
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Discussion
How does the increase in the mass affect
(a) the period of the system?
(b) the frequency of the system?

Observation
As the mass increases, the period increases. As the period increases, the frequency
decreases.

Activity 1.2
Aim: To investigate the effect of amplitude on the frequency of a pendulum

Materials:
- String (30 cm long)
- 50g mass slot (50g bag of sand)
- Clamp stand
- Wrist watch or stop clock

Procedure:
(i) Arrange the apparatus as shown below:

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Figure1.10

(ii) Measure the time for 20 complete oscillations when the bob is given the amplitude
of 4 cm,
6cm, 8cm and 10cm respectively.
(iii) Record the results in the table below;

Amplitude, a Time taken for 10 Period , Frequency, f

(cm) complete oscillations T (s) (Hz)
(s)
4
6
8
10
Table 1.2

(iv) Plot a graph of the period, T against amplitude, a.

Discussion;
How does the amplitude affect :
(a) the period of the pendulum?
(b) the frequency of the pendulum?

Observation
As the amplitude increases, the period does not change much. Since the frequency
depends on the period, then amplitude does not affect the frequency over a certain
range.

Activity 1.3
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Aim: To investigate the effect of mass on the frequency of a pendulum

Materials:
- String (30 cm long)
- 50g mass slot (50g bag of sand)
- Clamp stand
- Wrist watch or stop clock

Procedure:
(i) Measure the time for 20 complete oscillations when the mass of the bob is 50g,
100g, 150g and
200g respectively.
(ii) Record the results in the table below;

Mass (g) Period Frequency, (f)

(T)
50
100
150
200
Table 1.3
- Plot a graph of period against the mass of the bob.

Discussion
What is happening to the frequency when mass is increased?

Observation:
The mass has no effect on the period of the pendulum. The period depends on the
maximum speed at the lowest point and the maximum speed only depends on the
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height at the highest point. Since the frequency depends on the period of the pendulum,
then mass has no effect on the frequency.

Activity1.4
Aim: To investigate the effect length on the frequency, f of a pendulum

Materials:
- a string of length 100cm
- 50g mass
- a clamp stand
- a stop clock
- 1 meter rule

Procedure:
(i) set up the apparatus as shown in figure 1.11 below with the length of string 20 cm
long.

Figure 1.11

(ii) Set up the pendulum to oscillate and record the time taken for 10 complete
oscillations when
the length of the string is 20 cm,40 cm, 80 cm and 100 cm respectively.
(iii) Record the results in the table below;

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Length, L (cm) Period Frequency, (f)

(T)
10
20
30
40
Table 1.4

Discussion:
What is happening to the frequency, f when the length of the string is increasing?

Observation:
As the length increases the height through which the mass moves decreases. When the
height decreases potential energy of the mass will decrease, so the kinetic energy
decreases also. Speed , therefore decreases. As the speed decreases the period will
decrease hence decreasing the frequency.

Factors that affect the Frequency of Oscillating System:

The factors that affect the frequency of oscillating systems are as follows:

Oscillating Factors affecting frequency

System ,f
Vibrating spring - mass on the spring
- force constant of the spring
Pendulum - length of the string
- considerable amplitude
change

Table 1.5
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1.2 Waves:
Introduction
Activity 1.5
Aim: To demonstrate a wave on a rope.

Materials:
a. A long rope (about 10 long)
b. A piece of paper.

Procedure:
a. Tie the piece of paper to the rope at appoint as shown in figure 1.12 below

Figure 1.12

b. Let one student hold one end while another shakes the other end.

Discussion
What is happening to the rope and the piece of paper?
What does the other person feel at the other end while the other one is shaking the
other end?

Observation:
When the rope is disturbed at one end by shaking it from side to side, all the particles
of the rope also shake from side to side up to the end until the person holding it at the

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other end feels a pull. This means that the disturbance at one end has spread to all the
other parts of the rope and energy is transferred from one end to the other end. Each
individual particle in the rope is temporarily displaced and returns to its original
position.

Definition
A wave is the travelling disturbance which carries energy with it from a source to
another place without transferring of matter. Examples of waves include sound light,
radio waves e.t.c. Waves that require medium of transmission are called mechanical
waves. Examples of mechanical waves include sound wave. The waves that do not
require medium of transmission are called electromagnetic waves and their examples
include radio waves. Electromagnetic waves can carry energy through vacuum.

Types of waves:

Activity: 1.6
Aim: Observing the direction of movement of particles relative to direction of the
wave.

Requirements: slinky spring, a small piece of cloth or plastic paper and a long bench.

Procedure: (1) Tie the piece of paper / cloth to the slinky spring somewhere at
the middle.
(2) Let one student hold the spring to the bench at one end along the
central line
of the bench.
(3) Hold the other end of the spring to the other end of the bench.
(4) Move one end of the spring from side to side.

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(5) Mark the path taken by the cloth as the spring is moved from side
to side.
(6) Copy the path of the cloth into an exercise book.
(7) Repeat steps 1 – 6 but this time move the spring forward and
backward.

Discussion;
How did the direction of oscillations of the cloth / plastic paper relate to the direction
of the wave when the end of the spring was moved,
(a) from side to side?
(b) forward and back ward ?

Observation
When the end of the spring was moved from side to side, the direction of oscillations
of the cloth were at right angles the direction of the wave. When the end was moved
forward and back ward, the direction of the oscillations were parallel to the direction
of the wave. The directions of the oscillations of the cloth / plastic paper are the
directions of the oscillations of all the particles in the spring when the spring was
moved from side to side and when the spring was moved forward and backward
respectively. There, therefore, are two types of waves depending on the directions of
oscillations of the particles in the medium of a wave.

(a) Transverse wave;

This is a wave where particles oscillate at right angles to direction of the travelling
wave.

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Figure 1.13

Examples of transverse
-Water waves
-waves in a rope and slinky spring.
-All electromagnetic waves, that is; light, infrared radiation, radio waves, ultraviolet,
X- rays,
gamma rays and microwaves.
Transverse waves have hilly shaped and valley shaped parts. The hilly shaped part is
known as a crest and the valley shaped part is known as a trough as shown in figure
1.14 below;

Figure 1.14
(b) Longitudinal Waves;
A longitudinal is the wave where the particles oscillate parallel to the direction of the
wave.
e.g

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Figure 1.15

An example of longitudinal wave is the sound wave.

Longitudinal waves have points where particles move together and other points where
particles move further apart. The points where particles move together are called
compressions and the points where particles move further apart are called rarefactions.

Figure 1.15

Characteristics of waves;
i- Amplitude, a;
This is the maximum displacement of particles from their rest positions (i. e. the
undisturbed position). It is measured in centimetres or meters.

ii- Frequency, f.
Frequency means the number of complete waves that pass through a point in one
second or the number of waves produced per second. It is measured in Hertz (Hz).

iii- Period, T.
This is the time taken for one complete wave. It is measured in seconds.

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iv - Wave length, .
Wavelength is the distance occupied by one complete wave or the distance between
adjacent crests or troughs.

Figure 1.16
Wavelength also means the distance between adjacent rarefactions or compressions.

Figure 1.17

Wave length is equal to the distance moved by a particle in one complete wave.

v - Wave speed,:
This is the distance moved by crest or a trough in one complete wave per second.

= Wave length
Period
 =/T

Phase
Particles are said to be in phase if they are in the same state of motion.

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Figure 1.18
Points a, c and e are in phase, and also points b, and d are in phase. However, points
a and b are out of phase.

Wave fronts:
A wave front is a line joining all points on the wave that have the same phase.
They could be crests or troughs of waves which spread out in all directions such as
water waves as shown below.

Figure 1.19
The wave Equation;
From the wave speed we have;
 =  which means  = 1 x 
T T
But 1 = f

  = f

Examples
1. A wave of wavelength,  20cm has a frequency of 3 Hz. What is the speed of the
wave, v.
 = f

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 = 20cm/wavelength, f = 3 Hz (i.e 3 waves/second),

 = 20cm x 3 wavelengths
Wavelength second
= 60 cm/s

2. What is the speed of a wave of frequency 400Hz with wavelength 2m? What is the
period of the wave?

Working out
 = f. ; f = 400Hz,  = 2m
  = 400 x 2
= 800m / s

Period = 1/f
= 1/ 400
= 0.0025 s

Exercise
1. A sound wave of frequency 200Hz and wavelength 3m is travelling in water.
Calculate the speed and the period of the wave.
2. A radio station broadcasts on a frequency of 200 000 Hz and the wavelength of its
signal is
1500 m.
(a). calculate the speed of the wave in m / s.
(b). the wavelength of the signal of another station that broadcasts on a frequency of
1 250 000 Hz.

Representing Waves:
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(a). Graphical representation;

Figure 1.20

(b). Wavefronts;
Wavefront is a line joining all points on the wave that have the same phase.
A wave front can be a crest in a transverse wave or a compression in a longitudinal
wave.
If the source is periodic, successions of wave fronts, all of them with same shape are
produced.

Figure 1.21
The line at right angles to the wavefronts that shows the direction of travel of the wave
is called a ray.

Exercise:
The figure below is a representation of water waves 1 second after a stone was thrown
into the water. The lines represent crests.

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Figure 1.22
i. What is represented at A at this instant?
ii. Find; (a) wavelength
(b) period
(c) speed of the wave
(d) frequency of the wave.

Properties of waves:
i. Reflection:
Reflection means sending back of a wave when it strikes an obstacle.
All waves are reflected when an obstacle is placed in their path.

Figure 1.24

ii. Refraction:
All waves are refracted when their speed is changed. They bend towards the normal
if their speed is reduced and away from the normal if their speed is increased.

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Figure 1.25

Refraction of water waves

Water waves undergo refraction when they are slowed down. The speed of the water
waves is reduced when they enter shallow water and can be refracted if they enter the
shallow water at an angle.

Figure 1.26

The frequency of the water waves depends on the source (vibrator) only. So there is
no change in the frequency of the waves when they enter shallow water. The change
in the speed of the waves is caused by the change in the wavelength of the waves.
Consider the wave equation:
The wave speed, = frequency, f x wavelength, . The frequency of the wave is
constant because it depends on the source. Therefore, the speed of any wave depends
on its wavelength, . When the wavelength is reduced, the speed is also reduced. For

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example when the water waves enter shallow water their wave length reduces as
shown below:

Figure 1.27

The waves change their direction as they close up if they enter the shallow water at an
angle between 0o and 90o.

Exercise:
A set of plane waves on a ripple tank reaches a portion of the tank where water is
shallower. Explain with the aid of a diagram what happens to the waves if they enter
the area of the shallow water at an angle of;
(i) 45 o
(ii) 90 o

iii. Diffraction:
Diffraction means bending of a wave as it passes around an obstacle.
The extent of the diffraction depends on the size of the gap formed by the obstacle.
When the size of gap is about the same size as the wave length of the wave, the waves
that pass through the gap come out circular and spread out in all directions as shown
below:

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Figure 1.28

When the size of the gap is wider as compared to the wavelength of the wave, the
waves that pass through the gap are straight with slight bends at the edges as shown
below:

Figure 1.29
iv. Interference:
Interference means combination of waves. There are two types of interferences.

a. Constructive Interference:
Constructive interference is when the crest of one wave meets the crest of another
wave and a wave with a bigger crest is formed or when troughs of two waves meet.

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Figure 1.30

When this happens the amplitude is doubled, but the frequency and the wavelength do
not change.

b. Destructive Interference:
This happens when the crest of one wave and the trough of another wave meet. When
this happens the two waves cancel each other out as shown in figure 1.31 below.

Figure 1.31

There is no wave after the destructive interference.

The interference of water waves:

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Figure 1.32

At X, a crest of the wave from the source T meets a trough of a wave from the source
S. The result is a destructive interference.
At Y, troughs of both waves meet, and the result is a wave with a deeper trough.
At Z, crests meet and the result is a bigger crest.

Lenses
Definition
A lens is a transparent material with curved surfaces. Parallel light rays are refracted
(bend) when they pass through the lens.

Types of lenses:
There are two types of lenses depending on whether their surfaces are curved inwards
or outwards. These are convex lenses and concave lenses.

i. Convex Lenses
These are the lenses which are thickest through the middle. Light rays converge (meet)
at one point after passing through the convex lens.

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Figure 1.33

Because of this the convex lenses are also called converging lenses.

ii. Concave Lenses:

These are lenses which are thickest around the edges as shown in figure 1.34 below.
Light rays diverge after passing through the concave lens.

Figure 1.34

Because the light rays diverge after passing through the concave lenses, these lenses
are also referred to as diverging lenses.

Terms associated with Lenses and ray diagrams:

The terms that are associated with lenses are optical centre, principal axis, principal
focus, focal length, focal plane, object distance, and image distance.

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Figure 1.35
1. Optical centre, C:
This is the centre of the lens. All the rays of light that pass through the optical centre,
C, in the lens do not bend.

b. Principal axis, P.A.

This is an imaginary line through the centre of the lens which is at right angles to the
lens.

c. Principal focus, or Focal point, F.

This is a point on the principal axis where the rays of light, which are parallel to each
other and to the principal axis, meet after coming out of the lens.
For a convex lens, the focal point is real, while for the convex lens it is virtual and is
behind the lens.

d. Focal length, f
This is the distance between the focal point and the optical centre. Conventionally, the
focal length of a convex is positive (+) where as the focal length of concave lens is
negative (-).

e. Focal plane.

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This is an imaginary plane passing through the focal point and at right angles to the
principal axis. The focal point lies on the focal plane.
All rays of light which are parallel to each before entering the lens converge at a point
on this plane. For example, in the diagram below the rays of light parallel to the
principle axis meet at point F1 and those rays not parallel to the principle axis meet at
F2. Both points F1 and F2 lie in the focal plane.

Figure 1.36
f. Object distance, u.
This is the distance between the object and the optical centre.

g. Image distance, v.
This is the distance between the optical centre and the image.

Magnification, m
Magnification is the comparison of the image formed to the object. Mathematically,
m = image distance, v (numerical values only)
object distance, u

Also m = Image height, h2

Object height, h1

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When the image is larger than the object, it is said to be magnified and when it is
smaller than object it is said to be diminished.

Image Formation
The position, size and the nature an image formed by a lens can be determined by
using the following way;
(a) ray diagrams
(b) the lens formula
(c) experiments

a. Ray diagrams
A ray diagram is a diagram used to predict the point where the image of an object will
be formed by the lens. Ray diagrams are always drawn to scale using lines to represent
the light rays. Usually two scales are used, one scale for the object distance, u, image
distance, v and the focal length, l and another scale for the object height, h1 and the
image height, h2. When constructing a ray diagram the following rules are followed;

1. A ray parallel to the principal axis (P.A) is refracted through the focal point, F, on
the other side of a converging lens. This ray is called the principal ray.

