SCIENCE

rift. is formed between continental

plates.

The most well-known rift valley on Earth is

the socalled "Great Rift Valley System"
PLATE BOUNDERIES which stretches from the Middle East in the
north to Mozambique in the south. The
The movement of Earth's tectonic plates area is geologically active, and features
shape the planet's surface. volcanoes, hot springs, geysers, and frequent
- are the lines at the edges of the earthquakes.
different pieces of the Lithosphere.
- Lithospheric plates are moving due to
the convection current in the Earth’s
interior.
- Most geologic activities, including
volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain
building, take place at plate
boundaries.

DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDERIES

- is formed when two tectonic plates
move apart from each other creating
tension. Molten rocks called magma to
rise from the Earth’s mantle to the CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY
surface. - is formed when two plates move
- The Earth’s surface is cool enough to toward each other. (COLLIDE)
solidify the magma that rose, thus, - is also called a destructive boundary.
creating new oceanic crust or seafloor. - has three types: Oceanic
- is also known as a constructive Continental plate boundary, Two
boundary. Oceanic plate boundary, and Two
- The mid-ocean ridge is formed by the Continental plate boundary.
divergence between oceanic plates.
MID-OCEAN RIDGE
- is the most extensive chain of
mountains on Earth, stretching nearly
65,000 kilometers (40,390 miles) and
with more than 90 percent of the
mountain range lying in the deep
ocean.

Two well-studied mid-ocean ridges within Two oceanic plate boundary

the global system are the Mid-Atlantic Ridge - The oceanic plate bends down into
and the East Pacific Rise. the mantle through the The leading
edge of the subducted plate melts in
MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE the mantle and magma rises forming a
- Formed due to separation of tectonic continental volcanic arc in
plates on both sides of ocean. oceaniccontinental plate boundary,
CONTINENTAL RIFT VALLEY which is parallel to the trench that is
- is a lowland region that forms where formed due to subduction.
Earth’s tectonic plates move apart, or
 - while in two oceanic plate boundary,
island volcanic arc is formed
parallel to the trench.
- An earthquake occurs at this
boundary.
Two continental plate boundary
- With two continental plates
converging, a tension zone is formed.
Both plates collide and buckle up
causing mountain ranges such as
the Himalayas Mountain ranges.

PILA KA KILOMETER ANG NADIG NA SA

MGA GEOLOGISTS AND SCIENTISTS?
- There is no subduction, no trench,
and no volcanoes formed in this type
of convergent boundary.
- E.g., Sierra Madre
- Hugs the eastern coast of the
Northern and Central Luzon, is 565
kilometers longs, the longest
mountain system in the Philippines.

TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARY

- is formed when two plates are sliding
past each other.
- It is also called the Strike-slip fault.
Rocks that line the boundary split into
pieces as the plates slip at each other.
- A crack is then formed creating an
undersea canyon or linear fault
- 12 km. deep
valley.
- 7.45645 miles

LAYERS OF THE
EARTH
The Earth is made up of 3 main layers:
- Crust
- Mantle
- Core

CRUST
 - Thinnest layer of the Earth very slowly in response to the “convecting”
- Made up of large amounts of silicon part of the mantle.
and aluminum The crust of the Earth is broken into many
- Composed of plates on which the pieces called plates. The plates "float" on the
continents and oceans rest. These soft, semi-rigid asthenosphere.
“ride” over molten mantle.
- Crust is part of the lithosphere.
- Two types of Crust: Oceanic and
Continental

