Epic and romance:(pg 41)

The Change in Literary Sensibility: After 1100, literature changed from focusing on epics to
focusing on romances.

What is Romance?
Romance was a popular type of story in medieval times. The word comes from romauris, meaning
stories written in French. It also refers to languages that came from Latin. Many romances were written
in English. In literature, "romance" means a marvellous or adventurous story. The term "romance" is
used to describe this genre to avoid confusion with "Romantic," which refers to an 18th-century style
inspired by medieval romance. (The modern meaning of "romance" as a love story came much later.)

The first surviving Middle English work of note is Layamon's Brut (around 1200), written in the Old
English heroic style.

In Brut, the Romans conquer Britain, but the Britons, led by Lucius, later reconquer Rome. The Britons
fight bravely under King Arthur against the Saxons. Arthur is about to conquer Europe but must return
from the Alps to stop a rebellion by his nephew Mordred. Arthur is fatally wounded at the Battle of
Camlann and is taken to the island of Avalon. According to Merlin's prophecy, Arthur will return one day.
Geoffrey of Monmouth ends the story in the 6th century with King Cadwallader, after whom the Britons
became weak and were defeated by the Saxons.

Who Was King Arthur?

If Arthur was a real person, he might have defeated the Saxons at the Battle of Mons Badonicus around
510. However, the Arthur in literature is tied to the age of chivalry and the Crusades after 1100.

Layamon's Brut
Layamon, a priest from Worcestershire, wrote Brut in a region where old poetry traditions survived. He
was a skilled storyteller, and the vivid descriptions of battles in his work influenced later writers like
Barbour in Bruce (1375) and the author of the Alliterative Morte (around 1400). Layamon’s style was
influenced by Old English poetry, but his metre was rough. He used old poetic formulas less effectively
and combined irregular alliteration with internal rhymes.

From Gestes to Romances

Between the 11th and 13th centuries, literature shifted from gestes (songs about heroic deeds, based on
the Latin res gestae, meaning “things done”) to romances of chivalry. This change reflected the rise of
feudalism. A knight’s duty to serve God and the king was more than just an honourable code in stories—
it had religious and legal importance. Chivalry was both real and literary, and its cultural influence
spread through romance stories.
What Were Romances About?
Romances told stories of adventurous and noble deeds. At first, these stories were about battles, but
knights also fought to protect or honour ladies. This introduced new values like love and courtesy.
Although romances became popular with the public, they began as entertainment for the upper classes,
similar to feasting, hunting, reading, playing chess, or pursuing love. Over time, the warrior figure was
replaced by the knight, who not only fought but also wooed ladies. The theme of love in literature
became more refined and sophisticated.

Courtly literature:(pg 42,43,44)

During the Middle Ages, the gap between knights (chevaliers) and commoners (vilains) became larger
and was passed down through families. A special type of literature was created for the royal courts.
French rulers, who had gained power through conquest, enjoyed stories about ancient times, such as
those about Thebes, Aeneas, Troy, and Alexander the Great.

In 1165, Benoît de Sainte-Maure wrote a 30,000-line poem called *Roman de Troie* for Eleanor of
Aquitaine’s court. These ancient stories were known as "the matter of Rome," which means stories from
classical antiquity. The romances about Alexander the Great included many wonders, while the stories
of Aeneas often focused on Queen Dido, who was abandoned by Aeneas when he left to found Rome.
However, stories about King Arthur, called "the matter of Britain," were more popular with women.
Even Chaucer’s *Nun’s Priest’s Tale* mentions this tradition in its "Tale of the Cock and Hen."

The romance genre has had a lasting influence. It inspired fantasy works like Edmund Spenser’s *Faerie
Queene* and Gothic novels. It also influenced more realistic stories, like Daniel Defoe’s *Robinson
Crusoe* and Samuel Richardson’s *Pamela* in the 1700s. In the 1800s, it shaped the happy endings in
Jane Austen’s novels. Fantasy stories became popular again in the late 1900s.

Medieval institutions:(pg44)
Before looking at the rise of English poetry during the reign of Richard II (1377–99), it’s important to
understand the institutions and ways of thinking that shaped this new literature.

The most important institution was the Church. Unlike modern literature, which focuses on everyday life and
is written mostly by ordinary people, the Church influenced European thought, culture, and art for over 1,000
years. The clergy were the main providers of education, arts, and literature, including writings that criticized
the Church. Bishops and priests, called "seculars," lived among the people and offered services like preaching
and sacraments. Monks, nuns, and later friars, known as "religious," were responsible for most higher
education and culture. Schools in monastic cathedrals in cities like Winchester, Canterbury, and Westminster
(near London) played a key role in educating people.