Figure 1.37
2. A ray passing through the centre of the lens is not refracted. This is called central
ray.

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Figure 1.38
3. A ray passing through F before entering the lens is refracted parallel to the P.A on
the othe side of the lens. This ray is called focal ray.

Figure 1.39

4. All these rays start from the same point.

Figure 1.40

A combination of two rays of the three rays can be used to determine the position of
the image. The images formed from the objects which are placed at different object
distances have different characteristics. These characteristics are as follows: -
a. Real or virtual.

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A real image is the one that can be focused on a screen where as a virtual image is the
image that cannot be focussed on the screen.

b. Upright or upside down (inverted).

c. Magnified or diminished.
All the images which are formed on the other side of the lens are real and inverted.

Image formation by convex lenses:

1. An object beyond 2f (at infinity).
If the object is far beyond 2f, rays from it arriving at the lens are nearly parallel to
each other and
its image is formed very close to the focal point.

Figure 1.41

Nature of an image of an object beyond F:

The image is:
- real. This means the image can be focused on a screen.
- inverted
- diminished (smaller than the object).

As the object moves towards the lens, the position of the image moves away from the
lens and
becomes bigger.
2. Object at 2F.

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When the object is placed at 2F, the image is also 2F.

Figure 1.42

The image of an object at 2f is;

- real.
- inverted,
-same size as the object.
NB: The minimum distance between an object and its image is equal to4f. It is found
when the
object is at 2f.

3. The object between f and 2f.

Figure 1.43

The image is;

- real
- inverted
- magnified.

4. Object at F

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Figure 1.44
When the object is at f, the rays from the object are parallel to each other and two
images are
formed; one behind the object, on the same side of the lens as and the other on the
other side of the
lens.

The image behind the object is:

- upright
- magnified
- virtual, but can be seen by the eye.

The image formed on the other side of the lens is;

- inverted.
- magnified
- real.
- it is at infinity (there is no fixed image distance)

5. Object between F and C.

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Figure 1.45
The image is;
virtual
upright
magnified.
When the object is between F and C, the convex lens is used as magnifying glass.

b. Lens formula
The position and the nature of an image of an object can be worked out using the
following lens formula:
1 / u +1 / v = 1 / f
When using this formula, f is positive (e.g. f = 6) when the lens is convex and it is
negative
(e.g. f = - 6) when the lens is concave.
When v is positive, the image is real, and when it is negative, the image is virtual.

Example;
An object is placed 20cm from
(a) a converging lens of focal length 15 cm
(b) Diverging lens of focal length 15cm as well.
Calculate (i) the image position
(ii) Magnification
(iii) The nature of the image.

Working out
1 / u +1 / v = 1 / f.
(a) u = 20 cm , f = 15 cm
1/ 20 + 1 / v = 1 / 15
1/v = 1/15 – 1/20
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1/v=4–3
60
1 / v =1/60
v = 60
Magnification =v / u
= 60 / 20
= 3
The image is;
- 60 cm from the lens
- real,
- magnified (three times as big as the object)
(b) u = 20 cm, f = - 15 cm.
 1 / 20 + 1 / v =1 / - 15
1 / v = 1 / -15 – (1 / 20
= - 4 -3
60
1/v = -7 / 60
So v = -60 / 7
=- 8.57cm
M= v/ u
8.57/ 20
= 0.43

The image is:

- 8. 57cm in front of the lens.
- virtual
- diminished. (0.43 times smaller than the object)

Exercise:
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1. An object 2 cm high stands on the principal axis at a distance of 9 cm from a convex

lens. If the focal length is 6cm, find
(i) the image position,
(ii) height and
(iii) nature of the image.

2. (a) An object 5 cm high is placed 20 cm away from a lens of focal length 8 cm. Find
the
position, height and the nature of the image by;
(i) scale drawing.
(i) calculation.

(b) If the object is moved to a point only 5 cm from the lens, what is the new position
height and
the nature of the image.

c. Experiment
To find the position and nature of an image experimentally, you focus the image of an
object on a screen with different object distances and note the image distances and the
nature of the images.

The following table summarizes the relationships between the object distance, image
distance and the nature of the images formed:
Object Image distance, v Nature of image
distance, u
At infinity F Real, Upside down and
diminished
At 2F At 2F Real, Upside down, same
size as the object.
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Between F and Beyond 2F Real, Upside down and

2F magnified
At F Two images are formed, one Image behind the lens is
behind the lens and the other Real, Upside down,
behind the object. both of them magnified
are at infinity. Image behind the object is
Virtual, upright and
magnified
Between F and Between F and 2F Virtual, Upright and
C magnified.
Table 1.6
Ways of finding the focal length of a convex lens:
There are different ways which are used to determine the focal lengths of lenses. Some
of them are as follows:
(i) - the distant object method
(ii) - the plane mirror method
(iii) - graph of u + v against u.
(iv) - the object and image distance method.

Activity 1.7
Aim: to determine the focal length of a lens using the distant object method.

Materials:
-1 metre rule,
- a lens
- a white screen (or a white wall)

Procedure
1. Focus the image of a distant object on a screen.
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2. Measure the distance between the screen and the lens, v.

Discussion
The light rays from a distant object are nearly parallel to each other and so when they
come out of the lens, they converge almost at the focal point. Therefore distance
between the lens and the screen is almost equal to the focal length of the lens.
.
Activity 1.8
Aim: to determine the focal length of a lens using the plane mirror method.

Materials:
-1 metre rule,
- a converging lens
- a white screen (or a white wall)
- a box with a small hole
- a torch
- plane mirror
- wire grid

Procedure
(i)- arrange an illuminated object, O, the lens and a mirror in a straight line as shown
below.

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Figure 1.46

An illuminated wire grid as shown in the figure below is a suitable object which can
be focused to give a sharp image.

Figure 1.47
(ii)- adjust the lens, until an inverted image is focused on the screen next to the object
as shown in figure 1.48 below.

Figure 1.48

iii- measure the distance between the lens and the screen.

Discussion
What is the distance between the lens and the screen?
When an object is at F how do the light rays come out on the other side of the lens?

Observation
When an object is placed F, the light rays come out parallel to each other on the other
side of the lens. These rays are reflected by the mirror. These reflected parallel rays
converge and form an image at F when they come out of the lens.
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Figure 1.49

The distance between the image and the lens is, therefore, equal to the focal length of
the lens because rays which are parallel to each other before entering the lens converge
at F when they come out of the lens.

Activity 1.9
Aim: to determine the focal length of a lens using the graph of u + v against u.

Materials:
-1 metre rule,
- a converging lens (of focal length 20 cm, for example)
- a white screen
- a candle
- matches

Procedure
(i) - light the candle.
(ii) - arrange the candle, (the object, O), the lens and the screen in a straight line.
(iii) - place candle 25 cm from the lens ( object distance between F and 2F).
(iv) - move the screen until a sharp is focused on the screen.
(v) - measure the image distance and record in the table of results.

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(vi) - repeat steps (iv) and (v) five times, each time increasing the object distance by
10 cm.

Object Image distance, u + v

distance, u v (cm)
(cm) (cm)

Table 1.7 (table of results)

(vii) - fill the column for u + v.
(viii) - plot the graph of u + v against u.

Discussion
What is the minimum of the graph?
What are the values of the image distance, u and the u + v at the minimum point of
the graph?
What is the relationship between;
(a) u at the minimum of the graph and the focal length of the graph?
(b) u + v at the minimum of the graph and the focal length of the graph?

Observation
The results of the experiment might be as following in table 1.7.

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Object Image distance, u + v

distance, u v (cm)
(cm) (cm)
25 77 102
35 47 82
45 36.5 81.5
55 33 88
65 28 93
75 26.5 101.5
Table 1.8
The graph of u against u + v drawn from the results of the experiment is shown in
Figure 1.50 and has a minimum point, M, which is reached when the object distance,
u = 40 cm and
u + v = 80 cm. Since the focal length, f, of the lens was 20 cm then u = 40 cm f = 2f
or
u + v = 80 cm = 4f 20 cm
20 cm
In general when the object is at 2f, u = 2f and u + v = 4f. Therefore, at the minimum
of the graph, f = u or f = u + v .
2 4

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Figure 1.50

Activity 1.10
Aim: to determine the focal length of a lens using the object and image distance
method.

Materials:
-1 metre rule,
- a converging lens
- a white screen
- a candle (or any illuminated object)
- matches

Procedure
(i) set up an illuminated object, a converging lens and a screen in a straight line as
shown in
figure 1.51 below.
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Figure 1.51
(ii) move the screen until a sharp, inverted image is focused on the screen.
(An illuminated wire grid is a suitable object which can be focused to give a sharp
image).

(iii) measure the object distance u, from the centre of the lens to the object and the
image
distance v, from the centre of the lens to the sharp image formed on the screen.
(iv) record the values of u and v in a table of results like the one below;

Object distance, Image distance, Focal length, f

u (cm) v (cm) (cm)

Table 1.9

(v). repeat the experiment for other values of u (such as 70cm, 60 cm, 50 cm and 40
cm) and
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measure the corresponding values of v.

Discussion
With the values of u and v, how can you use them to find the focal length of the lens?

Taking each pair of values of u and v, the focal length, f of the lens can be calculated
using the lens formula,1/u +1/v = 1/f. The average value of the different focal lengths
can then be worked out in order to minimize errors associated with the experiment.

Optical Instruments
There are different kinds of instruments which use light, called optical instrument.
Some of the instruments are the camera, the human eye, and the projector.

(i). The camera

A camera is light tight box in which a converging lens forms a real image on a film
(the screen).

Parts of a camera

Figure 1.52

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Functions of the parts of a camera:

a. The lens:
The lens focuses light from an object to form an image on the film. The image is real,
inverted, and smaller than the object. In some cameras the lens can be moved in or out
to make the focusing.

b. The shutter.
The shutter opens and shuts quickly to let a small amount of light into the camera.

c. The aperture.
This is a hole through which light passes into the camera.
The aperture controls the amount of light passing through the lens and onto the film.

d. Aperture diaphragm
This is a set of sliding plates between the lens and the film.
The aperture controls the size of the aperture. It becomes wider when light from the
object is not
enough and it is narrow when the light from the object is too bright. The aperture
together with the diaphragm is known as a stop.

Figure 1.53
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e. The film.
This a plate coated with light sensitive chemicals which are changed by different
shades and colours. It is always kept in the dark until the shutter opens.
When the film is processed these changes are fixed and the developed film can be used
to print a photograph.

Focusing
In cameras in which the lens is fixed, focusing is done by changing the object distance.
The photographer moves forward or backward until a clear image is focused. In other
cameras where the lens is not fixed, focusing is done by changing the positions of the
lens using the focusing ring. In this way both the image and the object distances
change. If the object is near, the lens is moved away from the film.

Figure 1.54

If the object is far away the lens is moved closer to the film.

Figure 1.55
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(ii). The human eye:

Parts of the eye

Figure 1.56

a. The cornea and the watery liquid;

The cornea is the curved window over the front of the eye.
The cornea and the watery liquid converge the light rays entering the eye.

b. The lens;
The lens is used to make focusing adjustments. It focuses the image on the retina by
using the ciliary muscles around it to change its shape. The process of focussing the
image on the lens is called accommodation. When the object moves closer to the eye,
the lens becomes thick. This shortens its focal length and the image stays in focus on
the retina. When the object moves away from the lens the lens becomes flattened to
make it focal length, f longer.

c. Iris and the pupil:

The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye by making the pupil bigger or
smaller.

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When light is not enough, the pupil becomes bigger, and when light is too bright it
becomes narrow.

d. The retina;
Retina is the screen at the back of the eye where the image is formed.

2.2 The nature of the image formed on the Retina:

The image formed on the retina is:
- real
- inverted.
- smaller than the object.

e. The optical nerve:

This is the nerve connected to the back of the eye.
The optical nerve passes the image formed on the retina to the brain.
The brain interprets the image formed on the retina and makes us see the object the
right way up.

Similarities between the eye and the camera

1. In both of them the image is formed on a light sensitive screen, on the retina in the
eye and on
the film in the camera.
2. Both use converging lenses.
3. Both are black inside.
4. Light entering in both of them is controlled; in the eye by the iris and by the aperture
diaphragm
in the camera and the shutter.

Differences between the camera and the eye

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The Eye The Camera

The focal length in the eye changes the focal length of the lens in the camera
is fixed
The eye has a fixed image distance (v) the image distance for the camera
changes
The eye is normally open the camera is normally closed, except
when a picture is taken
Table 1.20

3. The Projector:
A projector is an instrument that is used to enlarge an object and focus a real, upright
image on a screen.

3.1 Slide Projector

Figure 1.57

a. Object, O.
The object is the slide. It is placed upside down in the projector. In this way the image
is seen upright on the screen after being inverted by the focusing lens.

b. Focusing / projector lens.

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This is a lens of long focal length. It focuses the image on the screen. The image is;
real, larger than the object and inverted.

c. Bulb;
The bulb is used to illuminate the film.

d. Curved mirror;
This is situated at the back of the projector. Its function is to reflect the light rays that
are directed away back to the film.

e. Condenser lens:
This is a convex lens of short focal length. Its function is to converge and condense
light rays from the bulb and the reflected rays from the mirror on to the film.

3. 2. The Overhead projector

Figure 1.58
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a. The bulb:
The bulb illuminates the film (the transparency).

b. Curved mirror:
The curved mirror reflects lost light rays back onto the film.

c. Condenser lens:
The condensing lens converges and condenses light rays onto the transparency

d. Focusing lens:
The focusing lens focuses an image onto the plane mirror. The image formed on the
mirror is real, magnified and inverted.

e. The plane mirror:

The plane mirror reflects the image onto a screen. The image reflected by the mirror
onto the screen is real, upright and larger than the object.

Review questions;
1. a. What equation links speed, frequency and the wavelength of a wave?

b. The wave crests seen in a ripple tank are 10 mm apart and the frequency of the
vibrator is
20 Hz. What is the wave speed?

2. a.(i) How can waves in a ripple tank be made to move more slowly?
(ii) When the waves are made to move slowly, what is the effect on;
(1) Frequency
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(2) Wavelength.
b. One side of a ripple tank ABCD is raised slightly and a ripple is started at S by a
pencil.
One second later the shape of the of the ripple is as shown below;

Figure 1.59

(i) Why is the ripple not circular?

(ii) Which side of the ripple tank is raised?

3. The straight lines in the figure below are crests of straight ripples (waves)

5 cm

A B C D E F

Figure 1.60

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(a) What is the wavelength of the waves?

