Student Manual

Subject

Networking Engineer
Vol.01

Empowering Youth!
 Networking Engineer

Submitted to :- Submitted By :- Sterlite Technologies Ltd

Bihar Skill Development Mission, Labour Resources
Department, GoB Session : 2022-23

Course name:

•
•
Course Id-

•
Candidate Eligibility : Diploma/ Graduate
Course Duration: (In hours) 640

CONTACT DETAILS OF THE BODY SUBMITTING THE QUALIFICATION FILE

Name and address of submitting body:

Sterlite Technologies Ltd

Name and contact details of individual dealing with the submission

Name : Mrs./Mr. Srikant Pattnaik

Position in the organization : Manager

Tel number(s) (Mobile no.) : 9702048264

Website : www.stlacad.tech

E-mail address : [email protected]

BIHAR SKILL DEVELOPMENT MISSION – Sterlite Technology Pvt. Ltd.

 NETWORKING ENGINEER
STUDENT GUIDE

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 About the Student Guide

The student guide contains modules which will help you to acquire relevant knowledge and skills
(generic and domain-specific skills) related to the ‘Networking Engineer’ job role. Knowledge in each
module is easily understood and grasped by you before you move on to the next module.
Comprehensible diagrams & images from world of work have been included to bring about visual
appeal and to make the text lively and interactive for you. You can also try to create your own
illustrations using your imagination or taking the help of your trainer.

Let us now see what the sections in the modules have for you.

Section 1: Learning Outcome

This section introduces you to the learning objectives and knowledge criteria covered in the module.
It also tells you what you will learn through the various topics covered in the module.

Section 2: Relevant Knowledge

This section provides you with the knowledge to achieve relevant skill and proficiency to perform tasks
of the Networking Engineer. The knowledge developed through the module will enable you to perform
certain activities related to the job market. You should read through the textual information to develop
an understanding on the various aspects of the module before you complete the exercise(s).

Section 3: Exercises

Each module has exercises, which you should practice on completion of the learning sessions of the
module. You will perform the activities in the classroom, at home or at the workplace. The activities
included in this section will help you to develop necessary knowledge, skills and attitude that you need
for becoming competent in performing the tasks at workplace. The activities should be done under
the supervision of your trainer who will guide you in completing the tasks and also provide feedback
to you for improving your performance.

Section 4: Assessment Questionnaire

The review questions included in this section will help you to check your progress. You must be able
to answer all the questions before you proceed to the next module.

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 CONTENTS
MODULE 1 Introduction to Fiber Optics, Transceivers, Cables and Connectors 1
1.1 Physics of Ray of Light 1
1.2 Newton’s and Huygen’s Principle 5
1.3 Geometry of Optical Fiber 9
1.4 Principle of Fiber Optics - Total Internal Reflection 10
1.5 Optical Fiber Communication System 11
1.6 Applications and Advantages of Optical Fiber 12
1.7 Propagation of Light in Optical Fiber 14
1.8 Classification of Optical Fiber 17
1.9 Optical Fiber Communication Wavelengths 20
1.10 Attenuation in Optical Fiber 21
1.11 Dispersion in Optical Fiber 23
1.12 Grades of Optical Fiber 25
1.13 Fiber Optic Transmitter and Receivers 26
1.14 Components of Optical Fiber Cable 35
1.15 Optical Fiber Colour Codes 38
1.16 Classification of Fiber Optic Cable 39
1.17 Types of Fiber Optic Cables 40
1.18 Cable Bending Radius and Pulling Tension 47
1.19 Introduction to Fiber Optic Connectors 48
1.20 Connector Polishes and Insertion Loss 50
1.21 Types of Fiber Optic Connectors 51
1.22 Inspection and Cleaning of Connectors 54
Exercises 56
Assessment Questionnaire 5

MODULE 2 Application of DWDM 61

2.1 Fiber Optic Networking Standards 61
2.2 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) 64
2.3 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) 65
2.4 Course Wave Division Multiplexing (CWDM) 66
2.5 Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) 68
2.6 Optical Multiplexer and Demultiplexer 70
2.7 Optical Transponder 74
2.8 Muxponder 77
2.9 Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer (ROADM) 80
2.10 Optical Amplifiers and Regenerations 83
Exercises 88
Assessment Questionnaire 88
MODULE 3 GPON Technology and Global Broadband Network Deployment 90
3.1 PON (Passive Optical Network) 90
3.2 GPON (Gigabit Passive Optical Network) 93
3.3 GPON Data Multiplexing 95
3.4 GPON ITU-T Standards 97
3.5 User Story from Broadband Networks Deployment in various Nations 99
Exercises 106
Assessment Questionnaire 106

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MODULE 4 Occupational Health and Safety 107
4.1 Introduction to Workplace Safety and Hazards 107
4.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 109
4.3 Optical Fiber Laser Classes and Safety 110
4.4 Optical Fiber Risks & Safety 112
4.5 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) 113
4.6 General Electrical Safety 117
4.7 Cabling Safety 117
4.8 Telecom Equipment and Rack Grounding 118
4.9 Fire Safety 121
4.10 Medical Care at Site 123
Exercises 127
Assessment Questionnaire 127
MODULE 5 Condition-based Asset Management and Optical Spectrum Analyser 128
5.1 Fiber Distribution Management System 128
5.2 DWDM Mux Ports and Connections 131
5.3 Condition-based Asset Management 135
5.4 Optical Spectrum Analyzer 139
Exercises 142
Assessment Questionnaire 142
MODULE 6 Optical Link Testing Procedures 143
6.1 Optical Link Budget Calculation for Long Distance Links 143
6.2 Optical Link Budget Calculation for FTTx Links 145
6.3 Introduction to OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer) 147
6.4 Working Principle of OTDR 148
6.5 OTDR Test Parameters Configuration 150
6.6 OTDR Performance Parameters 154
6.7 OTDR Undesirable Properties 156
6.8 Housekeeping of OTDR 158
6.9 Light Source and Power Meter (LS & PM) 158
6.10 Visual Fault Locator (VFL) 160
6.11 Fiber Detection Meter 161
6.12 Optical Attenuators 161
6.13 Optical Dispersion Analyzer 163
6.14 JDSU (Viavi) Optical Testing Instruments 164
6.15 Anritsu Optical Testing Instruments 174
6.16 DWDM System Testing 176
Exercises 179
Assessment Questionnaire 180
MODULE 7 Functions and Classification of Network Elements 182
7.1 Fiber Ring Network 182
7.2 Design of Ring based - WDM Transport Networks 185
7.3 Design of Mesh based - WDM Transport Networks 189
7.4 Comparison of Network Architectures 193
7.5 Network Scalability 193
Exercises 195
Assessment Questionnaire 195

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MODULE 8 Digital Radios/Microwave Transmission Theory 196
8.1 Wireless Backhaul and Radio Parameters 196
8.2 Introduction to Microwave Communication 199
8.3 Classification of Microwave Link System 201
8.4 Components of Microwave Links 202
8.5 Microwave System Installation, Link Alignment and Testing 207
8.6 Point to Multipoint Radio Link Deployment 208
Exercises 217
Assessment Questionnaire 218

MODULE 9 Basic Electrical System and Power Protection 219

9.1 Introduction to Power Surge 219
9.2 Surge Protection Devices (SPDs) 222
9.3 Concept of Earthing 226
9.4 Integrated Earthing System 227
9.5 Methods of Earthing 231
9.6 Batteries in Telecom Power System 238
9.7 -48V and +24V Telecom Power System 242
Exercises 245
Assessment Questionnaire 245

MODULE 10 Quality of Service (QoS) 246

10.1 Service Level Agreement (SLA) 246
10.2 80-20 Rule 251
10.3 Importance and Improvement of Quality of Service (QoS) 253
Exercises 256
Assessment Questionnaire 256

MODULE 11 Photonics Switching and OTN 257

11.1 Higher-Order Density of DWDM Deployments 257
11.2 Out-of-band Network Restoration by DCN 259
11.3 DWDM Alarms and Indicators 262
11.4 DWDM System Performance Monitoring 264
11.5 HP Open View and Network Node Manager 266
11.6 Right of Way 268
11.7 Micro-Trenching 270
11.8 Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD) 271
11.9 Fiber Splicing 274
11.10 Preventive, Corrective & Planned Maintenance 282
Exercises 286
Assessment Questionnaire 286