Authority:(pg 45)
In academics, intellectual authority came from well-known authors (*auctores* in Latin), like Augustine in
theology and Boethius in philosophy. Writers, whether religious or non-religious, and whether writing in Latin
or local languages, relied on these earlier authors for credibility. These *auctores* held great influence, and
even today, the names of famous authors can sometimes be more powerful than their actual writings.

A simple example is how people often quote Shakespeare to make a point. His name alone adds weight to
the idea, even if they don’t fully understand or explain his original work.

Lyrics:(pg46)
In the early 12th century, the nightingale became a symbol of love in Provençal poems. These early courtly
love poems compared a man’s service to a lady with the loyalty a servant owed to his lord. This idea of love
wasn’t part of classical literature. The Provençal songs were more refined and richer than the love poems in
North French and English. Still, the theme of love inspired by birds can also be found in the early 14th-century
Harley manuscript.

English prose:(pg48)
One important saint's story from the early 13th century is the life of St. Katherine, which is part of a collection
called the Katherine Group. These texts were written for nuns in Herefordshire. The collection also includes
the lives of St. Margaret and St. Juliana, along with the *Ancrene Riwle*, a set of rules for anchoresses
(female hermits). Later, this was rewritten as the *Ancrene Wisse* or *Anchoresses' Guide*. These works are
the first major examples of early Middle English prose.

The fourth century:

Spiritual writing(pg 48,49)
Spiritual writing, which aims to discipline the soul and grow closer to God, started in Middle English with
Richard Rolle (c. 1300–1349). This kind of writing had been revived by Bernard of Clairvaux, although English
mystical writing goes back to the 8th-century poem *The Dream of the Rood*. Rolle studied at Oxford and
Paris, and his Latin works were widely read in Europe. His English writings include *Ego Dormio* ("I sleep"), a
reflection on the Old Testament *Song of Songs*, interpreting it as a symbol of Christ's love for the Church
and the soul.

Julian of Norwich(pg 49)

Julian of Norwich (c. 1343–c. 1413/27) is the greatest English spiritual writer before George Herbert and one
of the first great English prose writers. She experienced her *Revelations* during a near-fatal illness in 1373,
at the age of thirty. Margery Kempe visited her in Norwich in 1413.

Julian recorded her "showings," reflected deeply on them, and later expanded her writings. She had prayed
to God for three things: to remember His Passion, to have an illness that would bring her closer to Him, and
to feel true repentance, compassion, and longing for Him. In May 1373, she received a "showing" of the
Passion.

Secular prose(50)
After the Peterborough Chronicle ended in 1154, English secular prose—non-religious writing—was mostly
used for practical purposes. But during the reign of Richard II, English became more commonly used. John
Trevisa translated both a French encyclopedia and a Latin world history. He also observed that by 1385,
grammar schools were teaching in English instead of French, and children "know no more French than their
left heel."

Richardian poetry(pg 51)

During Richard II's reign, Middle English poetry became highly developed. In addition to outstanding lyric
poetry and religious prose, there were lively Arthurian verse romances like the *Stanzaic Morte* and the
*Alliterative Morte*. The revival of alliterative verse led to three great poems: *Piers Plowman*, *Sir Gawain
and the Green Knight*, and *Pearl*, along with two other excellent poems found in the *Gawain*
manuscript. Verse drama was also popular, though the surviving examples are from the 15th century.

John Gower(pg 55)

John Gower (c. 1330–1408) wrote *Mirour de l'Omme* (*Mirror of Mankind*), a long moral poem in French,
in the 1370s. His Latin poem *Vox Clamantis* speaks out against the social problems of his time. His English
poem *Confessio Amantis* (*A Lover's Confession*) exists in 50 manuscripts and three versions, with the
final version finished in 1393.
The parlement of fowls(pg 58)
Chaucer's first completed work is a dream, his second is an unfinished dream, and his next, *The Parlement
of Fowls*, is a dream that ends with a puzzle.

Troilus and Criseyde(pg 60)

The poem, set in Troy during the tenth year of the siege, consists of 8,239 lines and is divided into five books.

The Canterbury Tales(pg 61)

Chaucer's final work, *The Canterbury Tales*, is considered his most popular English verse today. Its opening
line, "When that April with his shoures soote," is very well-known. The "sweet showers of April" bring life to
the dry earth of March, symbolizing the renewal of Spring. This opening, welcoming the April showers and
the classical god of the West Wind, is often seen as the start of English literature. In 1922, T.S. Eliot began his
poem *The Waste Land* with "April is the cruellest month," reversing Chaucer’s positive view. However, it’s
better to see Chaucer’s opening line as proof that English poetry, already over seven centuries old, had
successfully adapted new European literary traditions.