(b) If ripple A occupied, 5 seconds ago, the position now occupied by ripple F, What
is the
frequency of the waves?
(c) What is the speed of the wave?

4. Waves are set across a pond and a small floating object goes up and down 5 times
in 10 seconds.
If the wave crests are 30 cm apart, calculate the speed of the wave.

5. Copy the figure below and show on it what happens to the waves as they pass
through the gap, if the water is much shallower on the right than on the left.

Figure 1.62

10. A small upright object is placed well outside the focal point of a convex lens:

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(a) Draw a ray diagram to show how the image is formed and say whether the image
is real or
virtual.
(b) What is the effect on the size of the image if the object is moved towards the lens?

11. Describe how you could find the focal length of a convex lens more accurately.

12. A lens of focal length 20 cm is used to magnify an object 10 times. How far must
the object be placed from the lens?

13. A convex lens of focal length 6 cm is held 4 cm from a newspaper which has a
print of 0.5 cm high. Determine the size and the nature of the image produced by: (i)
calculation
(ii) scale drawing
14. a. Where is the image formed in; (i) the eye.
(ii) the camera
b. An object is moved closer to eye and to the camera, what changes must take place
in
(i) The camera (ii) the human eye, so that the image is sharp in focus.

c. How is the amount of light entering the eye controlled?

d. Give two similarities and two differences between a camera and the human eye.

15. A camera has a lens of focal length 4 cm. How far from the film must it be
positioned if it is to form a sharply focused image of a distant object?

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2. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY II

Isomerism
Definition
Isomerism means the existence of compounds with the same formula but different
structures.
The compounds with the same chemical formula but different structures are known as
isomers.
For example the following are isomers;

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Types of formulas
The following three types of formulas are used in the study of organic chemistry.

a. Molecular Formula:
This is a formula which shows the number of atoms in a molecule. E.g. C4H10

b. Structural formula
The formula which shows how atoms are joined in a molecule is known as a structural
formula or just the structure.
E. g

c. Condensed structural formula.

This is the formula in which the separate bonds in each unit are not written. Eg.
CH3 – CH2 – CH3

Isomers and Conformations:

Conformations are molecules with the same molecular formulae and structural
formulae. All molecules with the same molecular formula but appear to have different
structures due to turning, bending, or twisting of the carbon -carbon (C – C) bonds in
the same molecule are called conformations of each other.

Identifying Isomers and Conformations:

Sometimes it is not easy to tell whether structures are isomers or conformations when
the structure is drawn in full and when the structure is large. In such situations the
following methods may assist in identifying isomers and conformations.

a. Working out the carbon skeleton first.

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The carbon skeleton is the basic structure of a molecule which shows the carbon atoms
only.
The carbon skeleton enables us to see the important points about the structure of the
molecule.
For example, the following carbon structures represent conformations, because in all
of them it is only the carbon – carbon bonds that have been bent or twisted.

However, the following are isomers because the carbon chains have branches:

b. Naming the compounds.

Isomers have the same molecular formula but different names while conformations
have the same molecular formulae and names. For example, the following are
conformations of a compound with the molecular formula C6H12;

How to name isomers

Knowing how to name isomers is very important because it’s one which can help us
to tell whether two compounds are isomers or conformations. The isomers are named
systematically as follows

i. Naming isomers due to the existence branches in the carbon chains

Consider the following;
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To come up with the name of this isomer;

a. Write down the carbon skeleton for each molecule.

b. Number the longest carbon chain (the parent chain);

Numbering starts from the end of the longest chain nearest the first branch.

The longest chain is named after the unbranched organic compound with the same
number of
carbon atoms.
For example, the longest chain in the compound above is pentane.

c. Name the group that is attached to the longest chain. These groups are called alkyl
groups.
Some of the alkyl groups are shown in table 2.1 below:

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Table 2.1

d. Give the positions on the carbon chain of any group attached. The numbering of the
carbon atoms in the parent chain can start from any end of the chain provided the
number given to the carbon atom to which the alkyl group is attached is the lowest
possible. For example, the name for the following compounds is 2-methyl pentane

If more than one alkyl group is attached to the parent chain, the numbers indicating
the positions of the branches are written before the alkyl group. The numbers of the
alkyl groups with the same number of carbon atoms which are attached to the same
carbon atom in the parent chain are indicated by prefixes di-, tri or tetra to mean two,
three or four alkyl groups respectively. For example, the name for the following
isomer is 2, 2 – dimethyl butane.

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Properties of branched isomers:

a. They have lower melting and boiling points than the straight chain isomers. This is
because the branches make it difficult for the molecules to get close and attract each
other more strongly.
b. They burn less easily.

Example
Draw and name the structures of all the isomers of the organic compound with the
molecular formula C7 H16.

Working out
Refer table 2.2 below

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Table 2.2

Straight single bonded carbon – carbon isomers

The straight chain isomers are referred to as normal isomers. The names of these
straight chain isomers start with the prefix ‘n -’ which stands for normal.
E. g. C–C–C–C–C
n - pentane

Exercise

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1. Draw and name all the isomers of the organic compounds with the formula
(a) C5H12
(b) C4H10
(c) C9H20

2. The following are the names of the organic compounds with the molecular formula
C8H18. Draw the structure for each name given.
(a) n- octane
(b) 2- methyl heptane
(c) 3 - methyl heptanes
(d) 2, 2- dimethyl hexane
(e) 3, 3- dimethyl hexane
(f) 2,3 - dimethyl hexane
(g) 2,4dimethyl hexane
(h) 3- ethyl hexane
(i) 3- ethyl,3-methyl pentane

3. The following are structures of the compounds with the molecular formula C 6H14.
(i) Name the compounds.
(ii) Identify any compounds that are conformations of each other

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ii. Positional isomers

Isomerism can also occur due to the position of hetero atoms or the position of the
functional groups such as the double bond or the -OH group.

a. Isomerism due to the position of hetero atoms

Hetero atom is any atom apart from the carbon, the hydrogen or oxygen atoms in an
organic compound molecule. The hetero atoms are usually the halogen atoms.
E. g.

To name the isomers with hetero atoms,

(a) Number the longest carbon chain,
(b) Identify the halogen atom attached to the longest chain.
(c) Name the hetero atom attached as follows:

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The Halogen Name

atom
Chlorine Chloro -
Fluorine Fluoro -
Bromine Bromo -
Iodine Iodo -
Table 2.3
(d) Write down the name with the number indicating the carbon to which the hetero
atom attached in front of the name as follows;

2, 3 – di bromo pentane.

Exercise
1. Draw the structures of
a. 1- chlorohexane
b.3, 4-dichloropentane

2. Name the following organic compounds

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b. Isomerism due to the position of a double bond

Organic compounds with a carbon-carbon double bond (C = C) belong to the alkene
family. The alkenes with the same molecular formulae but different positions of the
double bonds in the molecules have different names and therefore are isomers. For
example, the following compounds are isomers.

To name the isomers with double bonds;

a. Write down the carbon skeleton for each structure and number the longest carbon
chain that contains the double bond, starting from the end that will give the smallest

number to the first carbon atom attached to the double bond as follows

b. Write down the name of the compound with the position of the double bond written
before the suffix – ene. Therefore, the name of this isomer C – C = C – C – C is but
– 2 – ene.

Example
Draw and name all the isomers of compounds with the formula C6H12.

Working out

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The isomers of the compounds with the formula C6H12 are as follows;

Exercise:
1. Draw the structures and write down the names of all the isomers of the alkenes with
the following molecular formulas;
(a) C7H14
(b) C9H18

c.Isomers due different positions of an -OH group

The position of the -OH group in organic compounds significant as it affects the
physical properties of the compounds. The compounds with the same molecular
formula but different positions of the –OH are, therefore, isomers. To name the
isomers due to positions of the –OH groups the following procedure is followed.

a. The position of the –OH group is indicated by a number. The numbering of the
longest carbon chain which contains the –OH group is done in such a way that the
carbon atom to which the
– OH group is attached has the lowest number possible.

c. Write down the name of the compound, considering the total number of the carbon
atoms in the molecule, with the number of the carbon atom to which the –OH group
is attached written in front of the name before the suffix - ol.
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Example
Name the organic compound, whose formula is C5H11OH.

Working out
The carbon skeleton with numbered carbon atoms is as follows;

The name of this compound is butan – 2 – ol.

Exercise
1. Draw the structures and name all the isomers of the alkanols with the following
molecular formulas;
(a) C3H7OH
(b) C4H9OH
(c) C8H17OH
(d) C5H11OH.

2. a. Name the following compounds;

b. Which two structures represent conformations in question 2.a above?

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iii. Isomers due to different functional groups;

Isomerism can also take place when organic compounds with different functional
groups have the same molecular formula as follows;

a. Cycloalkanes and alkenes

Cycloalkanes are organic compounds with rings of carbon atoms that are bonded to
each other by single bonds.
e. g. H H H H

H C C H or H C C H

C H C C H

H H H H

cyclopropane cyclobutane

The names of cycloalkanes start with the prefix ‘Cyclo -’ followed by the name of an
alkane with the same number of carbon atoms.
The examples of the isomers of alkenes and cycloalkanes are as shown in the
following table:

Formula Isomer/ Name

C3H6
CH2 = CH – CH3 CH2 CH2
Propene
CH2
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cyclopropane

C4H8 CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH3 CH2 CH2

butan -1 - ene

CH2 CH2
CH3 – CH = CH – CH3 cyclobutane
butan - 2 - ene

CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 CH2 = C – CH2 – CH3

pentan - 1 - ene
C5 H10 CH3
CH3 – CH = CH – CH2 – CH3 2-methyl butan - 2 - ene CH2
CH2
pentan - 2 – ene
CH2 = CH – CH – CH3
CH3 – C = CH2 – CH3 CH2
CH2
CH3
CH3 CH2
2-methyl butan -2 - ene. 3-methyl butan - 1 - ene
cyclopentane
Table 2.4
Exercise;
1. Write down and name 6 isomers of an organic compound with the molecular
formula C5H10

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b. Alkanols and ethers

An ether is an organic compound that contains an oxygen atom bonded to two
hydrocarbon groups as follows; CH3 – O – CH3
To name an ether, the hydrocarbon, before the oxygen atom is regarded as an alkoxy
group and is added to the alkane after the oxygen atom. Consider the following table
of some ethers and their names;

Ether Name
methoxymethane
CH3 – O – CH3

CH3–CH2 – O– CH2–CH3 Ethoxyethane

CH3– O– CH2–CH3 methoxyethane

CH3–CH2 – O–CH3 ethoxymethane

CH3–CH2 – O– CH2–CH2– ethoxypropane

CH3

Table 2.5
Some of the isomers of alkanols and ethers are as follows;
Formula Isomers/ Name

C2H5OH or CH3 – CH2 – OH CH3 – O – CH3

C2H6O ethanol methoxymethane

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CH3–CH2–CH2–OH CH3–CH2 – O–CH3

C3H8O propan – 1 – ol ethoxymethane

CH3– CH– CH3 CH3– O– CH2–

CH3

methoxyethane
OH
propan – 2 – ol

Table 2.5

Exercise
1. Draw and name seven isomers with the molecular formula C4H10O or C4H9OH
2. Draw and name eleven isomers with the molecular formula C5H12O or C5H11OH

Polymerisation
Definition
Polymerisation is the process of joining small molecules to form long-chain molecules
called polymers. The small molecules which join together to form the long-chain
molecules are called monomers.
E. g.

or

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n stands for a large number of the monomers.

Types of Polymerisation reactions

There are two types of polymerisation reactions; addition polymerisation and
condensation polymerisation.

(i.) The Addition polymerisation:

This is the polymerisation which involves repeated addition reactions of similar
monomers.
The monomers used in addition polymerisation are unsaturated ones,(with double
bonds) usually alkenes such as ethene or derivatives of alkenes such as chloroethene.

Examples of addition polymerisation;

or

Most addition polymerisation reactions are synthetic (artificial) and are used in
industries to produce the plastics.

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(ii). Condensation polymerisation.

This is the polymerisation where a small molecule is released during the reaction.
Condensation polymerisation usually involves two different monomers, each of which
contains two similar functional groups. Examples of condensation polymerisation
reactions:

a. Formation of nylon;
(i) The two monomers involved;

(ii) The reaction:

Part of the final polymer s as follows;

The linking groups of atoms are called ‘amide link’ because the -CONH is also present
in the functional group of the amides which is –CONH2. Therefore nylon is a
polyamide because the linking groups of atoms in the polymer are amides.
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b. Formation of terylene
(i) The two monomers involved;

(ii) The reaction;

(iii)Part of the final polymer:

(iv) Terylene is polyester because the linking groups of atoms in the polymer are
esters.

3. The Natural polymers:

Polymer Monomer Where it is Use

found

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Protein amino acids Wool, silk, -To store amino acids,

muscles -To build body tissues
and hair

Starch Glucose Potatoes, To store glucose

(carbohydrate) wheat, wood

DNA Nucleotides Chromosomes, -To control protein

(Deoxyribonucleic genes synthesis in the body,
acid) -To control
characteristics of
individuals

Fats ( poly esters) Fatty acids Animal tissues -To store fatty acids
and glycerol and glycerol .

Rubber 2 – methyl Tree’s sap For making car tyres.

but- 1,3 –
diene.

Cellulose Glucose Walls of plant Cellulose from wood is

cells used to make paper,
cotton is used to make
clothing.

Table 2.6

Advantage of the natural Polymers:

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They are all biodegradable, so they do not cause disposal problems.

The disadvantage
They cannot be produced synthetically.

Synthetic polymers:
Synthetic polymers are normally referred to as plastics. Synthetic polymers are the
polymers that are produced artificially.

Properties and uses of some Plastics:

Polymer monomer Properties Uses

Poly ethene Ethene CH2=CH2 Tough , durable Carrier bags,
buckets,
bowls
Poly propene CH3 C=CH2 Tough, durable Ropes,
Packaging
PVC CHloroethene, Strong, hard, Pipes, electrical
(CH2=CHCl) Less flexible than insulation
polythene
Poly CH2=CF2 Non stick surface, Non stick frying
tetrafluoroethane (Tetrafluoroethene) Withstands high pans,
(PTFE) temperatures Soles of iron.
Polystrene CH2=CHC6H5 Light poor Insulation,
(Styrene) conductor of heat. packaging,

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Radio cabinets,
pot handles.
Perspex CH2=C(COCH3)CH3 Transparent Used as a glass
substitute,
lenses.

Table 2.7

Advantages of plastics:
- Cheap to produce.
- Resistant to acids, alkalis (i.e. bases), air and water.
- They adaptable i. e they can be varied according to what they are used for.