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 MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTICS, TRANSCEIVERS, CABLES
AND CONNECTORS

Section 1: Learning Outcomes

After completing this module, you will be able to:
 Explain Physics of Ray of Light
 Explain Netwon’s and Huygen’s Theory of Light
 Describe the Geometry of Optical Fiber
 Explain Principle of Fiber Optics - Total Internal Reflection
 Describe Optical Fiber Communication System
 State Applications and Advantages of Optical Fiber
 Explain the Propagation of Light in Optical Fiber
 Classify Optical Fibers, Cables and Connectors
 Describe Optical Fiber Communication Wavelengths and their properties
 Explain performance parameters of optical fiber viz. Attenuation and Dispersion
 Distinguish between characteristics and application of different Grades of Optical Fiber
 Explain the use and design of various Fiber Optic Transceivers
 Describe the structure, colour codes and application of various Optical Fiber Cables and
Connectors
 Inspect and Clean Fiber Optic Connectors
 Calculate cable Bending Radius

Section 2: Relevant Knowledge
1.1 Physics of Ray of Light
Wavelength
 Wavelength is the distance between two nearest amplitude positive peaks.
 The amplitude rises from 0 to a positive peak, goes through 0, goes to negative peak, then returns
back to 0.
 This is a complete cycle and the distance light travels during this cycle is called a wavelength.
 It is usually represented by the symbol λ and defined in Nanometers (nm).

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What is Light?
 Light is defined as the electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths between 380nm and 750 nm
which is visible to the human eye.

 Light travels in straight lines at a speed of 3,00,000 Km/Sec in

Vacuum.
 Light waves travel faster than sound waves!
 If light travels through an object it is Transparent
 If light is blocked by an object, it is Opaque.
 If some light passes through but not all it is Translucent.

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Light Ray
 The basic element in geometrical optics is the light ray, a hypothetical construct that indicates the
direction of the propagation of light at any point in space.
 Light rays are the flow of photons with wavelengths
 Light rays are straight in homogeneous media.
 Collection of light rays is called Beam of Light.

When light reaches an object, it is:

 Transmitted (Pass Through)
 Reflected
 Refracted
 Diffracted
 Absorbed
 Scattered

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Reflection
 Reflection is a phenomenon of light that
occurs when it impacts a surface that does not
fully absorb its radiant energy, resulting in the
light bouncing back from the boundary.
 An incident ray is a ray of light that
strikes a surface. The angle between
this ray and the perpendicular or normal to the surface is the
angle of incidence.
 The reflected ray corresponding to a given incident ray, is the ray that represents the light reflected
by the surface.
Refraction
 Refraction of light is the bending of light when it passes from one medium to another. This changes
the velocity of light depending on the density of the mediums.
 The angle between the surface normal and the reflected ray is known as the angle of reflection.
 The Law of Reflection says that for a specular (non-scattering) surface, the angle of reflection is
always equal to the angle of incidence.
Snell’s Law

 The refracted ray or transmitted ray corresponding to a given incident ray represents the light that
is transmitted through the surface.
 The angle between this ray and the normal is known as the angle of refraction, and it is given by
Snell's Law.

 The Snell's law of refraction states that: The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the
point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
 The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant for
the pair of the given media.

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Diffraction
 Diffraction of light is the bending of light around the edges of an object (waves are bent when they
encounter the edges of an object).
 Diffraction of light is defined as the bending of light around corners such that it spreads out and
illuminates areas where a shadow is expected. In general, it is hard to separate diffraction from
interference since both occur simultaneously.

Interference
 Interference is the phenomenon that happens when two waves merge, resulting in a higher, lower,
or zero amplitude wave.

Conditions For Interference

 The two sources of light should emit continuous waves of same wavelength and same time period
i.e. the source should have phase coherence.
 The two sources of light should be very close to each other.
 The waves emitted by two sources should either have zero phase difference or no phase
difference.
Coherent Sources
Those sources of light which emit light waves continuously of same wavelength, and time period,
frequency and amplitude and have zero phase difference or constant phase difference are coherent
sources.

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1.2 Newton’s and Huygen’s Principle
Huygen’s Principle
 Huygens’ theory states that each point in a source of light sends a wavefront in all directions in a
continuous and homogeneous medium called aether.
 He proved that his wave theory of light could explain the phenomena of diffraction, interference,
and reflection.
 Huygens showed that the edges of the shadows of the interference pattern are not perfectly sharp.
 As a result, Huygens concluded that light must be a wave and diffracts when it passes through an
opening.
 Huygens’ principle is now used to develop optics, for example, mirrors and lenses.

Newton’s Principle
 Isaac Newton studied the behaviour of light in his theory of colour.
 His theory of light was based on his laws of motion, as he thought of light as a straight-line motion
made out of small particles called corpuscles.
 Hence Newton’s theory of light is also known as the corpuscular theory.
 By studying the geometric nature of reflection and refraction of light, Newton concluded that light
is composed of coloured particles that combine to appear white.

 Newton noticed that reflection and refraction could only be possible if light is made up of particles
(or, as he called them, corpuscles).
 His theory of light states that light continuously emits small particles or corpuscles that seem to
change velocity when they pass from one medium to another with different densities.
 Therefore, the speed of light changes depending on the density of the medium it passes through.

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Newton’s Prism Experiment
 Newton conducted an experiment to disprove the wave theory of light and prove that light travels
as a flow of particles in a straight line instead of a wave.
 His experiment explained three main phenomena of light: reflection, refraction, and the rectilinear
propagation of light. However, his theory could not explain diffraction, which is a main property of
waves.
 He let one beam of sunlight (which is white light) pass through a glass prism.
 He observed that the light scattered into several colours resembling a rainbow.
 He named this multicoloured band of light a colour spectrum named ROYGBIV.

VIBGYOR
 Newton split the spectrum into seven categories of different colours, namely red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo, and violet (ROYGBIV) the exact reverse of VIBGYOR.
 There are different colors of light that correspond with narrow wavelength bands. These are clean
spectral colors namely VIBGYOR.

 The white light is a combination of various colors where every color can be connected with a
particular wavelength of light.
 For example, the blue light has a shorter wavelength compare with the red light. The deviation
angle by a PRISM cannot be the same for all the colors of light.
 Thus, the PRISM scatters white light into its ingredient colors.

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Newton’s Prism Experiment
 Newton then passed the beam of sunlight through a second prism that was held upside down so
that the spectrum passing through the first prism was recomposed into white light.
 Newton first thought that the colour spectrum was caused by the glass, but through his
experiments, he concluded that every colour has a specific angle of refraction.
 He observed that (a) all objects appear to be the same colour as the beam of coloured light that
illuminates them and (b) that a beam of coloured light will stay the same colour no matter how
many times it is reflected or refracted.
 This led him to conclude that colour is a property of the light that reflects from objects and not a
property of the objects themselves.

Newton’s vs Huygen’s Principles

 Isaac Newton's theory of light states that light is a straight-line motion made out of small particles
called corpuscles.
 Huygens theory of light states that light is made out of waves.
 Sir Isaac Newton proposed that light was made of tiny particles known as the photons while
Christian Huygens believed that light was made of waves propagating perpendicular to the
direction of its movement.

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1.3 Geometry of Optical Fiber
Definition of Optical Fiber
Optical Fiber is a composite material, usually consisting of a
silica-based core and cladding surrounded by one or two
layers of protective polymeric material.

What is Optical Fiber?

 An optical fiber is a waveguide for light.

 It consists of a Core and a Cladding that surrounds the core.
 Works on phenomenon of “Total Internal Reflection”.
 Light signals are sent down a plastic or glass hair-thin fiber called the Core.
 Each core is coated with a material called Cladding to prevent light from escaping.
 The cladding is coated with additional material or a buffer, which protects the fiber from physical
damage and moisture.
1.4 Principle of Fiber Optics - Total Internal Reflection
Refractive Index
 Light travels at 299,792,458 meters per second in vacuum. This speed of light in vacuum is usually
denoted by c.
 But light travels more slowly when it passes through a transparent material.
 The degree of slowing down depends on the material’s refractive index.
 Refractive index (n) of a transparent material (denoted by n) is defined as:
n=c/v
where c is the speed of light in vacuum, v is the speed of light (velocity) in this transparent material.