The fifteenth century(pg 64)

Chaucer and Gower were buried outside the City of London, in the churches in Westminster and Southwark,
where they had lived. The grave of the author of *Piers Plowman* is unknown, and we don’t know who
wrote *Gawain*. It wasn’t until 1599, when poetry became more publicly recognized, that Edmund Spenser
was buried near Chaucer in Westminster Abbey, in a place later called Poets' Corner. Spenser, along with
some Scottish poets, is considered to have reached the same high level of quality as Chaucer.

Drama:
Mystery plays(pg 65)
English drama began in the Catholic Church. After the 10th century, liturgical dramas spread across Europe,
telling Biblical stories in Latin and local languages. These plays are known as Miracle or Mystery plays. An
early example is the Anglo-Norman *Mystère d'Adam*, written in England around 1140. Although the
Reformation banned these plays in England, they continued in Catholic parts of Europe.
The term "Mystery" likely comes from two sources: the French word *métier* (from Latin *ministerium*),
meaning "craft," and the Latin *mysterium*, meaning "what was performed." Like Greek tragedy, which
began with religious rituals, medieval European drama started with the representation of central Christian
stories in the Mass and the Church's annual services.

Christmas plays began with the angel’s announcement to Mary, her response, and dialogues with Joseph,
shepherds, and kings. Easter plays started with Christ’s entry into Jerusalem, featuring processions with palm
branches. Drama originated in the Church, with clerics serving as writers and main actors.

Morality plays(pg 67)

Morality plays of the 15th and 16th centuries focused on the fate of individual humans and were performed
by traveling theater groups. *The Castle of Perseverance* (c. 1405) is a large-scale play with 36 actors, meant
for an open-air stage. It portrays the life of Human Kind from birth to death, featuring a symbolic battle
between virtue and vice, much like the ending of *King Lear*.

Other examples, such as *Mankind* (1465) and *Everyman* (c. 1510), depict the lives of ordinary humans
through dialogues with allegorical characters like Fellowship and Good Deeds. The influence of these Morality
plays is evident in Marlowe’s *Dr. Faustus*, with its introspective protagonist, the Good and Bad Angels, and
its clear moral lesson.

Religious lyric(pg 67)

Religious lyrics originated from Latin songs and hymns, which were introduced into the Latin Church in the
4th century.

The arrival of printing(pg 70,71)

The significance of *Le Morte Darthur* is greatly due to its printing by William Caxton (1422–1491). Caxton,
an entrepreneur, learned printing in Cologne and Bruges and set up a printing press near Westminster Abbey
in 1476. Out of the 80 books he printed, most were religious. However, his first publication was a translation
of a history of Troy, and he also printed *The Canterbury Tales* in 1477.

Tudor Literature (1500--1603)

Overview(pg 77)
The hopes of humanists and early Renaissance writers were disrupted by the Reformation and the rule of
Henry VIII. However, the literary Renaissance was revived in the late 1570s by writers like Sidney and
Spenser. The 1590s brought an extraordinary rise in non-dramatic poetry, translations, and flourishing drama.
This golden age also produced a variety of prose that was skillful, engaging, and dignified.

Medieval and Modern: A Warning(pg 77)

As shown earlier in this book, the idea that English literature begins with Shakespeare is incorrect. The belief
that it starts with the Renaissance is also wrong. These errors come from national pride, tied to England
becoming an independent nation-state after Henry VIII’s break with Rome and Europe.

Even focusing only on works in English and ignoring Anglo-Saxon achievements, it’s clear that English
literature existed long before modern English literature. Drama existed before Chaucer, poetry reached
international excellence in the late 14th century, and prose matured with writers like Julian of Norwich and
Sir Thomas Malory. Modern English literature was already thriving well before Henry VIII’s reign.

Renaissance and reformation:

Definition: The Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement that began in Italy in the late 14th
century and spread across Europe. It marked a revival of interest in the classical arts, literature, and
philosophy of ancient Greece and Rome, along with a focus on humanism, emphasizing the potential of
individual achievement and reason.

Start & Origin: The Renaissance began in Italy in the 14th century and spread to other parts of Europe in
the 15th and 16th centuries. It coincided with the decline of medieval feudalism and the rise of the modern
nation-state.

Who Started It: The movement was influenced by earlier scholars, but key figures like Petrarch (Italian
poet) and Boccaccio (Italian writer) are credited with laying the groundwork for the Renaissance. In England,
the Renaissance is often considered to have begun in the late 15th century.