Disadvantages of plastics:
- They cause disposal problems because most of them are not readily biodegradable.
- They are expensive to recycle.
- Some give toxic gases when they burn. For example, some plastics on burning give
off hydrogen cyanide gas which can kill human beings.

Types of plastics:

Activity: 2.1

Aim: To identify types of plastics

Materials:
- a piece of formica (or a piece of broken electric switch or socket),
- plastic ball point pen case,
- fire
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- tongs.

Procedure:
1. Hold the piece of formica with the tongs over the fire.
2. Record your observations in a table like the one shown in table.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 with a ball point pen case.

Object being Observation

heated
Formica

Plastic ballpoint
pen case

Table 2.8
Discussion
What happened to each of the objects when heated?

Observation
The formica does not become soft when heated while the plastic ball point pen
becomes soft when heated. This is because there are two types of plastics depending
on how they respond to heat. There are those that become soft and melt on being
heated and those that do not melt on being heated. These two types of the plastics are;
(a) thermoplastic polymers
(b) thermosetting plastics.

(a) Thermoplastic polymers.

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Thermoplastics are plastics which melt or soften when heated and harden into new
shape when cooling. This is because the forces of attraction between the thermosetting
plastic polymer chains are weak and there are no cross links between them.

Figure 2.1
Examples of thermoplastics are; polythene, PVC, polystyrene, e t c. Thermoplastics
are also called thermo softening plastics

Properties and characteristics of thermoplastics

Properties characteristics
They are flexible They do not break easily.
They have no cross links -They stretch under tension
because the molecules are sliding
over one another
- They can be moulded into new
shapes after they are made.
They melt at low They are soft
temperatures

Table 2.9

(b) Thermosetting plastics (or thermo sets);

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These are plastics which set hard and cannot be melted again once they are made. This
is because the polymers are held together very strongly due the presence of cross links
between the polymer chains in the thermosetting plastics as shown in figure 2.3 below.

Figure 2.3

Examples of the thermosetting plastics are; electric plugs, ash trays, melamine plates,
formica etc.

Properties and characteristics of thermosetting plastics

Properties characteristics

They are rigid They break other than stretch when

under tension.
They do have cross links - They cannot be moulded into new
shapes after they are made.
They do not melt They break down at high
temperatures

Table 2.10

Waste Management of polymers

Paper and plastics can be disposed off by in following ways;
1. Recycling
2. Burning

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3. Incineration
4. Burying in the soil
5. Paper can also be disposed off by making fire briquettes
6. Photodegradable plastics can be disposed off by exposing them to sunlight.
7. Plastics which dissolve in water such as persil capsules can be disposed off by
exposing them to
water.

Importance of recycling polymers

Recycling is the best way of disposing off polymers because of the following reasons;
(i) It serves as raw materials for making new products hence it reduces expenses.
(ii) It cuts down need for mining and further extraction of raw materials hence there
is less damage to the environment

Review questions
1. Draw the structure of the organic compounds with the following names:
(i) 3 propyl octan – 3 – ol.
(ii) 2 ethyl hex -2 - ene.

2. Study the structures of organic compounds A, B and C.

(a) Name compound B.

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(b) To which family does C belong?

(c) Write two isomers of compound A.

(d) Briefly explain how you could distinguish a sample C from A.

3. a. Name one use of each of the following polymers;

(i) Plastic
(ii) Carbohydrate
(iii) Polystyrene (polystyrene)
b. State two ways of disposing plastics to avoid polluting the environment.
c. The following are structural formulae of four molecules with the molecular formula
C4H8

(i) Name molecules 1 and 2.

(ii) Which two structures are isomers if each other?
4. The following are structures of some organic compounds:

(a) Name compound A.

(b) Which one of the compounds A and E would have lower boiling point? Give a
reason.
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(c) Compound D is a monomer. Write an equation to show its polymerisation.

(d) Give one use of the substance formed in the polymerisation of compound B.
(e) What is the state of D at room temperature?
(f) Describe the test that could be done to distinguish the compounds D and E.
(g) Write the isomers of substance A.
(j) Give two advantages of thermoplastics.

5. a. Draw al the structural isomers of a compound with the formula C6H12.

b. Polymerization of ethene can be represented by the following equation:

(i) Name the polymerization represented by the equation.

(ii) Describe how the polymer is formed from the ethene molecules.
(iii) Give three examples of artificial polymers.

c. (i) Give three differences between thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers.

(ii) Give three advantages of plastic polymers materials over metallic materials.

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3. ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

II

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Electronics
Definition
Electronics is the branch of science which is concerned with the development of tiny
electrical circuits and the devices that use these circuits.

Band Theory
In a single atom each electron occupies a specific energy level. But in blocks of solids,
such as metals, the atoms are very close together and the energy levels fuse into bands
which are shared by all the atoms. Each band contains allowed energy levels. The
outermost band is called the conduction band. The band next to the conduction band
is the valence band. The bands have gaps between them that represent energies which
the electrons cannot have. These gaps are called forbidden bands. All the energies
below the conduction band are full.

Figure 3.1

Electrical conduction by solids

Solids are grouped into three groups depending on their conductivities for electricity
or heat. These groups are conductors, semiconductors and insulators (or non
conductors)

(i) Conductors
In conductors such as metals, the gap between the conduction band and the valence
band is very small. As such, electrons are able to move freely between valence band
and the conduction band.

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Figure 3.2

Any Pd (voltage) across the metal makes the electrons flow in one direction (causing
an electric current).

(ii) Semiconductors;
In semiconductors, such as silicon, there is a bigger energy gap between the valence
band and the conduction band.

Figure 3.3
In the semiconductors, electrons must receive extra energy to be able to jump into the
conduction band. The electrons may get this energy from heat or from an electric field.
When the temperature of the semiconductor increases, more electrons from the
valence band get enough energy and can jump into the conduction band, leaving holes
(gaps) in the valence band. When a Pd is applied across the semiconductor, the
electrons in the conduction band and the gaps in the valence band contribute to the
flow of an electric current. The gaps behave as positive charge carriers. The
semiconductors are not good conductors of electricity and heat because it needs extra
energy to move the electrons from the valence band into the conduction band. When
the temperature of a semiconductor is low, its conductivity decreases and the
resistance increases. At low temperatures semiconductors behave as insulators.
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(iii) Insulators:
In the insulators, the gaps between the valence band and the conduction band are too
big as shown in figure below.

Figure 3.4
In the insulators, the electrons in the valence band cannot get enough energy to jump
across the forbidden gap into the conduction band. As such no current can flow
through the insulators.

The Semiconductors:
Semiconductors are materials which partially conduct electricity. In the
semiconductors electricity is conducted by;
- flow of the electrons (negative charges)
- motion of the gaps (positive charges)

Types of semiconductors;

(a) Intrinsic semiconductors:

The materials which are naturally semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors.
Examples of intrinsic semiconductors include silicon and germanium. The
conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors can be improved by adding to them small,
controlled amounts of atoms of other substances known as impurities. The process of
adding the small but controlled amounts of impurities into intrinsic semiconductors is
called ‘doping’.
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(b) Extrinsic semiconductors;

These are semiconductors that are made by doping intrinsic semiconductors. There
are two kinds of extrinsic semiconductors depending on whether the atoms of the
doping impurities had more electrons in the valence bands or had less number of
electrons in the valence band than the intrinsic semiconductor. These extrinsic
semiconductors are;
(i) n – type semiconductors
(ii) p – type semiconductors.

(i) The n – type semiconductor:

This is an extrinsic semiconductor made by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with
atoms which have more electrons in the valence band than in the valence band of the
intrinsic semiconductor. This adds some electrons, (negative charge carriers) in the
valence band. For example, doping silicon, which is an intrinsic semiconductor with
4 valence electrons, with phosphorus which has 5 valence electrons;

Figure 3.5

The extra electrons go into the conduction band and they are free to move through the
material.
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In the extrinsic semiconductors the conductivity is improved;

- because there are now more electrons in the conduction band.
- because of the gaps in the valence band.

(ii) The p- type semiconductors;

A p – type semiconductor is a semiconductor made by doping an intrinsic
semiconductor with an atom which has less number of electrons in the valence shell
than in the valence shell of the intrinsic semiconductor.
For example, doping silicon, which has 4 valence electrons, with boron, which has 3
valence electrons;

Figure 3.6

This increases the number of gaps in the valence band. Electricity flows;
(a) - when the gaps move or
(b) - when the electrons which have jumped into the conduction band flow.

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P – n junction semiconductor:
This is the semiconductor made by doping an intrinsic semiconductor in such a way
that one end is p – type and the other end is n – type. At the junction, electrons from
the n – type side move to fill the gaps in the p type side.

Figure 3.7

The movement of the electrons from the n – type side to the p – type side makes the
p-type side to become negatively charged and the n – type side to be positively
charged. The charge movement takes place within a small layer at the junction. This
layer is known as a depletion layer. In this layer all the free electrons on the n – type
side and the holes on the p – type side have been lost and the negative charges and the
positive charges have been built on the opposite ends.

Figure 3.8

The depletion layer behaves like pure silicon with high resistance. Once the charges
have built on the opposite sides of the layer, any further movement of the electrons
across the boundary from the n – type side is repelled by the electrons already in the

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p – type side. Similarly the positive charge carriers (the holes) will be repelled by the
holes already in the n – type side.

How the p – n junction semiconductor works

Activity: 3.1
Aim: To investigate how a p-n junction diode works.
Materials:
- a diode (from an old radio)
- connecting wires
- a torch bulb,
- bulb holder,
- cells
- a switch.
Procedure: (i) Connect a circuit as shown below;

Figure 3.9
(ii) Close the switch and observe the bulb.
(iii) Switch off and reverse the diode so that the terminal near the band is
connected to
the positive terminal.
(iv) Close the switch and observe the bulb.
(v) Repeat steps (i) to (iv) three or four times.
Discussion:
In which connection of the diode does the bulb give light?

Observation
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The diode is a p-n junction semiconductor. The side with the band is the n – type side
and the terminal near the band is the negative (-) terminal. The other end of the diode
is p – type and it is the positive (+) terminal. The bulb gives light, only when, the
negative terminal of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the cell. The
diode can be operated in one of the following two ways;
- reverse biased or
- forward biased.

(a) Reverse Biased:

The p – n junction semiconductor is said to be reverse biased when it is connected to
a battery or a cell in such a way that no current can flow through it as shown below.

Figure 3.10

When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p – type side of the
semiconductor, the layer the layer of the negative charges in the p – type side in the
depletion layer, repels the electrons from the negative terminal of the battery. This
prevents the electrons from flowing and no current flows.

(b) Forward Biased:

The p – n junction semiconductor is said to be forward biased when its p – type end is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery so that current flows through it as
shown below;

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Figure 3.11

When the positive terminal of the power supply is connected to the p type end of the
of the p – n junction semiconductor, the extra electrons in the p – type end attracted
by the positive terminal of the power supply and so more electrons from the n – type
side are able to move across the boundary into the p – type side and so the current
flows.

Diodes:
A diode is a device that allows current to pass through it in one direction only. Its
symbol is as follows:

Figure 3.12
And its diagram is as follows;

Figure 3.13

A diode is forward biased when its negative terminal is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery as follows;

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forward biased

Figure 3.14
It is reverse biased when its negative terminal is connected to the positive terminal of
the battery as follows:

reverse biased

Figure 3.15

Uses of Diodes
Diodes are used to change current from an a c to d c. The process of changing ac to
dc is known as rectification. The devices that change ac to dc are called rectifiers and
the circuit that is used to change ac to dc is known as rectifier circuit. So the diodes
are used as rectifiers.

Rectification:
There are two ways of rectifying currents;
(a) Half wave rectification.
(b) Full wave rectification

(a) The half wave rectification

An ac voltage supply changes terminals periodically (from + to – to + to – and so on)
and so the current direction also changes in the same way and its graph is as follows;
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Figure 3.16
If a diode is connected in a circuit in series as shown below;

Figure 3.17

When A is positive, the diode is forward biased and current will flow through it. When
B becomes positive, the diode is reverse biased and current will not flow through it.
This means the current flows in the circuit for only one half of the cycle and it is zero
for the other half as shown below;

Rectification with one diode.

Figure 3.18
Half wave rectification is, therefore, the process of changing a c to d c which results
in current flowing through the circuit for only one half of the cycle. The circuit that is
used to bring about half wave rectification is known as a half wave circuit.

(b) Full wave rectification

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Full wave rectification is the process of changing ac to dc where current flows through
the circuit in both halves of the cycle. There are two ways of achieving full wave
rectification;
(i) centre-tap full wave rectification and
(ii) bridge rectification.

(i) centre-tap full wave rectification.

The centre – tap full wave rectification uses two diodes and a transformer with centre
tap secondary coil.

Figure 3.19
When A is positive, with respect to O, and C is negative, D1 is forward biased and D2
is reverse biased. Current flows in the circuit A, D1, B, R (entering at a, and leaving
at b), OA. When C is positive with respect to O, A is negative and D 2 is forward-
biased. Current flows through C, D2, B, R (entering at a, and leaving at b), OC. D1 is
now reverse- biased. In both halves of the cycle, current flows in the same direction
through the load R and a fluctuating direct output current flows through R as follows:

Figure 3.20
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The disadvantage of the centre tap rectification is that the output power is half of the
input power because it uses half of the transformer.

(ii) The bridge Rectifier:

In the bridge rectifier, the four diodes are arranged in a bridge network as follows:

Figure 3.21

When A is positive, D1 and D3 are forward biased while D2 and D4 are reverse-biased.
Current will flow from A, to D1, to the bulb (entering at a and leaving at b), to D3, and
to B.

When B is positive, D2 and D4 are forward biased while D1 and D3 are reverse- biased.
This time the current will flow from B, to D2, to the bulb (entering at a and leaving at
b), to D4, and to A.

In both halves of the cycle, a fluctuating direct output current flows through the bulb
in the same direction. The current through the bulb will be as follows;

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Figure 3.22

Smoothing the Rectified current

To make the fluctuating direct output current smooth , a large capacitor, called a
reservoir capacitor, C, is connected in parallel with the appliance, such as the bulb, in
this case as shown below.

Figure 3.23

The rectified input p.d causes the current to flow through the bulb and at the same
time the capacitor, C, becomes charged to the maximum value of the input p.d. When
the input pd begins to fall ,as the terminals A and B are exchanging polarities, from
positive to negative and from negative to positive respectively, the capacitor, C, starts
to discharge. It cannot do so through the rectifier since the diodes are reverse biased,
but it does through the bulb and thus maintains current flow. The total output current
through the bulb will be as follows;

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Figure 3.24

The effect of the bridge rectifier and the capacitor is that the current through the
appliance is direct and it does not fall to zero.