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  The refractive index of water is 1.33, meaning that light
travels 1.33 times as fast in a vacuum than it does in water.

 The refractive index of air at atmospheric pressure and

room temperature is 1.000293.

Clad : Glass with Lower Refractive Index (n2)

Core : Glass with Higher Refractive Index (n1)
n1 > n2
In typical optical fiber, the refractive index of the core
is 1.68 and the refractive index of clad is 1.44.

 When light is incident on a medium of lesser Refractive Index, the ray is bent away from the normal
i.e. exit angle is greater than the incident angle.
 On increasing the incident angle, the exit angle will approach 90°. This incident angle is called
Critical Angle (θc).
 For all incident angles greater than the critical angle, there will be Total Internal Reflection.

Critical Angle (θc) is the largest angle of incidence for which refraction can
occur
Total Internal Reflection
 There is a critical angle at which no light can be refracted at all, so 100%
of the light is reflected.
 Light is trapped in the water and cannot escape into the air.
 This works with any dense medium, such as plastic or glass, the same
way it works with water

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How Light Travels in Fiber
TIR conditions in Optical Fiber:
 The index of refraction of Core should be greater than Clad

 The angle of incidence of the light ray within the Acceptance Cone must exceed the Critical angle.

1.5 Optical Fiber Communication System

Typical Communications System
A basic communications system consists of:
– A Transmitter
– A Receiver
– An Information Channel / Optical Fiber

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Journey through the “Optical Tunnel”
 Light-Emitting Diode (LED) or Laser Diode (LD) acts as optical source that converts electrical
signal-data rate-into optical signal.
 Avalanche Photodiode (APD) is generally used as optical detector.

1.6 Applications and Advantages of Optical Fiber

Why Optical Fiber?

Application of Fiber Optic

 Telecommunication Networks (Terrestrial and Submarine)
 Electrical Power Line Communication
 Fiber To The Home (FTTH)
 Cable Television
 Medical Imaging Tools and Surgeries
 Computer Networking
 Control Systems

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 Submarine Cables Telecom Network

Electrical Power lines Communication Computer Networking

Control Systems

Customer Premise Communications Network

Medical Imaging Tools and Surgery

Cable Television

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1.7 Propagation of Light in Optical Fiber
Mode Theory
 The mode theory is used to describe the propagation of light along an optical fiber.
 The mode theory uses electromagnetic wave behavior to describe the propagation of light in the
fiber.
 A set of guided electromagnetic waves is called the Modes of the fiber.
 Light as a variety of EM vibrations: Electric and Magnetic field at right angle to each other and
perpendicular to direction of propagation.

 The TE (Transverse Electric) mode field patterns shown in below figure indicate the order of each
mode.
 The order of each mode is indicated by the number of field maxima within the core of the fiber.
 For example, TE0 has one field maxima. The electric field is a maximum at the center of the
waveguide and decays toward the core cladding boundary.
 TE0 is considered the fundamental mode (Single Mode).
 As the number of field maxima increases, the order of the mode is higher. (In below figure TE2
has 3 field maxima, that means it has 3 modes (Multimode) are propagating in the fiber.
 Generally, modes with more than a few (5-10) field maxima are referred to as high-order modes.
 High-order modes cross the axis of the fiber at steeper angles. Low-order and high-order modes
are shown in below figure.

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Types of Modes
Fibers can support different types of modes:
 Guided modes: Light distributions limited to the core and its immediate vicinity. Possess small
propagation losses.
 Leaky Mode: Concentrated around the core but lose some power into the cladding.
 Cladding modes: Light intensity fill the full cladding region, thus also reaching the outer surface
of the cladding, where they often experience large power losses.
In general, the number of guided modes increases with decreasing wavelength

Principle of Waveguiding in Optical Fiber

 A waveguide is a material structure that can “guide” light, i.e., let it propagate while preventing its
expansion in one or two dimensions.
 Fibers are waveguides that guide in two dimensions and can effectively be used as flexible pipes
for light.

Numerical Aperture
 Total internal reflection at the interface occurs, if the external beam angle θ (in air) fulfills the
condition:

 Where, NA is called the numerical aperture of the fiber and n is refractive index of the material

V Number

The V number determines the number of guided modes in fiber at different wavelengths and refractive
index of the fiber.
 For example, single-mode propagation is obtained when V is smaller than 2.405.
 The V number depends on the wavelength.

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Cut-Off Wavelength
 The cut-off wavelength of a single mode fiber is the wavelength below which the fiber propagates
more than modes.
 Above cut-off, the fiber will transmit only one mode.
 An optical fiber that is single-moded at a particular wavelength may have two or more modes at
wavelengths lower than the cutoff wavelength.

 The effective cutoff wavelength of a fiber is dependent on the length of fiber and its deployment
and the longer the fiber, the lower the effective cutoff wavelength.
 The smaller the bend radius of a loop of the fiber is, the lower the effective cutoff wavelength will
be.
 If a fiber is bent in a loop, the cutoff is lowered.
 The cutoff wavelength of a fiber is reduced when it is cabled.
Mode Field Diameter
 The mode field diameter (MFD) describes the width of the fiber area in which light travels.

 MFD is determined by the numerical aperture (NA) and cut-off wavelength of the fiber and is related
to the diameter of the fiber core.
 In general, MFD is greater than the physical diameter of the fiber core - which means that some
optical power travels in the fiber cladding.
 The MFD is typically larger than the core diameter.
 For fiber operated above cut-off wavelength, the core diameter might be around 9 µm, and the
MFD is around 10.4 µm.
 From these equations, you can see that MFD increases as cut-off wavelength increases (as does
core-size).

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1.8 Classification of Optical Fiber

Classification According to Material

Classification According to Size

 Mode is a path for light ray through an optical fiber.

 If an optical fiber supports only one mode, it is called as single mode fiber. Multimode supports
more than one mode.

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Multi–mode Fiber
 Multi–mode Fiber are characterized by relatively large core diameters.
 Typical values of core diameters are 50 and 62.5 micrometers
 A multi–mode fiber supports more than one propagating mode.

Single Mode Fiber

 Single Mode Fiber supports only a single propagating mode.
 It is characterized by small core diameters ranging from 3 to 10 micrometers.
 For the purpose of understanding the concept we shall define the mode simply as a path that a
light ray can follow in traveling down a fiber.

Classification According to Refractive Index

Step–Index Fiber

 In step-index fibers, the index of refraction changes radically between the core and the cladding.
 The step–index fiber is characterized by a uniform index throughout the core material.
 The profile shows a sharp step at the junction of the core and cladding.
 The step index fiber gets its name from the step like index profile of the core.
 The transmission capacity is limited by the modal dispersions (different modes travel through the
fiber with different delays, causing signal distortion).
 Step-index fibers are available with core diameters of 100 to 1500 µm. They are well suited to
applications requiring high power densities, such as medical and industrial laser power delivery.

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Graded Index Fiber
 In contrast, the graded index has a non–uniform core.
 Graded-index fiber is a compromise multimode fiber, but the index of refraction gradually
decreases away from the center of the core
 Graded-index fiber has less dispersion than a multimode step-index fiber.
 Graded Index Profile can only be designed for Multimode Fibers
 The index is highest at the centre and it gradually decreases until it matches that of the cladding.
 In graded index fiber, the light rays are also guided down the fiber in multiple pathways.
 Due to the parabolic refractive index profile, modal dispersion is reduced to minimum (different
modes propagate through the fiber with the same delay).
 The modal dispersion can be reduced by using graded–index fiber.
 The graded–index (or GRIN) fiber has a core material whose refractive index varies with distance
from the fiber axis.
 Index is maximum at the core center and decreases gradually towards the core–cladding interface.
 Those rays that follow the longest path by travelling near the outside of the core, have a faster
average velocity.
 The light travelling near the axis of the core has the slowest average velocity.
 As a result of this, all rays tend to reach the end of the fiber at the same time.