Important Writers:
- Sir Philip Sidney: A key figure in English Renaissance poetry, known for *Astrophel and Stella*.

- Edmund Spenser: Best known for *The Faerie Queene*, a monumental epic poem.

- William Shakespeare: Arguably the most famous Renaissance writer, known for his plays and sonnets.
- Christopher Marlowe: A playwright and poet, famous for works like *Doctor Faustus*.

- Thomas More: A scholar and author of *Utopia*, exploring political and social themes.

The English Renaissance saw a flourishing of both poetry and drama, setting the stage for the later
developments of modern English literature.

The Seven University Wits are:

1. Christopher Marlowe

2. Robert Greene

3. Thomas Nashe

4. George Peele

5. Thomas Lodge

6. Edward Alleyn

7. Matthew Roydon

These writers were all educated at English universities and made significant contributions to the
development of English drama during the Renaissance period.

Shakespeare and the Drama

Overview(pg 108)
Shakespeare's early life included his family, marriage, and a period of obscurity. He was first mentioned as a
playwright and actor in London at age 28, right when a new wave of poetic drama began. After the deaths of
Kyd and Marlowe, the stage was left for him.

Shakespeare wrote about two plays a year for twenty years. He started with comedies and histories (which
he perfected), then moved to tragedies, and finally, romances. Half of his plays are only known from the First
Folio, which was introduced by his successor, Ben Jonson.

William Shakespeare's Life(pg 108)

Shakespeare was born in 1564 in Stratford, a market town in Warwickshire, on the River Avon. He was the
oldest son and third of eight children. His father, John Shakespeare, was a glover, and his mother, Mary
Arden, came from a family of landowners. In 1568, John Shakespeare became the mayor (bailiff) of Stratford.

Shakespeare attended Holy Trinity Church with his father, where he likely learned a lot. He had three
brothers and two sisters, with three other sisters dying in childhood. Their home was surrounded by
meadows, orchards, and parks. He also saw the public life of the town, although his father’s role in it
decreased over time. Traveling actors visited Stratford, and nearby Coventry hosted annual performances of
the Mystery plays every June for the feast of Corpus Christi.

Like many people in Warwickshire at the time, Shakespeare’s parents were raised as Catholics.

The Plays Preserved(pg 111)

When Shakespeare died in 1616, half of his plays had not been printed. However, in 1623, two of his fellow
actors published a collection of his plays. This collection included thirty-six plays in a large book, called
*Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies*, which had almost nine hundred pages. During Shakespeare's lifetime,
his acting company had also published nineteen of his plays in small editions, known as Quarto editions,
which were often reprinted.

Luck and Fame(pg 112)

Shakespeare joined the theatre at a time when it was becoming very popular, during a period of intellectual
excitement, cultural confidence, and rich language. He was lucky that his English is still easy to understand
today.

The Drama(pg 112)

Drama had moved out of the church and into the streets three centuries earlier, but the Mystery plays, which
told biblical stories in all-day performances on holy days, still continued during Shakespeare's time. The
Reformation had moved much of the spectacle from the Church to the State, and the Church’s power had
weakened. Because of this, the theatre became the main place for discussing important issues. Drama
became very popular and attracted a large new audience. Theatres were built by commercial companies
outside the City, especially along the South Bank of the Thames, where entertainment was allowed that was
not permitted in the City.

Christopher Marlowe(pg 114)

Shakespeare became more famous than Lyly and Kyd, but he learned a lot from his contemporary,
Christopher Marlowe (born in 1564). Marlowe was killed in a tavern in 1593. He first showed his talent with
his play *Tamburlaine the Great* (1587).

The "mighty line" refers to blank verse, a type of poetry with five stressed syllables per line, which hadn’t
been used since the play *Gorboduc* in 1561. Marlowe made this verse powerful with its strong rhythm,
helping him create impressive and dramatic phrases.

Christopher Marlowe is known for his impactful plays, mostly tragedies and a few historical works. Here are
some of his famous plays:

1. Tragedies:
- Tamburlaine the Great (Parts 1 and 2)

- Dr. Faustus

- The Jew of Malta

- Edward II

2. History:
- The Massacre at Paris (a historical play)

3. Romance/Tragicomedy:
- Marlowe didn’t write explicitly in the genre of romance or tragicomedy, though some of his works, such as
*Dr. Faustus*, explore elements of both tragedy and supernatural themes.

Marlowe’s works are mostly known for their dramatic intensity, use of blank verse, and exploration of
themes like ambition, power, and human desires.