Application of Rectifiers
Rectifiers are used in radio receivers if the radio is connected to an a.c. power source.

Transistors:
A transistor is a small semiconductor made by joining three semiconductors together.

Figure 3.25

There are two types of transistors; the p-n-p transistor and the n-p-n transistor. Each
transistor has three terminals (connections); the collector, c, the base, b, and the
emitter, e. The base is the connection to the central slice and the emitter is the
connection with an arrow. The symbols for the two types of the transistors are similar
but the arrows point in different directions. In a p-n-p transistor, the arrow points
towards the emitter while in an n-p-n transistor the arrow points away from the
emitter.
The arrows point in the direction of the flow of current. They always point to the
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n-type semiconductor. The two types of the transistors are as follows:

a. The p-n-p transistor:

In the p-n-p transistor, the n – type semiconductor is in between two p– type
semiconductors as follows:

Figure 3.26

b. The n-p-n transistor:

In the n-p-n transistor the p – type semiconductor is sand witched between two n –
type semiconductors as shown below:

Figure 3.27

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How transistors work:

Activity: 3.2

Aim: To investigate how transistors work.

Materials:
- 3 ammeters
- a 1000 Ω resistors
- a transistor (from an old radio)
- 8 connecting wires
- 2 dry cells
Procedure:
(i) Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 3.28 below

Figure 3.28

(ii) Close the switch and record the ammeter readings.

(iii) Open the switch so that there is a break in the circuit to the base.
(iv) Note and record the readings of A2 and A3.
(v) Repeat steps (i) to (iv) and record your observations in a table as the one shown
in table 3.1.

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Switch Reading of Reading of A2 Reading of A3

( open/ A1 (A) (A) (A)
closed)
closed
open

Table 3.1

Discussion
How do the reading of A1, A2 and A3 compare when the switch is closed?
What happens to bulb A2 and A3 when the switch is open?
Explain the observations made above.

Observations
Ammeters A1, A2 and A3 show some readings when the switch is closed. But the
when the switch is open all the ammeters do not show any reading, which means that
no current is flowing through the ammeters A2 and A3 although their circuit is
complete. We also observe that the reading of A1 is smaller is smaller than that of A2
and A3 and the reading of A1 + the reading of A2 = the reading of A3.
These observations show that a small current through ammeter A1 causes a large
currents to flow through A2 and A3. The ammeters A1 and A2 are connected in two
different circuits which are connected to the same transistor. These two circuits are;
(i) base emitter circuit IB.
(ii) emitter collector ( via base ) circuit, IC.

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Figure 3.29
The current through the base emitter path (IB) switches on the current through the
emitter collector path (IC). If IB is switched off current cannot flow through the emitter
collector path and so IC = 0. This because one of the p-n junction diodes becomes
reverse biased as shown in figure 3.30 below.

Figure 3.30

When a small current flows through the base- emitter path, current begins to flow in
the collector- emitter path. This means a small current in the base- emitter path causes
a large current in the collector- emitter path and the emitter current, IE is greatly
increased since. IE = IB + IC. To operate the transistor the base emitter path must be
connected so that the base emitter junction is forward biased, i. e p – type end of the
diode is connected to the positive terminal of the power supply. There are two ways
of connecting circuits to a transistor:

i. Common emitter circuits:

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This is a connection where both the base emitter and the collector emitter circuits are
joined to the emitter.

n-p-n common - emitter p-n-p common - emitter

circuit circuit

Figure 3.31(b) Figure 3.31 (b)

In the common - emitter circuit, a small power supply is needed in the base emitter
path so that the base emitter junction is forward biased and current flows through it.

ii. Common collector circuits:

The common collector circuit connection is the connection where both base – emitter
and the collector – emitter circuits are joined to the collector. In the common collector
circuits, the same power supply which is in the collector- emitter path provides the
small current in the base-collector path which switches on the current in the collector
– emitter path.

n-p-n common collector p-n-p common collector

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circuit circuit

Figure 3.32(a) Figure 3.32 (b)

Exercise
Draw the diagrams in figures 3.31 (a) and 3.31(b) using the appropriate symbols for
the transistors.

Uses of transistors:
(i) As a switch:
The changes in the base current can turn on and off the current in the collector emitter
path.

(ii) As an amplifier:
A small change in the base current produces large changes in the collector current.

Review questions:
1. I the figure below is a bridge rectifier;

Figure 3.33

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a. The four diodes D1 to D4 make up a bridge rectifier. By considering one complete

cycle of an alternating voltage explain how the bridge rectifier performs its task. You
may begin as follows
‘During the first half of the cycle, current flows through….’
b. What is the purpose of the capacitor, C?
c. Draw a graph representing the flow of current through the resistor, R;
(i) When the capacitor is removed.
(ii) When the capacitor is connected.

2. a. Draw a circuit showing the use of a diode in a half –wave rectifier circuit.
b. Sketch graphs representing the input and the output currents.

3. The figure below shows a p-n junction diode in series with a small bulb.

Figure 3.34
a. (i) Copy and complete the diagram to show how a battery should be connected so
that the diode
is forward biased.
(ii) What would be the effect on the light bulb?
b. Redraw the diagram using the appropriate circuit for the diode.
c. What would be the effect of reversing the battery connection?

3. a. Draw a graph to show the effect of half wave rectification of an alternating

current.
b. Draw a circuit which could be used to produce a half wave rectification.
c. What would be the effect of connecting a large capacitor across the load?

4. Study the figure below:

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Figure 3.35
a. Redraw the figure using the appropriate symbol for the n-p-n junction transistor.
Mark on your
diagram the emitter, E, the base, B, and the collector, C of the transistor.
b. What does the arrow on the transistor symbol represent?

5. The figure below shows two ways of connecting a p-n junction diode

Figure 3.36a Figure 3.36 b

In which circuit will the current not flow? Why?

6. The figure below shows an n-p-n transistor;

Figure 3.37

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Complete the diagram by showing the connections of two batteries suitable for
connecting the transistor in the common-emitter mode.

7. The figure below shows an incomplete circuit diagram for full wave rectification of
an ac current.

Figure 3.38

Complete the diagram by inserting the diode symbols so that the rectified current
passes through R in the direction shown by the arrow.

8. a. Draw a circuit diagram of a p-n-p transistor operating in the common emitter

mode. Indicate
on the diagram the directions of collector current, I C, the base current IB and the
emitter
current, IE.

b. Write the equation connecting the quantities IC, IB and the IE

4. CHEMICAL REACTIONS II

Electron transfer reactions

Activity: 4.1

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Aim: To find out what happens when an iron nail is dipped into a copper sulphate
solution.

Materials:
- a clean 2 inch iron nail,
- copper sulphate solution
- a 25 ml beaker

Procedure:
(i) Pour the copper sulphate solution into the beaker.
(ii) Dip one the iron nail into a copper sulphate solution and leave it there for about 3
minutes.
(iii) After 3 minutes remove the nail from the solution and observe it.

Discussion
What happened to the nail when it was dipped into the solution?
Explain your observations

Observation
The iron nail was coated with copper metal. The copper metal came from the solution.
This shows that a chemical equation has taken place between the iron, Fe and the
copper sulphate (CuSO4) solution. The equation is as follows;

Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) Cu (s) + FeSO4 (aq),

Writing the equation using the ions present is the solution we have;

Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) Fe2+ (aq) + SO42-(aq) + Cu(s).

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This type of equation in which the ions which were involved in a reaction are shown
is known as an ionic equation. In this equation, the sulphate ion is found on both sides
of the equation. This means that the SO42 - ion did not take part in the reaction nothing
has changed on it. It is a spectator ion and should not be included in the equation. The
equation should then be written as;

Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) Fe2+ (aq) + Cu(s).

This equation is the called the net ionic equation.

Oxidation numbers
All chemical reactions involve transfer of electrons. The number assigned to an atom
or an ion to show how many electrons it loses or gains during chemical reactions is
known as the oxidation number.
When working out oxidation numbers of elements, all compounds including the
covalent (molecular) compounds are treated as if they either gain or lose electrons
during the reactions. Sharing of electrons is ignored when working out oxidation
numbers. In the covalent compounds the bonding (i.e. the shared) electrons are
imagined to be owned by the more electronegative atom. (Electronegative means
electron attraction power).

Rules for Calculating Oxidation Numbers:

1. (a) The oxidation numbers of uncombined element is equal to zero. For example,
the oxidation
number of; carbon, C = 0 , Cl2 = 0, O2 = 0 H2 = 0
(b) The oxidation numbers of monoatomic ions are equal the charges on the ions.
eg the oxidation number of Al3+ = +3 and the oxidation number of Cl - = -1
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(c) The oxidation number of each hydrogen tom, H is +1

(d) The oxidation number of each oxygen atom, O is -2

2. The algebraic sum of oxidation numbers of the elements in a compound (ionic or

covalent) is
equal to zero.

3. For oxy anions such as SO42-, the oxidation number of the other element in the ion
is found by; charge on the ion – (minus) (-2 x the number of oxygen atoms)

4. In any substance the more electronegative atom has a negative oxidation number
while the less electronegative atom has a positive oxidation number.

Example
1. What is the oxidation number of sulphur, S in the ion SO42-

Working out;
Oxidation number of S = -2 – (-2 x 4 )
= -2 – (-8)
=+6
2. Work out the oxidation number of H2SO4.

Working out
The oxidation number of H = +1, O = -2
let the oxidation of S = y,
Therefore; y + (2 x + 1) + (4 x - 2) = 0
→ y + 2+ -8 = 0
→y = -2 + 8
→y = + 6
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the oxidation number of S = 6

Exercise
1. Work out the oxidation number of;
(a) Mn in MnO4-.
(b) S in SO42-
(c) S in SO2
(d) C in carbonate CO3-

2. Find the oxidation number sodium, Na, Chlorine, Cl, potassium, K and Manganese,
Mn in the following compounds
(a) NaCl
(b) KMnO4

Oxidation and Reduction;

During the reaction between copper sulphate solution CuSO4 and the iron, the iron
atom, Fe has lost 2 electrons and become an iron ion as Fe2+ follows;
Fe(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2e-
The loss of electrons the atoms of an element is called oxidation reaction. The
oxidation number of the element increases when it loses electrons:
eg Fe(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2e-
0 +2
The element is said to have been oxidized when its oxidation number has increased.
Reduction means the gaining of electrons by a substance. When an element gains
electrons, its oxidation number decreases:
e.g. Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
+2 0
When the oxidation number of an element decreases, it is said to have been reduced.
Reduction and oxidation reactions take place simultaneously. When one substance is
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oxidized another substance is reduced at the same time. The two reactions are,
therefore, just known as redox reactions
For example, when the iron, Fe is mixed with an aqueous solution of copper sulphate,
CuSO4 (aq), the Fe is oxidized to become Fe2+ while the copper ion, Cu2+, in the CuSO4
is reduced to become copper atom, Cu at the same time as follows;

Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) Cu (s) + FeSO4 (aq),

Half reaction equations:

The two equations representing oxidation and reduction reactions are known as half
reaction equations. For example, in the net ionic equation,

Fe(s) + Cu2+ (aq) Fe2+ (aq) + Cu(s); the oxidation half reaction equation
is

Fe(s) Fe2+ (aq) + 2e- ; and the reduction half reaction equation is

Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)

Combined the two half reaction equations we have the equation as follows;

Fe(s) + Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu(s) + Fe2+(aq) + 2e-.

The electrons are found on both sides of the equation and must be excluded in the final
net ionic equation;

Exercise:
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Write down the oxidation and reduction half equation for each of the following redox
reactions:
i. Zn(s) + Pb2+ (aq) Zn2+ (aq) + Pb(s)
ii. Cl2 (aq) + 2Br-(aq) 2Cl-(aq) + Br (aq)
iii. Mg(s) + 2H+ (aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
iv. 2Na(s) + Cl2 (g) 2NaCl

Balancing Redox Equations:

There are two rules for writing redox equations as follows;
(i) In any ionic equation the charges must balance:
This means that the sum of the charges on the left–hand side, LHS must be equal to
the sum of the charges on the right-hand side, RHS. This rule applies to ionic equation
for both overall reactions and half reactions.

Examples

Equation Charges on Charges

on
left hand side right
hand side

a. Mg (s) + 2H+ Mg 2+(aq) + H2 (g) 2+ 2+

b. 2Br-(aq) Br2 (aq) + 2e- 2- 2-

2Na(s) 2Na + (aq) + 2e- 0 (2+)

+ (2-) = 0

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(2) The number of electrons lost in the oxidation half reaction must be equal to the
number of electrons gained in the reduction half reaction.
For example in the reaction the number of electrons lost in the oxidation half reaction
is two;
Fe Fe2+ + 2e-
Therefore the number of electrons gained in the reduction half reaction must also be
two;
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu

Writing Redox Equations from two Half Reaction Equations;

1 (a) Balance the two half equations separately by adding electrons to either the LHS
or the RHS (rule one above)
(b) Balance the two half equations with respect to each other so that the number of
electrons lost is equal to the number of electrons gained (rule 2 above)
2 Combine the two half equations to give the redox equation. For example adding the
two half reaction equations above and cancelling the electrons we obtain the following
equation;
Fe(s) + Cu2+ (aq) Fe2+ + Cu(s)

Examples
Write the balanced redox equations from the following reactions;

(i) The reaction between magnesium and copper (II) sulphate solution;
The oxidation half equation is:
Mg(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2e-
Charges; 0 +2 + -2

The reduction half equation;

Cu2+ + 2e- Cu(s)
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Charges; +2 + -2 0
The two half equations are balanced;
Each side has zero charge (rule 1).
Magnesium, Mg(s) loses two electrons which are subsequently gained by the copper
(II) ions, Cu2+, so the number of electrons lost is equal to the number of electrons
gained (rule 2).
The two half equations are combined to give an overall redox equation. The electrons
cancel each other out and so do not appear in the overall equation.
The overall equation is as follows;
Mg(s) + Cu2+ Mg2+ (aq) + Cu(s)

(ii) The oxidation of iron (II) ions, Fe2+ to iron (III) ions, Fe3+ by potassium manganate
(VII) in acidic solution.
The oxidation half reaction equation is;

Fe2+ (aq) Fe3+ (aq) + e-

Charges: +2 +3 + -1

The reduction half reaction equation is

MnO4-(aq) + 8H+ (aq) + 5e- Mn2+ (aq) + 4H2O (l)

Charges: -1 + +8 + -5 +2 + 0

The Two half reaction equations are balanced in terms of charges (rule 1). The
reduction reaction involves the transfer of five electrons whereas the oxidation half
equation involves the transfer of one electron. To balance the equations with respect
to each other, the oxidation half reaction must be multiplied by five (rule 2), as
follows;

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5Fe2+ (aq) 5 Fe3+ (aq) + 5e-

The two ionic half equations can be combined to give a redox equation. The electrons
cancel in each other out and so do not appear in the overall equation. The overall
equation is as follows;
MnO4-(aq) + 8H+ (aq) + 5Fe2+ (aq) Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 5
Fe3+(aq)

Oxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents

a. Oxidizing Agents;
An oxidizing agent is a substance that oxidizes another substance by accepting
electrons from it. When oxidizing the other substance the oxidizing agent is itself
reduced.

b. Reducing Agents
A reducing agent is a substance that reduces another substance by donating electrons
to it. While donating the electrons the reducing agent is itself oxidized.