Optical Fiber Transmission Modes

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1.9 Optical Fiber Communication Wavelengths
Optical Fiber Spectral Bands
 Our eyes are sensitive to light whose wavelength is in the range of about 400 nm to 700 nm, from
the violet to the red.
 For fiber optics with glass fibers, we use light in the infrared region which has wavelengths longer
than visible light.
 The 850-nm-band is the primary wavelength for multimode fiber optical communication systems

 The three main wavelengths used for fiber optic transmission are 850, 1310 and 1550 nanometers.
 These wavelengths are used in fiber optics because they have the lowest attenuation of the fiber.
 Multimode fiber is designed to operate at 850 nm and 1300 nm, while single-mode fiber is
optimized for 1310 nm and 1550 nm.

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1.10 Attenuation in Optical Fiber
Decibel (dB)
 A decibel (dB) is a unit used to express relative differences in signal strength.
 Decibel is a logarithmic scale of power abbreviated as dB.

 In the case of fiber optic cable, we compare the power injected (reference power) at one end of
the cable to the power received (measured power) at the other end.
 A loss of 10 decibels means only 10% of the light is received.
 A loss of 20 dB means 1% of the light is received.

Attenuation
 Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber. It is expressed in dB
(decibel).
 Attenuation in an optical fiber is caused by:
 Absorption
 Scattering
 Bending

 If the optical power injected was -20 dBm and the power received at the other end -21 dBm, then
the attenuation of the link would be -20 - (-21) = 1 dB
Signal attenuation is defined as the ratio of optical input power (Pi) to the optical output power (Po).
Optical input power is the power injected into the fiber from an optical source. Optical output power is
the power received at the fiber end or optical detector.
One cause of attenuation is through something called absorption. Light signals can be lost through
absorption by small amounts of water vapor, or trace metals, present in the glass. The most absorption
takes place in specific wavelengths, known as water bands. In between the water bands are windows
where the wavelengths have the least attenuation. It just so happens that these wavelengths are also
ideal for building transmission lasers and signal detectors.
The attenuation of glass optical fiber is caused by two factors: absorption and scattering. Absorption
occurs in several specific wavelengths called water bands due to the absorption by minute amounts
of water vapor in the glass. Scattering is caused by light bouncing off atoms or molecules in the glass.

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3dB Power Loss
 If light travels over 12 km of optical fiber with loss of 0.25 dB/km, what is the total loss?
3 dB
 On 3 dB loss in signal, the optical power is reduced by Half.

Fiber Bending

Bends are bad for Single Transmission. Small Bends can increase loss. Bending the fiber also causes
attenuation. Bending loss is classified according to the bend radius of curvature: microbend loss or
macrobend loss. Microbends are small microscopic bends of the fiber axis that occur mainly when a
fiber is cabled. Macrobends are bends having a large radius of curvature relative to the fiber diameter.
Microbend and macrobend losses are very important loss mechanisms. Fiber loss caused by
microbending can still occur even if the fiber is cabled correctly. During installation, if fibers are bent
too sharply, macrobend losses will occur.
Microbend losses are caused by small discontinuities or imperfections in the fiber. Uneven coating
applications and improper cabling procedures increase microbend loss.
External forces are also a source of microbends. An external force deforms the cabled jacket
surrounding the fiber but causes only a small bend in the fiber. Microbends change the path that
propagating modes take, as shown in figure 2-24. Microbend loss increases attenuation because low-
order modes become coupled with high-order modes that are naturally lossy.
Macrobend losses are observed when a fiber bend’s radius of curvature is large compared to the fiber
diameter. These bends become a great source of loss when the radius of curvature is less than
several centimeters. Light propagating at the inner side of the bend travels a shorter distance than
that on the outer side. To maintain the phase of the light wave, the mode phase velocity must increase.
When the fiber bend is less than some critical radius, the mode phase velocity must increase to a
speed greater than the speed of light. However, it is impossible to exceed the speed of light. This
condition causes some of the light within the fiber to be converted to high-order modes. These high-
order modes are then lost or radiated out of the fiber.
Fiber sensitivity to bending losses can be reduced. If the refractive index of the core is increased,
then fiber sensitivity decreases. Sensitivity also decreases as the diameter of the overall fiber
increases. However, increases in the fiber core diameter increase fiber sensitivity. Fibers with larger
core size propagate more modes. These additional modes tend to be more lossy.

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1.11 Dispersion in Optical Fiber
 Dispersion is the spreading or broadening (distortion) of light pulses as they propagate through the
fiber.
 Too much dispersion gives rise to bit-errors at the receiver (i.e., the inability to distinguish a 0 from
a 1).

Modal Dispersion
 Dispersion caused due to different paths the light rays take to travel from one end to the other.
 This is prominent in Multimode Fibers.

Chromatic Dispersion
 Dispersion caused due to the variation in velocities of different wavelength w.r.t. the refractive
index of the material.
 This is prominent in Singlemode Fibers.

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Polarization Mode Dispersion
 PMD effect occurs due to:
 Asymmetry in Fiber Geometry
 Mishandling of Fiber
 Environmental Conditions

 PMD is troublesome and affects High

Data Rate Channel

Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is a form of modal dispersion where two different polarizations
of light in a waveguide, which normally travel at the same speed, travel at different speeds due to
random imperfections and asymmetries, causing random spreading of optical pulses.

Total Dispersion
Total pulse spreading is given by the formula:

In multimode fibers, polarization mode dispersion is negligible and the formula is given as:

In single-mode fibers, there is no modal dispersion hence the formula becomes:

In the above formula, dispersion is in the unit of time per unit distance (normally nanosecond or
picosecond per kilometer) and pulse spreading is in the unit of time (usually nanosecond or
picosecond).

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1.12 Grades of Optical Fiber
Optical Fiber Grades
 International Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication (ITU-T) is responsible for developing
new standards and revising existing standards of telecommunications and Information
Communication Technology (ICTs) on a worldwide basis.
 The international standards that are produced by the ITU-T are referred to as "Recommendations",
as they become mandatory only when adopted as part of a national law.
 ITU-T optical fiber grades, describe the geometrical properties and transmissive properties of
multimode and single-mode optical fiber.

G652D and G655 Losses and Dispersion

Below 1450nm, G655 Single-mode fiber behaves like Multimode Fiber

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Optical Fiber Grades – Comparison
 G.651.1, G.657A, and G.657B all define bend-insensitive fibers made for FTTH systems. However,
G.651.1 multimode fiber has higher data rates for short-distance communications.
 G.657A fiber is backward compatible with the existing G.652D fiber.
 A full installation is needed when deploying G.651.1 and G.657B fibers, thereby an increase in
cost.
 The advantage of G.657B fiber is its superior bend-insensitivity.
 G.652D, G.655, and G.656 fibers support either CWDM or DWDM systems, each fiber has its
weaknesses and strengths in long-haul transmission.
 G.655 fiber has low chromatic dispersion and supports long-haul systems that use CWDM in the
wavelength range from 1550 nm to 1625 nm.

1.13 Fiber Optic Transmitter and Receivers

Fiber Optic Link Components

 Optical Transmitter
 Connectors
 Optical Fiber/Cable
 Optical Receiver

Laser Diode
 A laser diode is a semiconductor that uses a p-n junction for producing coherent radiation with the
same frequency and phase which is either in the visible or infrared spectrum.
 The laser diode is forward-biased by an external voltage source.
 As electrons move through the junction, recombination occurs just as in an ordinary diode.
 As electrons fall into holes to recombine, photons are released. A released photon can strike an
atom, causing another photon to be released.

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Fiber Optic Link Components: Transmitter
 Wavelengths: 850nm, 1310nm, 1550nm and 1625nm
 For reference, visible light operates in the 380-700nm range

LED: Light Emitting Diode

Laser on Glass Fiber
 Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (Laser) is a coherent, convergent, and
monochromatic beam of electromagnetic radiation.
 Fiber lasers use an optical fiber cable made of silica glass to guide light.
 The resulting laser beam is more precise than with other types of lasers because it is straighter
and smaller.
 They also have a small footprint, good electrical efficiency low maintenance and low operating
costs.