MANTLE
- The Mantle is the largest layer of the
Earth at 2900 km thick.
- The middle mantle is composed of
very hot dense rock that flows like
CONTINENTAL VS OCEANIC CRUST asphalt under a heavy weight.
CATERGOR CONTINENTA OCEANIC - The movement of the middle mantle
Y L (asthenosphere) is the reason that the
crustal plates of the Earth move.
Rock type Granite Basalt ASTHENOSPHERE
- The asthenosphere is the semi-rigid
Thickness 5-70 km 3-8 km part of the middle mantle that flows
(thicker) (thinner) like hot asphalt under a heavy weight.
State Solid Solid - asthenosphere (“weak sphere”) is a
soft layer of the mantle on which
Crust age 4 billion 180 million pieces of the lithosphere move. It is
years years old/ made of solid rock that, like putty,
old/older younger
flows slowly- at about the same rate
Density Less Dense More
your fingernails grow.
Dense/
Denser The middle mantle "flows" because of
Element Oxygen, Iron, convection currents.
Composition Sodium, Magnesium Convection currents
Silicon, . Calcium - are caused by the very hot material
Aluminum, at the deepest part of the mantle
Potassium rising being less dense, then
cooling becoming more dense and
The Lithosphere sinking again --repeating this cycle
- The crust and the upper layer of the over and over.
mantle together make up a zone of CORE
rigid, brittle rock called the - Composition: Molten (liquid) metal
Lithosphere. that is about 4,700°C (8,500°F)
- Thickness: 2,266 km (1,400) miles
The lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) is - State of Matter: Composed of the
divided into separate plates which move melted metals nickel and iron
(liquid)
 - Located about 1,800 miles beneath EARTHQUAKES & SEISMIC WAVES
the crust EARTHQUAKES
- Vibration of Earth produced by the rapid
INNER CORE release of energy most often due to the
slippage along a fault in the Earth’s crust.
- • Solid sphere made mostly of iron and has
Nickel
4 REASONS OF EARTHQUAKES
- It is believed to be as hot as 6,650°C - Induced Quakes (Human Activities)
(12,000°F) - Collapsed Quakes (Mining)
- Heat in the core generated by the - Volcanic Quakes (Active Volcanism)
radioactive decay of uranium and other - Tectonic Quakes (Plate Tectonics)
elements FAULT
- It is solid because of the pressure from the - A fracture/crack in the rocks that makeup
outer core, mantle, and crust compressing it. the Earth’s crust.
- Thickness: 1271 km (800 miles) FOCUS
- That is the point along the fault line where
TEMPERATURE INCREASES AS DEPTH the rock under stress breaks.
EPICENTER
INCREASES.
- Is the point on the earth’s surface directly
above the Focus.
PROPERTY CRUST MANTLE CORE
Fraction of <1% of ~70% ~30% Seismic Waves
earth mass - are the waves of energy caused by the
State “Broke Plastic (Semi sudden breaking of rock within the earth
n Rock” -) or an explosion. They are the energy that
liquid travels through the Earth.
Depth (km) 0-30 30-3030 3030-
6370 Types of Seismic Waves
Density (g.) 2.7 3.5-5.5 10-12  Surface Waves
Represen. SiO2 (Fe,Mg) Fe, Ni  Body Waves
Chem. SiO4
Comp. Types of Surface Waves
Temp. 300-500 500- 3000- - Love Wave
3000 5300 - Rayleigh Wave
Pressure 1-1000 103-106 106- Types of Body Wave
(Atmos.) 107 - Primary Wave
- Secondary Wave
Density and Pressure increase as depth
increases Surface Waves
- are typically generated when the source of
the earthquake is close to the Earth’s
Which layer of the Earth has the greatest
surface.
temperature, pressure, and density? - Can only travel through the surface of
- CORE the Earth.
- How far have scientists drilled into the - Travel slower; arrive after the main P and
earth? •7.6 miles=12 km – Only 0.2% S waves.
of the distance to the earth’s core - Larger in amplitude and are often the
most destructive type of seismic wave
How do we know so much about what’s Love Wave
under Earth’s surface? - Named after A.E.H. Love
• Through INDIRECT EVIDENCE, mostly - They move the ground from side to
side in a horizontal plane but at right
from seismic waves caused by earthquakes
angles to the direction of propagation.
(more on this later this semester...)
- are particularly damaging to the
• Sometimes indirect evidence is the only foundations of structures
option for scientists to develop a theory.
 - can also cause horizontal shearing of - It is not possible to shear or twist a liquid,
the ground. so S-waves cannot propagate through
- usually travel slightly faster than bodies of water, such as oceans and
Rayleigh waves, at a speed that is lakes.
usually about 10% slower than S-waves, - S-waves are typically 40 percent slower
but like S-waves, they cannot spread than P-waves in any given material and
through water. have velocities ranging from
Rayleigh Wave approximately 900–4,500 m/s. Despite
- Named after John William Strutt, Lord their slower speed, S-waves are often
Rayleigh more destructive than P-waves because
- also known as ground roll, spread they can have larger amplitudes and can
through the ground as ripples, similar to cause greater levels of ground shaking
rolling waves on the ocean.
- It moves both vertically and
horizontally in a vertical plane pointed in
the direction in which the waves are
travelling.
BODY WAVE
- Can travel through the Earth’s inner
layers.
- Used by scientist to study the Earth’s
interior.
- Of higher frequency than the surface
waves.

Primary Wave
- is called the primary wave or pressure
wave, and is commonly referred to as P-
waves. Andrija Mohorovicic-was a Croatian
- travels at the greatest velocity through geophysicist. He is best known for the
the ground. As they spread out, they eponymous Mohorovičić discontinuity and is
alternately push (compress) and pull considered one of the founders of modern
(expand) the ground as they move seismology.
through it.
- P-waves are able to travel through both Emanuele Repetti (1776-1852)- an Italian
solid rock and liquid material, such as historian and naturalist who wrote extensively
volcanic magma or oceans. on the history of Tuscany.
- They travel at velocities ranging from
1,600–8,000 m/s, depending on the Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg-
material they’re moving through. a political exile from Mainz, Germany when he
Secondary Wave began experimenting with printing in
- shear wave or shaking wave, and is Strasbourg, France in 1440. a German
commonly referred to as S-waves. S- inventor, printer, publisher, and goldsmith
waves are a transverse waveform that who introduced printing to Europe with his
shears the ground sideways at right mechanical movable-type printing press.
angles to the direction of travel.
- S-waves have different effects on the Inge Lehmann- Danish seismologist best known
ground surface depending on their for her discovery of the inner core of Earth in
polarisation and direction of travel. 1936 by using seismic wave data.
Horizontally polarised
- S-waves will move the ground from side to
side (left and right) relative to the direction
they’re moving. Vertically polarised S-
waves will move the ground up and down
relative to the direction of travel.