Example;
Consider the ionic equation below for the reaction between copper (II) sulphate
solution and
iron, Fe;
Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) Fe2+ + Cu(s)

Oxidation half reaction equation:

Fe (s) Fe2+ + 2e-
0 +2

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In this equation iron is oxidized since its oxidation number increases from 0 to +2, so
iron is a reducing agent

Reduction half reaction equation:

Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
+2 0
In this equation copper is reduced because its oxidation number decreases from +2 to
2, so it is an oxidizing agent.

Exercise:
Write the oxidation and reduction half reaction equations and identify the oxidizing
and the reducing agents in the following equations;
a. Mg(s) + 2Ag+ Mg2+ + 2Ag

b. 2 Fe3+ + 2I- 2Fe2+ + 2I(s)

c. 2CuO + C CO2 + 2Cu

d. Al + HCl AlCl3 + H2

e. MnO2 + HCl MnCl2 + Cl2 H2O

f. CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O

Applications of Redox Reactions:

a. Displacement of metals.

Activity: 4.2

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Aim: To investigate if some metals are more reactive than others.

Materials:
- zinc metal,
- copper metal
- iron nail,
- tin metal,
- 2 droppers,
- copper sulphate solution
- zinc sulphate solution
- a white tile.

Procedure:
(i) Place each piece of metal on the tile separately.
(ii) To each piece of metal, add 3 drops of the copper sulphate solution.
(iii) Observe for 5 minutes
(iv) Compare the rates of the reactions and record your observations as fast reaction,
slow reaction, moderate reaction or no reaction in a table as follows;

Substances added Rate of

together reaction
Zn + CuSO4
Sn + CuSO4
Fe + CuSO4
Cu + CuSO4

Table 4.1

(v) Repeat steps 1 – 4 with zinc sulphate solution.

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Discussion
Which metal is more reactive than the others.
Arrange the metals in order of their reactivity.

Observations
During reactions between metals and the solutions of metal compounds, the metal
component in the compound may be displaced by the other metal. For example,
during the reaction between iron and the copper sulphate solution, copper is displaced
from its compound by iron as follows;

Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) Cu (s) + FeSO4(aq),

The metals that are displaced from their compounds are less reactive than those that
displace them.
From the results of the experiment above, it can be observed that;
(i) copper is displaced from its compound by zinc, iron, and tin. Therefore, copper is
the least
reactive of the four metals.
(ii) the reaction between zinc and copper sulphate solution is the fastest of all the
reactions and
zinc is not displaced by any of the three metals. This means zinc is the most
reactive metal of
the four metals.
(iii) the reaction between iron and the copper sulphate solution is faster than the
reaction between
tin and the copper sulphate solution. Therefore, iron is more reactive than tin.
Arranging the metals in order of their reactivity we have;
Zinc
Iron increasing reactivity
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Tin
Copper
Less reactive metals cannot displace more reactive metals from the solutions of their
compounds.
The reaction in which a more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal form a
solution of its compound is called a displacement reaction.

Displacement Series;
This is the arrangement of the metals in the order of their relative chemical reactivity.
It is also known as reactivity series or activity series.
The series is as follows;

Most reducing (or most reactive)

Lithium, Li
Potassium, K
Calcium, Ca
Sodium, Na
Magnesium, Mg
Aluminium, Al
increasing Zinc, Zn Decreasing activity
activity Iron, Fe
Tin, Sn
Lead, Pb
Hydrogen, H
Copper, Cu
Silver, Ag
Gold, Au
Least reducing (or the least reactive)

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The series is also called the redox series because the metal high in the series reduces
the metal which is lower in the series and the metal which is lower in the series will
oxidize the metal which is higher in the series.

The positions of the metals in the series tell us the following;

(i) Whether a reaction will take place or not.
If the ion is of an element below and the atom is of an element above, reaction will
take place. But if the ion is of an element above and the atom is of an element below
in the series, reaction will not take place. For example, reaction cannot take place
when copper metal is mixed with a solution of zinc sulphate;

Cu + ZnSO4 Cu + ZnSO4
However, a reaction takes place when zinc metal is mixed with a solution of copper
sulphate solution;

Zn + CuSO4 Cu + ZnSO4

(ii) The rate of the reaction.

The reaction between the atoms of an element and the ions of an element just below
it will be slower than that between the atoms of an element and the ions of an element
far below it. For example, the reaction between zinc and a solution of copper sulphate
is faster than the reaction between tin and a solution of copper sulphate.

Exercise:
1. Complete the following equations to show whether the reaction will take place or
not;
Mg + ZnSO4
Sn + ZnSO4
Cu + CuSO4
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2. a. The following is part of an activity series:

Lithium (Li)
Sodium (Na)
Magnesium (mg)
Lead (Pb)
Hydrogen (H)
Copper (Cu)
Silver (Ag)
(i) State whether copper (Cu) will react with a solution of magnesium sulphate,
MgSO4. Give a reason to your answer.
(ii) Which element is the most reactive in the activity series? Why?
Write half equations for the reaction between silver nitrate, AgNO3 and sodium, Na.

3. Below are results of a set of experiments carried out by a pupil. Study them and
answer the questions that follow.
Cu + MgSO4 No reaction
Mg + CuSO4 Fast reaction
Zn + CuSO4 Slow reaction
Mg + ZnCl Moderate reaction
Zn + MgSO4 No reaction

(i) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between magnesium, Mg, and
copper sulphate CuSO4 solution.
(ii) Name the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent in the reaction you have written
in (i) above.
(iii) Arrange the metals in order of reactivity, starting with the most reactive.

Uses of Displacement Reactions of Metals

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(i) Extracting metals.

Displacement reactions can be used to extract metals from their ores. Metals naturally
exist as in the form of compounds such as oxides or sulphides. Such compounds are
called ores. Less reactive metals such as copper can be extracted from their ores by
the spontaneous redox reactions. The metal is extracted by dipping the more reactive
metal into the aqueous solution of the metal to be extracted. For example, to extract
copper from its compound, an iron metal can be dipped into the aqueous solution of a
compound of copper such as a copper sulphate solution and the following reaction
takes place;
Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) Cu (s) + FeSO4 (aq),

The copper metal is reduced during the reaction and is deposited on the iron metal.

b. Electroplating.

Activity: 4.2
Aim: To demonstrating electroplating copper wire with zinc.
Materials:
- 2 cells
- connecting wires,
- switch,
- zinc metal,
- zinc chloride solution,
- copper wire
- a beaker.

Procedure:
(i) Arrange the apparatus as follows;

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Figure 4.1
(ii) Close the switch and leave the apparatus for about 5 minutes.
(iii) Open the switch and remove the copper metal and the zinc metal from the
solution.

Discussion
Look at the copper metal, what has happened to it?
What has happened to the zinc metal?

Observation
The copper metal has been coated with zinc metal while the zinc metal is eaten up.
When the switch is closed, the zinc metal at the anode is oxidized as follows;

Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e-.

The zinc ions are attracted to the cathode. At the cathode, the zinc ions are reduced
to zinc atoms.

Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- Zn(s).

The zinc metal coats (covers) the copper metal. The process of coating (or plating)
one metal with another metal using electricity is what is known as electroplating.
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To electroplate an object with metal X, the object to be electroplated should be

connected to the cathode. Metal X must be the anode. The electrolyte should be the
solution of the compound of metal X.

Figure 4.2

Uses of electroplating
i- to make metals more attractive. For example, cheap metal jewellery can be coated
with silver to make it beautiful.
ii- to protect metals from corrosion . For example, steel car bumpers are coated with
chromium and steel cans are coated with tin.

c. Rusting:
Activity: 4.3
Aim: To investigate conditions for rusting.

Materials:
- three test tubes,
- test tube rack,
- cotton wool,
- three iron nails
- cooking oil,

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- anhydrous
- calcium chloride
- distilled water.

Procedure
(i). Set up the three boiling tubes as shown in the figure below;

Figure 4.3

(ii). Leave the test tubes for one week.

Discussion
In which test tubes did the nails rust?
What causes rust?

Observations
We might have observed that the nails in test tube A rusted while those in test tubes
B and C did not. The boiled and cooled water does not contain dissolved oxygen in it.
In test tube B there was no oxygen in the water and the stopper and the oil prevented
any oxygen in the air from entering the water. The nails in this test tube did not rust.
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In test tube C, there was no water. The calcium chloride removed any water in the air
enclosed in the tube. The nails in this tube did not rust.
In test tube A, both water and oxygen were allowed to come into contact with the
nails. The nails in this test tube rusted.
Therefore, the conditions necessary for rusting are water and oxygen.

The meaning of rusting

Rusting means the oxidation of iron. During rusting, iron reacts with oxygen to form
brown
iron (III) oxide.

4Fe(s) + 3O2 (g) 2Fe2O3(s)

Oxidation half reaction equation;

4Fe 4 Fe3+ + 12e-
0 +3

Reduction half reaction equation;

3O2 (g) + 12e- 6O2-
0 -2
At the same time, the iron (III) oxide reacts with water to form brown hydrated iron
(III) oxide,
e.g.; 2Fe2O3(s) + H2O (g) 2Fe2O3.H2O
iron (III) oxide water vapour hydrated iron (III) oxide
The hydrated iron oxide is known as rust. Rust is soft, crumbly brown solid.

Ways of Preventing Rust:

Rusting can be prevented by keeping the iron away from oxygen and water.
The methods are as follows;
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1. Painting.
2. Oiling or greasing.
3. Alloying.
Alloy is a mixture of metals. For example, stainless steel is made by mixing iron
with
chromium, nickel and manganese.
4. Galvanizing.
Galvanizing means covering iron with a layer of zinc. Even if the zinc is scratched
to
expose iron, the iron does not rust. This is so because zinc is higher in the reactivity
series and it reacts with oxygen and water in preference to iron. This
type of protection is known as sacrificial protection since zinc is being sacrificed
for the iron.
Zinc- coated iron is called galvanized iron.
5. Coating iron with plastic.

d. Purification of metals;
The electron transfer reactions can be used to purify metals such as copper and zinc.
To purify a metal, electricity is used; the impure metal is connected to the anode and
the cathode is the pure metal. The electrolyte is the solution of the compound of the
metal.
For example, copper can be purified as follows;

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Figure 4.4
Half reaction at the anode:
Cu (s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-
The impurities drop to the bottom of the vessel.
The copper ions are reduced and deposited on the pure copper cathode.

Half reaction at the cathode;

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s)

Proton Transfer Reactions

A hydrogen atom consists of one electron and one proton;

Figure 4.5

When the atom loses the electron to become hydrogen ions, H + it is the proton only
that remains;

Figure 4.6

Therefore, the hydrogen ion is also called a proton. Proton transfer reactions are the
reactions which involve the transfer of hydrogen ions, H+ from one substance to
another.

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Acids and Bases

A Danish chemist Johnnes Bronsted and an English chemist Thomas Lowry, having
studied acids and bases, proposed what is known as a Bronsted – Lowry theory of
acids and bases. According to the Bronsted – Lowry theory;
An acid is a proton donor (or giver)
Or a substance that contains molecules or ions which donate protons
For example when HCl dissolves in water it gives hydrogen ions, H + to the solution
as follows;
HCl H+ + Cl-
acid proton

A base is a proton acceptor.

Or a substance that consists molecules or ions which accept protons.
e.g. H2O + H+ H3O+
base proton
The overall acid – base reaction is as follows;
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-
acid base
The pH scale measures the concentration of the hydrogen ions, H+ in solutions; 1
means very acidic, 7 is neutral and 14 is very basic. The base that dissolves in water
is called an alkali.

Formation of a Hydronium Ion, H3O+

When an acid dissolves in water protons, H+ are donated by the acid to the water to
form an ion known as a hydronium ion, H3O+. For example when HCl dissolves in
water, it dissociates into the ions H+ and Cl- as follows:
HCl H+ + Cl-
The protons are then accepted by the water to form a hydronium ion, H3O+ as follows:
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HCl + H2O H3 O + + Cl-

Conjugate Acid - Base Pairs

A conjugate acid is the ion that is formed when a base has accepted a proton, H +. A
conjugate base is the ion that is formed when an acid has donated a proton. For
example, in the equation below;

HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-

acid base conjugate conjugate
acid base
The conjugate base of the acid, HCl is the ion Cl- and the conjugate acid of the base
H2O is the ion H3O+

The other examples of conjugate acid – base pairs are;

i. CH3COOH + H2O H3 O + + CH3COO-
acid base conjugate acid conjugate base

ii. H2O + NH3 NH4+ + OH-

acid base conjugate acid conjugate e base
NB: Water, H2O can behave as a base in one condition and as an acid in another
depending on the substances present.
The nature of a substance to behave as an acid in one condition and as a base in another
is called amphoteric nature.
Water is, therefore, an amphoteric substance.

Strong and Weak Acids

Activity: 4.4
Aim: To Compare strengths of acids using pH values.
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Materials:
- universal indicator,
- pH scale,
- test tubes,
- hydrochloric acid, HCl,
- ethanoic acid,
- droppers.

Procedure:
(i) Pour 3 ml of HCl into a test tube.
(ii) Add 3 drops of the universal indicator into the test tube.
(iii) Find the pH value of the acid on the scale.
(iv) Record the results in the table as follows;

Acid pH
HCl
Ethanoic
acid

Table 4.2
(v) Repeat steps (1) to (4) with ethanoic acid in the test tube.

Discussion:
Which acid has lower pH value?
Which acid is more acidic?