 The fiber laser is a solid-state laser in which laser light and pump light are guided in optical fibers
(“glass fibers”).
 The laser active medium is the internal cross-sectional area of the glass fiber, which is doped with
a rare-earth element (often ytterbium).

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Fiber Optic Link Components: Receiver

Fiber Optic Transceiver

 Fiber Optic Transceiver, is also called fiber optic transmitter and receiver, is a device which uses
fiber optical technology for sending and receiving data.
 It is composed by optoelectronic devices, the functional circuit and the optical interface. the
optoelectronic device includes a transmitter and receiver.
 The transceiver encodes/decodes data into light pulses and then send them to the other end as
electrical signals.
 To send data as light, it makes use of a light source, which is controlled by the electronic parts,
and to receive light pulses, it makes use of a photodiode semiconductor.

The role of fiber optic transceiver can be simply concluded:

Fiber transceiver is a photoelectric conversion device that converting electrical signal into an optical
signal at the transmission side, after the transmission on the fiber optics, the optical signals are
transmitted into electrical signals at the receiving side.

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Small Form Factor Pluggable (SFP)
 A modern fiber optic transceiver is a small device, it is intended to plug into network devices. This
type of transceiver is called a small form-factor pluggable (SFP) transceiver.
 Performs conversions between optical and electrical signals.
 Classification parameters are Wavelength, Data Rate, Signal Distance and Laser Class.

 Data can usually travel only one way in a fiber optic cable, so most transceivers have two ports for
bidirectional communication: one for sending and the other for receiving signals.
 Simplex SFP use only a single fiber for transmission while Duplex SFP use dual fibers.

Internal Architecture of a Typical SFP

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Types of SFP Transceivers
Single Mode vs. Multimode SFP Transceivers
 SFPs can be divided into different types according to fiber types.
 There are unidirectional (simplex) SFP and duplex (duplex) SFP, as well as single-mode SFP and
multi-mode SFP.
 Different SFP models are available for distances from 100 meters to 120 km.

 SFP+ is in the same form, supports speeds up to 10 Gbps, and generally operates at shorter
distances. SFP+ ports are generally compatible with SFP modules, but vice versa.
 SFP + cannot run at speeds slower than 1 Gbps.
 QSFP; QSFP +, QSFP23, QSFP56, QSFP-DD etc. It is another transceiver module with models
that supports Ethernet, InfiniBand, SONET and all fiber channels.
 QSFP can achieve speeds of up to 400 Gbps using four transmission and reception channels.
QSFP and its varieties are a suitable solution for systems that require high bandwidth.
QSFP - Quad Small Form-factor Pluggable
CFP - Centum Form-Factor Pluggable

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SFP Interfacing
The following are the common equipment that the fiber transceivers may be used for:
 Fiber Optic Multiplexer
 Fiber Optic Converters: 1 x 9 transceiver modules
 Fiber optic network card: 1 x 9, SFP or SFP+ optical modules
 Fiber-optic high-speed ball machine: SFP optical module

Selection Criteria for Transceivers

 Form factor & connectors
 Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) compatibility
 Speed/Data Rate
 Media
 Type
 Reach
 Wavelength
 Environment
 Rx/Tx Power Range

Form Factor & Connectors

The term "form factor" refers to the standardized size and shape of the optic. While there are many
different transceiver form factors to consider, a few standards are more universal than the others.

OEM Compatibility
Some of OEMs are:
 ADTRAN
 Alcatel-Lucent Nokia
 Allied Telesis
 Arista Networks
 Avaya/Nortel
 Brocade (Formerly)
 Calix
 Ciena
 Cisco
 Dell
 HP
 Juniper

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Speed/Data Rate
 SFP data transfer rates can range between 10 Mbps to 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps).
 For a more powerful data transmission and faster gigabit ethernet, SFP+ transceivers can provide
up to 10 Gbps rates and for optimal speeds, QSFP/QSFP+ can reach up to 40 Gbps.

Media
 Media refers to the physical composition of the cable that carries your data signals, typically
characterized by the material (media) and structure (cable mode).
 Single mode fiber has a much larger reach at higher costs, while multimode fiber is advantageous
in price with higher data rate capabilities.

Type

Reach
 Being a device that transmits data via light energy, the performance of an optical transceiver is
also impacted by span.
 Short reach optics are usually found in
data centres, server farms, core networks,
or single-site facilities.
 Generally, reach of SFPs is available in 10
Kms to 120 Kms.

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Wavelengths/Lambdas
 The higher energy and frequency a light has, the shorter its wavelength. The actual lambda is
measured from peak to peak of the waveform.
 Most signals are carried on one of three common wavelengths, though there are uses of others as
well:
 850nm for short distances (around 500m on multimode fiber)
 1310nm for mid-range reach (approximately 40km on single mode fiber)
 1550nm for long to extreme range (beyond 40km on single mode fiber)
 1625nm for long to extreme range and fiber bend testing

Environment
 Heat/cold from harsh weather and climates can worsen
attenuation in the fiber. In turn, this degrades signal
strength to poor levels, creating an underperforming link
in a critical high-speed network.
 You need to transmit data through is just as important as
the form factor or OEM compatibility, so don’t overlook
this.
Working temperature of SFPs:
Commercial: 0~70℃
Industrial: -40~85℃

Rx/Tx Power Range

dBm
 The units dB and dBm stand for decibel and decibel milliwatt, respectively.
 dBm is a unit of power used to indicate an Output power, Input power and Receiver Sensitivity in
optical systems.
 Power injected or power received in the fiber optic cables is expressed in dBm.
 It is the power level with reference to one milliwatt (mW).

 A measurement of 0 dBm using an optical power meter indicates 1 milliWatt of power.

 It is used in radio, microwave and fiber-optical communication networks as a convenient measure
of absolute power because of its capability to express both very large and very small values in a
short form.

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dBm vs Watt

With increase in power by 3 dBm, power in Watts gets double

1. Output power
 Output power refers to the light intensity of the transmitting end, represented in dBm, is the
important parameter that affects the transmission distance.
 Generally output power of SFPs falls in the range of +5 dBm to -7 dBm.
2. Receiving sensitivity
 Receiving sensitivity refers to the light intensity that can be detected.
 It is expressed in dBm.
 Receiver sensitivity of SFP module has crucial role in deciding range
of communication.
 Generally. Receiver sensitivity of SFPs falls in the range of -10 dBm to
-32 dBm.
Causes of SFP Module Failures Optical Power Meter
 Optical interface contamination
 Optical slots damages
 Use of the scratched or poor-quality fiber connector
 ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) damages
 Compatibility issues
Optical Slots Contamination and Damages
The optical link is not working properly due to contamination and damage to the optical interface. The
end face of the fiber connector and optical slots is exposed to the environment and contaminated by
dust. Using the scratched or poor-quality fiber connector will cause the SFPs failures.
ESD Damages
ESD is the abbreviation of electrostatic discharge. ESD will absorb dust, change the impedance
between lines, and affect the function and life of the product.
Compatibility Issues
Most of the manufacturers guarantee 100% compatibility, which might not be the scenario. Once you
find the modules are not compatible, you'll have to troubleshoot them but with no visible outcomes.

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1.14 Components of Optical Fiber Cable
Reasons of Cabling

Fiber optic cable core:

 A fiber optic’s center is made of glass, and this tube carries the cable’s light signals.
 Depending on the type of fiber optic cable (single mode or multi-mode), the core varies in size.

Fiber optic cable cladding layer:

Also constructed of glass, this “core cover” is used to keep the light in the core.

Fiber optic cable buffer:

 Also called the buffer coating, this sleeve protects the core and cladding from foreign material such
as outside light, moisture, dirt and other substances.
 More often than not, the buffer is made of plastic.
Strength Members:
 Strength members which are typically used in fiber optic cable include Tapes, Binders, Aramid
yarn, Fiberglass Epoxy Rods (FGE), and Steel Wire.
 It also plays a vital role in enhancing the tensile strength of the cable.

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Aramid Yarn
 Aramid yarn is a yellow color, fiber looking material.
 It is strong and is used to bundle and protect the loose tubes or fibers in the cable.
 It is the strength member to provide tensile strength along the length of the cable during and after
installation.
 When a cable is pulled into a duct, the tension is applied to the aramid yarn instead of the fibers.

Fiberglass Reinforce Plastic (FRP)

 FRP is a Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic material that has the
strength of steel at the fraction of the weight. FRP won’t corrode, rot,
warp, attract insects, or rust.
 FRP is a common reinforcement to provide strength and durability
in fiber optic drop cable.
 FRP reinforcement is not the messenger, but in a common
configuration will straddle the optical cable within the jacket.

Water Blocking Tape:

 It is a combination of tape, yarn, or coating to
prevent penetration of water into the cable.
 Water blocking tapes and water swellable tapes
rapidly absorb liquid at the point of insulation
failure and quickly swell to block any further
ingress.

Fiber Optic Cable Jacket:

 The cable jacket is typically made of tough, durable polyurethane.
 It resists water entry
 It provides a smooth, low friction surface for cable placement.
 It is made of material that will allow the cable to remain flexible and serviceable
 It resists abrasion during installation. It also provides, along with the cable's strength members, the
mechanical strength required to survive its environment and installation forces.

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Fiber Optic Cable Fire Rating
 There are three kinds of cable jacket fire ratings:
o Plenum
o Riser
o General purpose
 A Plenum area is a building space used for air flow or air distribution system (drop ceiling and
raised floors).
 A Riser area is a floor opening, shaft or duct that runs vertically through one or more floors.
 A general-purpose area is all other areas that are not plenum or riser and on the same floor.

 For a small, in-building deployment, using a riser – OFNP, OFCP, OFNR, OFCR, OFNG, OFCG
 Within an existing, fabricated duct inside a building – OFNP, OFCP
 In a plenum space that is used for environmental air inside a public building – OFNP, OFCP
 Inside a fireproof shaft using a riser within any type of building – OFNP, OFCP, OFNR, OFCR,
OFNG, OFCG
 When using a metal raceway for in-building deployments covering multiple floors and
rooms/apartments – OFNP, OFCP, OFNR, OFCR, OFNG, OFCG
 For vertical runs between floors within a riser – OFNP, OFCP, OFNR, OFCR
 Within a riser cable routing assembly inside a building – OFNP, OFCP, OFNR, OFCR
 For in-building deployments with routing only on 1 floor – OFNP, OFCP, OFNR, OFCR, OFNG,
OFCG

1.15 Optical Fiber Colour Codes

Fiber Identification: Colour Coding
Ø Colors are used to identify the fibers and Buffer tube in the cable.
Ø Color codes are important when making connections by splicing.

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Outer Jacket Colour Code
 Colored outer jackets or print may be used on outside plant and premises fiber cables, e.g., fiber
distribution cables, fiber optic patch cords, etc.
 In EIA/TIA-598, the fiber color code defines the jacket color codes for different fiber types.

Inner Tubes Color Code

 Inside a multi-fiber cable, individual fibers are compliant to fiber color code and they are
distinguished from one another by color-coded of tubes.
 Inner fibers are color coded in a group of 12 fibers and they are counted in a clockwise direction.

There are two situations for multi-fiber cables:

 For cables that consist of multiple buffer tubes each with 12 or less strands, each tube will be
numbered or colored following the same fiber color code, e.g., 1st tube is blue, 2nd is orange, etc.

 For cables that consist of more than 12 strands, the fiber optic cable color code repeats itself. Each
group of 12 fibers is identified with some other means. For example, 24 strand groups are with the
fiber color code repeating with some variation, e.g., the 1st group of 12 strands are solid colors
and the 2nd group is a solid color with a stripe or some other identifying marks.

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1.16 Classification of Fiber Optic Cable

Tight Buffer Structure

 Useful in Indoor applications, such as Pigtail and Patch Cord
 Higher flexibility
 Easy to connectorize and terminate

Loose Tube Structure

 Useful in outdoor applications.
 Long term reliability due to Jelly filled design. Jelly is a cable filling compound that provides a
watertight environment and protection against corrosion and potential dielectric problems in the
fiber.
 Fiber is protected from moisture and temperature.
 Best suited for Armoured Applications, Direct Buried Applications, Underground and Aerial
applications.

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Ribbon Cable
 Fibers are arranged in strips
 Provides higher fiber density within a cable
 All fibers in the Ribbon can be spliced together using ribbon fiber splicing machine.

Ribbon Identification

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1.17 Types of Fiber Optic Cables
Microcable Cable
 Microcables are very high-density cables with greatly reduced cable diameter and high fiber count.
 Used to make deployment faster and less costly, especially in locations where space is minimum.
 Microcables are specifically optimized for air-blown applications.

 A 144-fiber loose tube cable is typically 15-16mm diameter while a comparable micro cable is only
about 8 mm diameter - half the size and about one-third the weight.
 Microcables are available for both premises and outside plant installations.
 Microcables generally have a large stiff strength ember in the center to allow installation by blowing
the cable into microducts.

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Armoured Cable
 Contains Aluminium or steel alloys for armouring
 Provide rugged, rodent and crush resistance
 Armoured cable is conductive, so it must be grounded properly
 It’s applications includes:
o Direct burial application
o Need of high cable life
o Protection of cable from animal, human or harsh environment

All-Dielectric Self-Supporting (ADSS) Cable

 Non-metallic cable with small diameter and light weight

 Supports its own weight without the use of wires or messenger cables
 Protection from UV rays and moisture
 Used for aerial installation over short, medium and long span distances

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Tight Buffer Drop Cable

 Small size and light weight cable

 Contains several tight-buffered fibers bundled under the same jacket
with Kevlar strength members.
 Used in FTTX and indoor applications

Figure-8 Drop Cable

 It features a built-in support wire for

tensile strength and stability.
 The support wire is typically galvanized
steel messenger, flooded to inhibit
corrosion.
 It provides robust self-support aerial
deployment and quick one-step installation.
 Figure-8 optical drop cables are composed of two distinct subcomponents, a central tube cable
fixed to a steel wire.
 This cable design is to combine the installation of the messenger wire and optical cable into a
single process.
 This cable is typically used in aerial applications.

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 Easy Cable Entry and Preparation
 Flexible Routing and Termination
 Quick Installation & Robust
 Reliable Lifetime Performance

All-dielectric Optical Drop Cable

 All-dielectric optical drop cables have the optical fibers placed in a centrally located buffer tube.
 This drop cable design supports direct buried, conduit and aerial self-support application.

Armoured Optical Drop Cable

 Armored optical drop cables also have the optical fibers placed in the centrally located buffer tube.
 A protective metallic foil surrounds the buffer tube and provides an additional protective barrier for
the optical fibers.

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Breakout Cable
 Breakout fiber cable consist of two or more simplex cables bundled with a strength member and
central member covered with an outer jacket.
 These cables are ideal for routing in exposed trays or any application requiring an extra rugged
cable that can be directly connected to the equipment.
 Breakout cable is often used for short riser and plenum applications, as well as for use in conduits
instead of a splice box or fiber pigtail.

Slotted Core Cable

 In this cable ribbon fibres are laid in the slotted core without tubes.
 This cable enables high fiber packing density within a small cable
diameter which in turn helps with limited duct space.
 This gives far better protection to the fibres against mechanical
action such as pressure, impact, twisting or bending.
 It is suitable for all underground, undersea and suspended
installation, and also indoors in mains supply networks, on cable
ladders, in ducts etc. where the cable is subjected to long-term
mechanical action from suspension and tensioning devices.

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Pigtail & Patch Cords
A patch cord is a fixed length piece of cable with fiber connectors on each end while fiber pigtail has
fiber connectors on only one end of the cable. Fiber optic patch cords can be cut into shorter lengths
to make two pigtails.

Pigtail

 Fiber optic pigtail is a fiber optic cable terminated with

a factory-installed connector on one end, leaving the
other end terminated.
 Hence the connector side can be linked to equipment
and the other side melted with optical fiber cables.
 Fiber optic pigtail are utilized to terminate fiber optic
cables via fusion or mechanical splicing.