Observation
A substance is classified as an acid if it can produce hydrogen ions, H+ when dissolved
in water.
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The acid that produces more hydrogen ions when dissolved in water is known as a
stronger acid.
The universal indicator measures the strength of an acid and the value of its acidity
can be found using the pH scale. On the pH scale, strong acids have lower the pH
numbers. HCl is strong acid is a strong acid because it ionizes completely (its
molecules completely separate into ions) when dissolved in water;

Figure 4.7
The equation is;
HCl H+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)
Other examples of strong acids are sulphuric acid, H2SO4, Nitric acid etc. A weak acid
is the acid which partially ionizes in water and produces few hydrogen ions when
dissolved in water. For example, ionization of hydrogen fluoride HF in water is partial
as shown below

Figure 4.8

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Weak acids are partially ionized in water. Therefore, CH3COOH is a weak acid and
its dissolution in water is represented as follows;

CH3COOH + H2O H3O+ + CH3COO-

The double arrow means that as the reaction in the forward direction is happening
,another reaction in the reverse direction is also happening at the same time as follows;

CH3COOH + H2O H3O+ + CH3COO-

CH3COOH + H2O H3O+ + CH3COO- .

This means that when the ethanoic acid molecule breaks down to release the hydrogen
ions, H+ and the ethanoate ions, CH3COO- , these ions react together to form the
ethanoic acid molecules again. In the forward reaction the ethanoic acid is acting as
an acid and in the reverse reaction its conjugate base, CH3COO- is acting as the base.
This type of reaction is called reversible reaction. It is also known as equilibrium
reaction. Equilibrium reaction is a reaction in which products are produced on both
sides and the result is a mixture of all four substances in a state of balance.

Strong and Weak Bases;

Activity: 4.5
Aim: To Compare strengths of bases using pH values.
Materials:
- universal indicator,
- pH scale,
- test tubes,
- NaOH,
- NH3,
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- droppers.

Procedure:
(i) Put 3 ml of NaOH into a test tube.
(ii) Add 3 drops of the universal indicator into the test tube.
(iii) Find the pH value of the base on the scale.
(iv) Record the results in a table as shown in table 4.3 below;
(v) Repeat steps (1) to (4) with NH3 in the test tube.

Acid pH
NaOH
NH3

Table 4.3
Discussion
Which base has lower pH value?
Which base is more basic?

Observation
A base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions, OH- when dissolved in water. A
strong base is the base that completely ionizes and produces more hydroxide ions, OH -
in water.
e.g NaOH Na+ + OH-
strong base

Stronger bases have higher pH values on the pH scale. Examples of strong bases
include all alkali metal hydroxides such as NaOH and KOH. A weak base is the base
that partially ionizes in water and produces fewer hydroxide ions, OH - . The
dissolution of a weak base in water is a reversible reaction as follows;
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NH3 (g) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

Activity: 4.6
Aim: To determine the strengths of acids and bases using conductivity measurements.

Materials:
- 4 connecting wires,
- 2 cells,
- 2 carbon electrodes,
- an ammeter,
- hydrochloric acid HCl,
- ethanoic acid,
- 4 beakers,
- a switch,
- NaOH solution
- NH3 solution.
Procedure:
(i) Arrange the apparatus as follows;

Figure 4.9
(ii) Close the switch and read the ammeter.
(iii) Record the reading in a table as shown in table 4.4 below.
(iv) Repeat steps (i) – (iii) with ethanoic acid in the beaker.
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(v) Repeat steps (i)-(ii) with NaOH solution in the beaker.

(vi) Record the ammeter reading in a table as shown in table 4.4 below.
(vii) Repeat steps (i), (ii) and (vi) with NH3 in the beaker.

Acid Ammeter
reading
(A)
HCl
Ethanoic
acid

Table 4.4

Base Ammeter
reading
(A)
NaOH
NH3
Table 4.5
Discussion
Through which acid was the ammeter reading higher? Suggest a reason.
Through which base was the ammeter reading higher? Why?

Observation
Through one of acids the ammeter reading was higher than through the other. The
same observation was also made when the current was passé through the bases.
An electric current flows through a solution in form of ions. The aqueous solutions of
acids or bases conduct electricity when they ionize in water.

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The acids and bases that give higher ammeter readings are strong acids and bases
respectively. Therefore strong acids and bases are good conductors of electricity
because they ionize completely; hence produce more ions in water.
The electric current is lower through the solutions of weak acids or bases. This is
because they do not ionize completely in water.
Increasing the concentration of a weak acid or base does not increase the electric
current through it, and diluting a strong acid does decrease the current through it.
A strong acid is still strong even when it less concentrated, and a weak acid is still
weak even if it is more concentrated. The same also happens with bases.

Variables that must be kept constant during the conductivity measurements

The following variables must be kept constant when conducting conductivity
measurements to avoid affecting the results of the experiments;
(i) temperature of the solution,
(ii) electrode surface area
(iii) electrode spacing.

Review questions;
1. Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH, ionizes in water. The ionization is reversible and can be
represented by the following equation;

a. What is a reversible reaction?

b. Write the conjugate acid- base pairs I the equation.

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c. In the equation above, the equilibrium lies to the left. What do you understand by
this statement?

2. a. (i) Name the ion responsible for the acidic properties of a substance.
(ii) What special property do bases have?
(iii) Why is carbonic acid a weak acid while hydrochloric acid a strong acid?
b. (i) What does the symbol, mean in a chemical equation?
(ii) Complete the equations;
1. HSO4-(aq) + ________ H3O+ (aq) + _____(aq)

2. H3PO4 (aq) + NH3 (l) ________ + H2PO4-

3. a. Complete the equations;

(i) CH3COOH + NaOH
(ii) H2SO4 + KOH
b. Write the ionic equations for the reactions above.

4. a. Explain the terms ‘concentration’ and ‘strength’ as applied to acids.

b. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid while ethanoic acid is a weak acid. Explain the
terms
strong and weak acid using equations.
c. Sodium hydroxide is a strong base and ammonia is a weak one. Explain the terms
strong and
weak base with the use of equations.
5. a. Name the acid that is present in your stomach.
b. (i) A girl takes magnesium oxide to cure indigestion. Write down word equation
for the
reaction that takes place in the stomach.
(ii) Write down a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
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6. a. What is meant by displacement reaction?

b. Explain, in terms of displacement reactions, why gold occurs in an uncombined
state as a free
metal
c. Consider the reaction below;
2 Mg(s) + SO2 (s) 2MgO (s) + S (s)
(i) In this reaction, which substance is;
1. oxidized? 2. the oxidizing agent?
3. reduced ? 4. the reducing agent?

7. When 6.5 of zinc, Zn, were added to a solution of copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4, 6.4
g of
copper, Cu, were obtained. (RAMs; Zn = 65, Cu = 64)
a. What type of chemical reaction is this?
b. How many moles of zinc were used?
c. How many moles of copper were obtained?
d. Write a word equation for the reaction.
e. Use the information from b and c to write a balanced equation for the reaction

8. Given below is the ionic equation for the reaction between Zinc, Zn, and copper (II)
ions, Cu2+;
Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s);
a. What is the oxidation number for; (i) Zn (s) (ii) Cu2+(aq) (iii) Zn 2+ (aq) (iv) Cu
(s)
b. Which substance has been oxidized?
c. Which substance has been reduced?
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d. Which substance is a reducing agent?

e. Is this a redox reaction? Explain your answer.

9. a. (i) What is rust?

(ii) Explain how rust forms on structures made up of iron or steel.
b. Rust is a redox reaction. Explain the process of rusting in terms of oxidation and
reduction.

5. NUCLEAR PHYSICS

The Nuclear structure of the atom

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An atom is made of the following sub – atomic particles; protons, neutrons and
electrons. The protons and the neutrons are found inside the nucleus of the atom; hence
they are called nuclear particles or nucleons. Electrons are found outside the nucleus
in regions called shells or energy levels.

Figure5.1

The number of protons in an atom is very important because it identifies the element
of the atom. For example, an oxygen atom, O has 8 protons; therefore there is no other
element that has 8 protons in its atoms apart from oxygen only. Any element that has
eight protons in its atoms is an oxygen atom. The number of protons in an atom is
called atomic number and is represented by the symbol Z. The atomic number plus
the number of neutrons in an atom is called the mass number. The symbol for the mass
number is A.
The chemical symbol, the atomic number, A, and the mass number, Z, of an element

are represented as follows; , where X is the chemical symbol. For example, an

oxygen atom has 8 protons and 8 neutrons, it is therefore represented as .

The arrangement of the protons and the neutrons in the nucleus is very delicate and it
is the one that decides on the stability of the atoms.

Isotopes

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Different atoms of the same element may have different numbers of neutrons, hence
different mass numbers but they never have different numbers of protons.
For example, the elements are different atoms of the same element
because they have the same atomic numbers.
The atoms that have the same atomic numbers, but different mass numbers are called
isotopes. Table 5.1 below shows isotopes of some elements.

Element symbol Particles present

Hydrogen 1 proton, 0 neutrons

1 proton, 1 neutron

1 proton, 2 neutrons

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Carbon 6 protons, 6 protons

6 protons, 7 neutrons

6 protons 8 neutrons

Uranium 92 protons, 143 neutrons

92 protons, 146 neutrons

Table 5.1

Radioactivity
When the numbers of the nuclear particles is not balanced, especially when an atom
has more neutrons than protons the atom is not stable, and when the delicate
arrangement of the particles in stable atoms is disturbed, the atom breaks up and emits
particles rays of energy from the nucleus. In the process, the nucleus may change to
an atom of another element which is more stable.
The breaking up and emission of the subatomic particles or rays of energy from the
nucleus of an atom is called radioactivity. The subatomic particles and the rays of
energy are called nuclear radiations because they radiate from the nucleus.. Common

examples of radioactive substances are Uranium and radium .

Characteristics of Radioactive Substances

Radioactivity happens spontaneously (all by itself) and at random. It cannot be
controlled and is not affected by chemical combination, pressure or temperature.
During radioactivity, reactions, called nuclear reactions, take place inside the nucleus
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of the substance. The nucleus loses one or more of its subatomic particles and energy;
hence a new element is created from the existing one.

Types of nuclear Radiations

There are three types of radiations from radioactive substances:
(i) alpha particles, 
(ii) beta particles, 
(iii) gamma rays,

i. The Alpha particles, 

This is a helium nucleus emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive substance. An alpha
particle is made up of 2 protons, 2 neutrons and zero electrons.

It is expressed as follows: or .

ii. The beta particle, :

This is an electron emitted from the nucleus a radioactive element. This electron is
created when a neutron in the nucleus changes into a proton and an electron as follows:

The proton remains in the nucleus while the electron is thrown out. A beta particle is
expressed as follows:

or

iii. The Gamma Rays

Gamma rays are waves of high energy emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive
substance.

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Properties of the Nuclear Radiations

Alpha particle Beta particle Gamma rays

Nature - Its a helium - It is an electron, - It is an
nucleus - Has a charge of electromagnetic wave.
- Has a charge of +2 -1 - Has no charge.
Mass - Has a greater mass - Has low mass Has no mass
Ionising - Very strong - low - very weak
effect
Penetrating - Not very - More - Very penetrating,
power penetrating, can be penetrating, but cannot be stopped
stopped by a sheet of can be stopped fully. But thick lead or
paper, skin or few by few mm of concrete can only
mm of air. This is aluminium or reduce their speed.
because they are other metal
heavy.
Deflection - Deflected less – -Deflected much - Never deflected
effect in an because they are - Deflected because they are not
electric field. heavy. towards the charged.
Deflected towards positive plate.
the negative plate.
Deflection in -Deflected less – Deflected much Never deflected – they
a magnetic because they are – they are light. are not charged.
field. heavy. Direction of Direction of
deflection is given deflection is
by the *Fleming’s given by
left hand rule. Fleming’s left
hand rule.

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Table 5.2

* The Fleming’s left hand rule state that if you hold the thumb and the first two fingers
of the left hand, with the First finger pointing in the direction of field and the seCond
finger in the direction of current, then the Thumb points in the direction of Thrust
(force). Current flows in the direction opposite to the direction of electrons of in the
direction of the flow of positively charged particles.
The alpha particles are positively charged and the beta particles are negatively
charged, hence their flow creates an electric current.
The effects of Magnetic and Electric fields on the three Radiations are as follows:
(a) Magnetic field;

Figure 5.1

(b) Electric field:

Figure 5.2

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4. Radiation Detectors
The radiations can be detected by the following;

a. Photographic film (plates).

The film is blackened by the rays.
The amount of blackening indicates the level of exposure.

b. Scintillation counters:
When the radiations strike some substances, such as zinc sulphate, scintillations are
produced. Scintillations mean light spots. In the scintillation counter, the light spots
are converted into electric currents. A digital counter, then, records the current as
number of strikes per second.

c. Spark counter:

Figure 5.3
When radiations pass between the positively charged wire grids and the negatively
charged metal plate, ionization of the air takes place. The ions and the electrons
produced enable a large current to suddenly pass through the air under high voltage
between the grid and the metal plate. A spark is seen or heard and it may be registered
by an electronic device.
d. Cloud chamber

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Figure 5.4
The base of the chamber is cooled by dry ice. The felt ring is moistened with alcohol.
The alcohol vapour diffuses downwards becoming cool and ready to condense. When
a radiation passes in the chamber it produces ions along its path and the alcohol vapour
condenses around these ions. The condensed alcohol droplets reflect light and can be
seen as narrow white lines (tracks of light). The cloud chamber is best for studying
the alpha radiations because of its high ionization.

e. GM tube (Geiger – Muller tube)

The GM consists of a cylindrical metal cathode containing argon gas and a central
wire anode as shown in figure 5.5 below.

Figure 5.5
The mica window is thin enough to allow even alpha particles to pass through. When
radiation enters the tube it ionizes the gas inside it. This causes a high voltage spark
across the gas and sudden large current flows in the tube. A scalar or a rate meter
connected to the GM tube can detect this current. The rate meter records the number
of radiations per second while the scalar counts the total number of alpha or beta
particles detected by the tube.
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f. Electroscope:
In an electroscope ionized air molecules discharge a charged electroscope.

Figure 5.6
The radiations from a radiation source ionize the surrounding air molecules by
knocking off electrons and leaving them positively charged. The ions are attracted to
the cap if it is negatively charged. If it is positively charged, it is the electrons that are
attracted to it. The charge on the electroscope is then neutralized (discharged) in either
case. This method is suitable for detecting alpha particles only, but not the beta
radiation or the gamma rays because they cause insufficient ionization.

Radioactive decay
This is the change in the energy and numbers of the particles in the nucleus of an atom
as a result of radioactivity. There are three types of the radioactive decay.
 Alpha decay,
 Beta decay and
 Gamma emission

(a) Alpha decay:

This is an emission of an alpha particle from the nucleus during a radioactive decay.

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Figure 5.7

During an alpha decay;

(i) The mass number of the substance that has decayed decreases by 4 and its atomic
number decreases by 2 and a new element is formed.
(ii) The numbers on top balance on both sides of the equation. E. g. 226 = 222 + 4.
(iii) The numbers at the bottom balance on both sides of the equation E. g. 88 = 86 +
2.