Types of Pigtail
Fiber optic pigtails are available in various types:
 Grouped by pigtail connector type
According to different types of pigtail cable connector terminated at the end, there are LC fiber
pigtail, SC fiber pigtail, ST fiber pigtail, FC fiber pigtail, MT-RJ fiber pigtail, E2000 fiber pigtail and
so on.

 By fiber type
There are single-mode fiber optic pigtail and multimode fiber optic pigtail.

 By fiber count
6 fibers, 12 fibers optic pigtails can be found in the market.

 By Application Environment
Armored Pigtail: enclosed with stainless steel tube or other strong steel inside the outer jacket,
armored fiber optic pigtails provide extra protection for the fiber inside.
Waterproof Pigtail: designed with a stainless steel strengthened waterproof unit and armored
outdoor PE (Poly Ethylene) jacket, waterproof fiber pigtail is a great fit in harsh environments.

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Simplex Cable & Duplex Cables
 Simplex fiber optic cable consists of a single fiber and used in applications that only require one
way data transfer.
 Duplex fiber optic cable consists of two fibers and used in applications that require simultaneous,
bidirectional data transfer.

Cables & their Applications

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Cable Selection Criteria
 Length of the Link
 Data Rate Requirements
 Type of the Network (Long Haul, FTTX, etc.)
 Network Construction and Maintenance Budget
 Fiber Route Terrain
 Ease of Installation
 Number of Communication Channels Required
 Future Expansion Needs
 Environmental Factors

1.18 Cable Bending Radius and Pulling Tension

Cable Bending Radius
 Bend radius is the curvature an optical fiber can bend without damage or shortening its lifespan
via kinking.
 The smaller the bend radius, the more flexible the fiber.
 If no recommendations are available from the cable manufacturer, the cable should not be installed
into a bend radius smaller than 20 times the cable diameter.
 After completion of the pull, the cable should not have any bend radius smaller than 10 times the
cable diameter.
 For example, a cable with an outer diameter of 5mm, should not be bent smaller than 100mm
radius during installation.

Pulling Tension
 Exceeding the Cable Pulling Tension above the defined
value in the Cable Data sheet / Specification can alter
cable’s and fiber’s characteristics leading to increased
attenuation.
 Tensile strength is maximum load that a cable can bear
without fracture when being stretched.
 The tensile strength for stranded loose tube cable and
ribbon cable is approx. 2,700 Newtons (2700 Kg.m/s2
in MKS system).

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1.19 Introduction to Fiber Optic Connectors
Fiber Optic Connectors
 An optical fiber connector terminates the end of an optical fiber.
 The connectors mechanically couple and align the cores of fibers so light can pass.
 Fiber Optic Couplers are used to align two connectors facing each other.

Fiber Optic Coupler

 An A fiber optic coupler is an optical device capable of connecting one or more fiber ends in order
to allow the transmission of light waves.
 They also have high directivity and low insertion loss.

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1.20 Connector Polishes and Insertion Loss

Connector Polishing: Attenuation and Return Loss

 Optical loss (for connectors), sometimes called attenuation, is simply the reduction of optical power
induced by transmission through a medium such as a pair of fiber optic connectors.
 Return loss is the amount of light reflected from a single discontinuity in an optical fiber link such
as a connector pair. Return loss is also called reflectance. For perfect transmission, optical loss
and reflected power should be zero.

The equations for optical loss, return loss and reflectance are as follows:
Optical Loss = 10*log(input power/output power) in +dB
Return Loss = 10*log(incident power/reflected power) in +dB
Reflectance = 10*log(reflected power/incident power) in -dB
 Return loss and reflectance are both used to describe back reflection at a connector pair.
 One has a negative dB sign and one has a positive dB sign.
 Perhaps reflectance has its origins in the electrical world where return loss having a negative sign
is more properly called the reflection coefficient.

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Connector Colour Codes (TIA 568)
 Multimode connectors are beige for 62.5/125 OM1 fiber, black for 50/125 OM2 fiber, aqua for laser-
optimized 50/125 OM3 and OM4 fiber and lime green for wideband OM5 fiber.
 Singlemode connectors are blue, angle-polished singlemode are green and outlets are also color
coded accordingly.

 Multimode connectors are beige for 62.5/125 OM1 fiber, black for 50/125 OM2 fiber, aqua for laser-
optimized 50/125 OM3 and OM4 fiber and lime green for wideband OM5 fiber.
 Singlemode connectors are blue, angle-polished singlemode are green and outlets are also color
coded accordingly.

1.21 Types of Fiber Optic Connectors

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1. Lucent Connectors (LC)
 LC connectors have some of the smallest ferrules, measuring 1 1/4 mm, which is approximately
half the size of an ST connector.
 Their tiny size puts them into the small form factor category of terminations.
 These connectors work well for multimode transceivers and single-mode cables.
2. Standard Connectors (SC)
 SC connectors have a 2 1/2 mm ferrule.
 This connector has high levels of performance with low price. It is most common in use.

3. ST Connectors
 ST connectors are among the oldest of fiber cable connector types.
 The design of ST connectors is a 2 1/2 mm ferrule that has a bayonet-style connection between
the fibers through an adapter.
 These ferrules use a spring-load design that can make installation difficult unless the parts have
precise seating, though a keyed slot assists with aligning the ferrules for connection.
4. Ferrule Core (FC) Connectors
 FC Connector use a keyed, screw-in type ferrule. However, the process of screwing in the ferrule
requires extra time and effort compared to SC connectors.
 The screw-in design prevents the connection from interruptions, even when someone pulls the
cable or the system has applications in areas with a lot of movement.
 Like ST and SC connectors, FC terminations use a 2 1/2 mm ferrule.

5. Multi-Position Optical (MPO) Connectors

 MPO connectors usually connect ribbon cables with multiple fibers. These connectors have two to
six rows of 12 or 16 fibers.
 This type of connector has applications in either high-speed links that use multimode or for pre-
terminated cable groupings.
6. MT-RJ Connectors
 Today, MT-RJ connectors have disappeared from use. However, some systems may still require
these connectors for repairs.
7. MU Connector
 MU fiber connector has square shape and push-pull mating mechanism and uses 1.25mm pull-
proof designed ferrule.
 Size of the MU fiber optic connector is about half of the SC.

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Connector Insertion Loss and Its Causes
Causes of Connector Insertion Loss:
 Dust on Ferrule
 Scratch of Ferrule
 Improper Alignment
 Poor Mating
 Ferrule Polishing Mismatch
 Fiber Mode Mismatch

1.22 Inspection and Cleaning of Connectors

Fiber Optic Connector Hygiene
Common Mistakes:
 Leaving a connector uncapped
 Touching the connector end face
 Using unsuitable cleaning methods or products
 Assuming that connectors protected by dust caps are clean
 Not cleaning both connector end faces before making a connection

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Inspection of Optical Connector

 Fiber Optic Microscope Scope 400x Magnification

 Handheld fiber microscope can check out depression, scratches, contamination and other
conditions on fiber connectors
 The image of fiber end is very clear
 It not only can test PC end, but also can test APC end

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Section 3: Exercises
Exercise 1: Match the Column.

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Exercise 2: Enlist applications and advantages of optical fiber.

Exercise 3: Perform experiment of Total Internal Reflection Phenomenon.

a) Tank of water
Fill a perspex tank with water. Angle a directed ray of light to the underneath of the surface and total
internal reflection can be seen (it is easier to see with the lights off).

b) Large bottle of water

Take a large plastic bottle, drill a hole in the side and fill the hole with a cork. Fill the bottle with water,
shine a laser through the bottle and pull out the cork. Direct the laser light into the stream of water, as
shown below.

Exercise 4: Make a chart of the grade of the optical fibers showing their characteristics and
applications.

Exercise 5: Make a chart of optical fiber colour codes.

Exercise 6: Determine cable bend radius (After Pulling and Under Tension) of following cables:
Cable Diameter:
a) 20mm
b) 14mm
c) 16mm
d) 23mm
e) 12mm

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Exercise 7: Fill the cable type in following tables.