(b) Beta decay:

This is an emission of an electron from the nucleus of an atom as follows;

Figure 5.8

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During a beta decay;

(i) A new element is formed which has 1 atomic number greater than the one that has
decayed. The mass number does not change during the beta decay.
(ii) The top numbers on both sides of the equation balance; e. g. 14 = 14 + 0.
(iii) The bottom numbers on both sides of the equation balance; e. g. 6 = 7 + (-1).

(c) Gamma emission

This is the emission of rays of energy from the nucleus during a radioactive decay.
During the gamma emission there is no change in the mass number or the atomic
number of the substance. Gamma radiation mainly carries away the excess energy
from the excited nucleus. It can be detected on a photographic film, in a cloud
chamber, and by a GM counter.

Exercise
Table 5.3 shows atomic numbers and mass numbers for some elements.

Element Atomic Mass

number number
Carbon, C 6 12
Nitrogen, N 7 14
Oxygen, O, 8 16
Fluorine, F 9 19
Neon, Ne 10 20
Magnesium, Mg 11 24
Aluminium, Al 12 27
Silicon, Si 13 28

Table 5.3

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Write a nuclear equation to show the changes that will take place in the nucleus of a
silicon atom if it undergoes;
(a) alpha decay (b) gamma emission

Working out

(a) An alpha particle is represented as , therefore, if an element undergoes an alpha

decay;
- (i)its mass number decreases by 4 while
-(ii) its atomic number decreases by 2, the equation for the nuclear reaction is

→ +

(b) There are no changes in the numbers of the particles in the nucleus of an atom.
Therefore the reaction is

→ + .

Exercise
Use table 5.3 to answer the following question.
Write a nuclear equation to show the changes that will take place in the nucleus of an
oxygen atom if it undergoes
(a) an alpha decay (b) beta decay (c) gamma decay

Induced Radioactivity
Radioactivity can be induced by striking stable nuclei with neutrons. Some of the
nuclei absorb an extra neutron and become unstable because the delicate balance of
the neutrons and the protons in the nucleus is disturbed. The element then undergoes
radioactive decay. For example, when the stable Cobalt - 59 is bombarded with
neutrons radioactive cobalt - 60 is produced as follows:

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Cobalt - 60 then decays by gamma radiation as shown below:

The induced radioactive substances are called radioisotopes (i.e. radioactive isotopes)
because they are isotopes of their stable elements.

Differences between natural and induced radioactivity

Induced radioactivity Natural radioactivity

How radioactivity is striking nuclei with spontaneous
induced subatomic particles such as
neutrons
Types of atoms used with stable nuclei and lower with unstable nuclei and
proton numbers. proton numbers above
83.
Circumstances in agriculture, industries and as source of energy in
where they can be medicine nuclear power stations
used. and in atomic bombs
Type of radiations alpha, beta, gamma and alpha, beta and gamma
sometimes positrons but never positive
(positrons are positive electrons.
electrons , )

Table 5.4
Activity: 5.1
Aim: To demonstrate how atom of radioactive substances decay.

Materials:
- 100 bottle tops (or 100 dice with one face painted)

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Procedure:
(i) Shake and throw all the bottle tops
(ii) Remove all the bottle tops that land with the open side up (or dice that land with
the marked
faces up)
(ii)Count the number of the bottle tops remaining and record it in the table of results
like the one
shown in table 5.4 below.
(iii) Repeat the process with the surviving bottle tops until all of them are finished.

Throw Number of bottle

number tops surviving

Table 5.5
(iv) Plot a graph of number of bottle tops surviving against the throw number.
Discussion
Discuss the shape of the graph.

Observation
The numbers of the bottle tops that were landing with faces up were at random. The
graph of number of bottle tops surviving against the throw number plotted takes the
shape like the one shown in figure 5.9 below.

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Figure 5.9

Real atoms behave in the same way. Each unstable atom decays in a random way.

Half life
The rate of decay of a radioactive element is expressed by its half life. Half life of an
element is the time taken for half of its atoms in a given sample to decay. For example
if there are 8 atoms of a certain element and it takes 3 days for four of them to decay,
2 of the remaining four will take another 3 days to decay and one of the remaining 2
atoms will also take 3 days to decay. And so the half life of that element is 3 days.

Half lives for some radioactive elements

Radioactive Half life

element
carbon - 14 5730 years
iodine - 131 8 days
Iodine – 128 25 min

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9
uranium - 238 4.5 x 10
years
uranium - 235 7.1 x 108
strontium - 90 28 days
cobalt - 60 5.24 years
radon - 220 54 sec
hydrogen – 3 12.26 years
boron -12 0.62 sec

Table 5.6
Activity
The average number of atoms of a radioactive element that decay per second is called
its activity. The activity of a radioactive element is always proportional to the number
of the undecayed atoms. If the half life of the element is 28 days, its activity also
halves every 28 days. Half life can therefore also be defined as the time taken for the
activity of any given sample of a radioactive sample to fall to half of its original value.
The unit if activity is Becquerel (Bq). For example the activity of 100 Bq means that
100 atoms decay per second. It is difficult to know when all the atoms of a radioactive
substance have decayed since atoms are very small particles. But it is easy to find the
time for its activity to fall to half of its original value by using the GM tube and the
rate meter.

Decay Curve
This is a graph which shows the decrease in an activity of a radioactive substance
against time.

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Figure 5.10

In a decay curve, the activity decreases by the half (1/2) in each time interval. For
example in the decay curve above, the activity decreases from 40 decays per second
to 20 decays per second in 28 days and from 20 to 10 decays per second in the next
28 days and so on.

Examples
1. An element has a half life of 15 years. How long will it take for 1/32 of its sample
to decay.

Working out
Since half ,( ½) of the atoms of the element decays after every 15 years then we have
to find how many halves (½) are there in 1/32. The number of the halves in 1/32 will
tell us the number of the halve lives that have gone for 1/32 of its atoms to decay.
(½)n = 1/32
→(½)n = (½)5
Hence n = 5
5 half live have gone for the 1/32 of the atoms to decay
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Total time taken = 5 x half life

=5 x 15years
= 75 years

2. Find the half life of an element, if 1/16 of its atoms decay after 50 minutes.

Working out
The number of halves ( ½ ) in 1/16;
(½)n = 1/16
(½)n = (½)4
n=4
→ 4 x half life of the element = 50 minutes
Half life = 50/4 minutes
= 12.5 minutes
Hence the half life of the element is 12.5 minutes

Exercise
1. An element has a half life of 7 hours, how long will it take for 1/64 of its atoms to
decay?

2. Calculate the half life of an element if 1/32 of its atoms decay after 45 days.

Hazards / Dangers of Radioactive Substances

Radiations are very dangerous because we can receive them in severe doses without
being aware of them. Some of the effects of strong doses or accumulated small doses
are as follows:
a. Skin burns (blisters and sores on the skin).
b. Loss of hair.
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c. Cancer
d. Eye cataracts.
e. Hereditary defects, which may also occur in succeeding generations due to genetic
damage.
f. Sterility i.e. inability to produce children.
g. Low resistance to normal diseases.

Safety precautions when handling radioactive substances

a. Handle radioactive substances with long tongs.
b. Never point radioactive substances towards a person.
c. Food should never be taken where the radioactive substances are being used.
d. Never smoke near radioactive sources.
e. Radioactive samples should be kept in lead castles built on lead bricks.

Uses of nuclear radiations

a. In agriculture;
In agriculture, radiations are used to study plants and animals.
For example;
- they can be used to study the uptake of fertilizers by plants from the roots to the
leaves by adding
a radioactive isotope (tracer) to the soil water and trace it flow by a detector.
- they can be used to control pests by exposing the males to gamma radiations and
releasing
them into the wild to mate with the females. The females lay sterile eggs and no new
pests
are born
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b. In industries;
(i) Beta radiations are used to check the thickness of various flat objects. For example
when paper is manufactured it has to be of a particular thickness. To achieve this beta
radiation source is placed on one side of the source and a detector on the other side as
shown below;

Figure 5.12

When the sheet is too thick, fewer beta radiations reach the detector. This sends signals
to the machine, which adjusts the gap between the rollers. When the sheet is too thin,
more radiation reaches the detector and necessary adjustments are also made on the
rollers by the machine.

(ii) Gamma radiations are used to check faults in pipes and metal castings. A gamma
radiation source is placed inside the pipe and a photographic film is wrapped around
the outside of the pipe. The film is then developed and if there are faults the film is
blackened on those parts where there are faults.

(iii) In textile industries irradiation with beta rays fixes various chemicals onto cotton
fibres. This produces permanent press clothing.

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(iv) They are used as tracers to detect leaks in underground pipes. A radioactive
substance is added to the fluid in the pipe and a detector follows its flow.

c. Medical uses;
(i) As biochemical tracers.
A weak radioactive substance is injected into the person’s body. It is then traced by a
detector as it passes through the body tissues because it emits radiations. This can be
used to detect blood clots, brain tumours or internal bleeding.

(ii) As a radiotherapy.
Gamma rays emitted from a strong source of cobalt – 60 can be used to kill cancer.

(iii) Sterilising equipment;

Medial instruments such as syringes and other operating instruments are sterilised by
irradiating them with gamma rays.

d. Food preservation:
Different food types are irradiated with gamma rays to kill bacteria and other micro
organisms that can spoil the food. The food, then, stays for long before going bad and
without changing its taste or appearance. The irradiated food is safe to eat because no
radioactive substance go into the food and so no radioactivity is produced in the food
irradiated by the gamma rays.

e. Carbon dating
This is the process of estimating the age of dead plants and animals by measuring the
activity of carbon - 14 present in them.

f. Power generation
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In nuclear power stations, nuclear fission is used in a nuclear reactor to release heat
energy that is used to boil water. The steam then turns turbines to produce electricity.
NB; The radioactive isotopes that are used as tracers must be those with short half
life periods so that their half life must match the time needed for the experiment and
their radioactivity is complete within a few day.

Nuclear Fission
This is the splitting of a large nucleus into two nuclei of similar sizes. During nuclear
fission the nucleus of a radioactive substance is split by bombarding it with neutrons
to it make more unstable so that it decays faster.

Figure 5.13
The nucleus that has split emits two or three neutrons and the fragments fly apart at
high speeds.
The nucleus that has split emits two or three neutrons and the fragments fly apart at
high speeds.
If the emitted neutrons go on to strike other nuclei chain reactions develop and very
large amounts of energy is given off.

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Figure 5.14
These chain nuclear reactions produce very large amounts of energy.
In nuclear fission;
- the nucleus is divided into two large fragments of roughly equal masses as shown
below;

- Neutrons are emitted in the process.

- Much more energy than in the ordinary radioactive decay is produced.

Uses of nuclear fission

i. atomic bombs
ii. Nuclear power stations.

Differences between nuclear fission and radioactive decay

Decay Fission
Spontaneous Start when nuclei are hit with
neutrons

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The nucleus emits small particles Nucleus splits into large

fragments of roughly the same
size
Particles emitted are alpha and/ or Particles emitted are neutrons
beta
Amount of energy released is less Amount of energy released is
very huge

Table 5.7

Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion means joining together of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus.

To start a nuclear fusion reaction, the nuclei are heated to extremely high temperature
(e. g 108 K) so that they gain enough energy to overcome the repulsion forces between
them.
When the two nuclei fuse together, much more energy is released.

Uses of nuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion is used in the hydrogen bomb.
The hydrogen bomb releases much more energy than the atomic bomb.

Differences between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion

1. The energy obtained from the nuclear fission is as a result of the kinetic energy of
the fragments frying apart while in the nuclear fusion the energy is released when a
new nucleus is formed.

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2. Total energy released per unit mass is greater in nuclear fusion than in the nuclear
fission.

Review Questions
1. Which of the radioactivity is?
- the most penetrating,
- the most massive
- not a particle.

2. a. Complete the following radioactive decay equation:

b. What are the values of p and q in the nuclear equations given below?

3. A nuclide, F, has a half life of 2.5 hours. What percentage of the original number
of atoms of the isotope would be left after 10 hours?

4. a. Copy and complete the figure below to show how the particles and the rays are
deflected and
at which material each of them is stopped.

Figure 5.15
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5. The figure below shows the deflection of radiations from a radioactive source by a
uniform magnetic field.

Figure 5.15

a. Which type of radiation are A, B and C.

b. Explain two factors that bring about the differences in the in the deflections.

6. A sample of a certain nuclide which has a half life of 1500 years has an activity of
32 000 counts per hour at present time.
a. Plot a graph of the activity of this sample against the period in which it will reduce
to 1/16 of its present value.
b. If the sample of the nuclide could be left for 2000 years, what would be the activity
then?

7. a. Name three types of radiations.

b. State which radiation;
(i) is a form of an electromagnetic radiation.
(ii) carries positive charge
(iii) carries negative charge
(iv) is made up of high speed electrons
(v) is most highly ionizing.
(vi) is the most penetrating

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(vii) can be stopped by skin or paper

(viii) is never completely absorbed.

8. a. Which type of radiation could be detected using a leaf electroscope? Describe

how.
b. Why is this method not suitable for detecting other forms of nuclear radiations?

9. You are told that a radioactive source has a half life of 24 hours.
a. State what you understand by half life.
b. Assuming that you had a counter and could use it over a period of three days,
describe how
you would you would check that the half life was 24 hours
10. If the half life of thorium is 52 s, how long will it take for the activity of a thorium
sample to be
reduced to 1 / 32 pf its original value?

11. The following symbols represent five nuclei (nuclides)

a. Which nuclei are isotopes of each other?

b. Which nuclei could be produced from which other by emission of an alpha particle?
c. Which nuclei could be produced from which other by emission of a beta particle?
d. Which nuclide posses most neutrons?

12. What changes in the mass and charge of an atom take place if it emits;
a. an alpha particle?
b. beta particle?
c. a gamma ray?

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13. a. The isotope 238 U decays by alpha emission to an isotope of thorium, Th.
Compare the
92

238
U and thorium nuclei, explaining the changes that have occurred in the uranium
nucleus.
92

b. The thorium nucleus decays by beta emission to an isotope of protactinium, Pa.

Compare the
thorium and protactinium nuclei accounting for the changes you describe.

14. a. Give two uses of beta radiation

b. Mention two industrial uses of radioisotopes.
c.(i) Give two uses of radioactive tracers’
(ii) why is it important to use radioactive tracers with short half-lives.

15. The figure below shows a thickness monitoring system

Figure 5.15
Figure 5.16(a) Figure 5.15(b)

(a) Which sheet of paper in A or B is thicker? Give a reason for your answer.
(b) Why is beta radiation source used, rather than an alpha radiation.

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