Exercise 8: Identify the types of optical fiber connectors in following image:

Exercise 9: Identify following couplers.

Exercise 10: Tabulate the dBm vs Watts values from 0 dBm to 15 dBm.

Exercise 11: Participate in a group discussion on following topics:

a) Newton’s and Huygen’s Theory of Light
b) Classification of Fiber Optic Cable
c) Various Types of Fiber Optic Cable
d) Connector Polishes and Insertion Loss
e) Inspection and Cleaning of Connectors
f) Optical Connector Colour Codes
g) Types of transceivers
h) Selection criteria for transceivers

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 Section 4: Assessment Questionnaire
1. On which principle, Optical Fiber works?
2. What is speed of light in vacuum?
3. What is Formula of Refractive Index?
4. What is Refractive index of Vacuum?
5. When light is incident on a medium of lesser Refractive Index, the ray is bent away from the
normal, then exit angle is _________ than the incident angle.
6. For occurrence of Total Internal Reflection, Index of refraction of clad should be _____ than clad.
7. What is full form of LED?
8. Is APD a transmitter or a receiver?
9. Give any application of Optical Fiber.
10. A set of guided electromagnetic waves is called _______of the fiber.
11. Which types of waves are used in Mode theory?
12. As per mode theory, at what angle Electric and Magnetic field travel?
13. Write formula for V Number.
14. The V number depends on the wavelength of light. True or False?
15. What is core size of Multimode fiber?
16. What is core size of Single mode fiber?
17. Which mode of fiber has higher loss?
18. Which fiber are used for long distance transmission?
19. _________is the distance between two nearest amplitude positive peaks.
20. What is unit of wavelength commonly referred in fiber optics?
21. Match the following.
Band Wavelength (nm) Range
O – Original 1360-1460

E – Extended 1260-1360
S – Short Wavelength 1625-1675
C – Conventional 1565-1625

L – Long Wavelength 1530-1565

U – Ultra Long Wavelength 1460-1530

22. What is unit of Attenuation?

23. __________is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber.
24. If light travels over 20 km of optical fiber with loss of 0.25 dB/km, what is the total loss?
25. What is the typical optical power loss of G. 652D fiber at 1550nm?
26. Deformation of fiber axis (axial \ distortion) during fiber is example of which type of bending?
27. Spreading of light pulses in a fiber is called:
28. If you bend a fiber, what will happen, attenuation or dispersion?
29. Dispersion caused due to different paths the light rays take to travel from one end to the other is
called:
30. In which mode of fiber Chromatic Dispersion occurs?
31. Modal Dispersion occurs in:
32. What is full form of PMD?
33. What is full form of ITU-T?

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34. Where can we use G.657 Fiber?
35. Which fiber is commonly used in long distance optical communication?
36. What is the colour code of fiber number 4?
37. What is colour for jacket of OM2 50/125µm Multimode fiber?
38. In which direction colour coding is placed in loose tube cable?
39. Classify Optical Fiber according to its structure?
40. Which type of fiber cable is used for higher flexibility and indoor deployment?
41. Where we should use Loose Tube Fiber?
42. Can a ribbon consist of any numbers of fibers?
43. What are advantages of Armoured Optical Fiber Cable?
44. What material is used for Armouring?
45. What are uses of distribution fiber cable?
46. Jacket of which cable used in serial deployment provides protection from UV rays and moisture?
47. What are the applications of Figure 8 Cable?
48. ADSS cable does not support its own weight without the use of wires or messenger cables. True
/False.
49. Which cable has a built-in support wire for tensile strength and stability?
50. Which material is used for supporting wire in Figure-8 Cable?
51. What are features and benefits of Figure-8 Cable?
52. In which fiber cable, ribbon fibres are laid in the slotted core without tubes?
53. What are the benefits of Slotted Core Cable?
54. Where can we use Slotted Fiber Cable?
55. Give some points for cable selection criteria?
56. Name components of Fiber optic Link.
57. _________________, is a device which uses fiber optical technology for sending and receiving
data.
58. Name a transceiver.
59. In which type of SFP data travels only one way?
60. How many fibers are used for data transmission in duplex SFP?
61. What wavelength is available in Single Mode SFP?
62. What are limitations of Multimode SFP?
63. Where can we use SFP?
64. Which is cheaper among Single mode vs Multimode Fiber?
65. What is typical working temperature of SFPs?
66. What is output Power Range of typical SFP?
67. What is receiver sensitivity range of typical SFP?
68. What is unit of Output Power of SFP?
69. Does output power affect transmission distance?
70. What are causes of SFP Module Failures?
71. 0dBm = ____Watt
72. What is colour of PC connector?

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73. Which connector has green Colour?
74. What is the insertion loss of PC and APC connector?
75. What are some common mistakes which affect hygiene of fiber optic connector?
76. Which equipment is used to inspect optical connector?
77. Which connector has larger exposed ferrule size?
78. The screw-in design of ____ connector prevents the connection from interruptions, even when
someone pulls the cable or the system has applications in areas with a lot of movement.
79. _____ connectors have some of the smallest ferrules.
80. ______ connectors usually connect ribbon cables with multiple fibers.
81. If you connect PC connector with APC connector, the insertion loss will be higher. True or False?
82. Is Fiber Microscope a battery-operated device?
83. Lint free wipes are not recommended for cleaning the connectors. True or False?

----------End of the Module----------

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 MODULE 2
APPLICATION OF DWDM

Section 1: Learning Outcomes

After completing this module, you will be able to:
 Describe various Topologies and Fiber Optic Networking Standards
 Tabulate the SONET/SDH Bit rates
 Explain Time Division Multiplexing and Wavelength Division Multiplexing
 Tell History of WDM
 Explain the concept of CWDM and DWDM technique
 Explain functions of various types of Optical Multiplexers and Demultiplexers
 State functions of Transponder and Muxponder
 Describe 3R technique of Optical Signal Regeneration
 Differentiate between EDFA and RAMAN Optical Amplifiers

Section 2: Relevant Knowledge

2.1 Fiber Optic Networking Standards

OSI – 7 Layer Model

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Network Categories
Optical Networks are categorized in multiple ways:
Ø Based on service area
 Long haul, metropolitan and access network
 Wide area (WAN), metropolitan area (MAN) or local area network (LAN)
Ø Depending on the Protocol
 SONET, Ethernet, ATM, IP
Ø Number of wavelengths
 Single wavelength, CWDM or DWDM
Network Topologies

Global Network Hierarchy

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PDH Technology
 PDH: Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
 “Plesio” – “Near”, Chronous - Time
 Every equipment in the network has its own clock
 Supports only point to point communication
 Add/drop of subscriber is difficult

PDH Limitations Leads to SDH Advantages

PDH Desired Solutions

 Unique clock for each system  Master clock
 Complex multiplexing  Simplified Multiplexing
 Add/drop management is difficult  Add/drop management is easy
 Non-standardise interfaces  Standardised interfaces
 E1 frame data transmission  STMx frame data transmission
 Lower data rates  Comparatively higher data rates

SONET (Synchronous Optical Network)

 SONET stands for Synchronous Optical Network. It is a communication protocol which is used
to transmit a large amount of data over relatively larger distances by using optical fiber.
 By SONET, multiple digital data streams are transferred at the same time over the optical
fiber.
 SONET standardized line rates, coding schemes, bit-rate hierarchies and maintenance
functionality.

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Synchronous Optical Networks
 SONET is the TDM optical network standard for North America (It is called Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy (SDH) in the rest of the world).
 We focus on the physical layer.
 STS-1, Synchronous Transport Signal consists of 810 bytes over 125 us.
 27 bytes carry overhead information.
 Remaining 783 bytes: Synchronous Payload Envelope (User data).
SDH Technology
Ø SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) is a standard technology for data transmission.
Ø Network systems has central clock
Ø SDH uses different Synchronous Transport Module (STM) frames to enable different data
rates
Ø It used add-drop multiplexers to ease the channel management

SONET/SDH Bit Rates

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2.2 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Signals from different sources are transmitted over a common channel having equal fixed-length
time slots for each source

2.3 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
 Number of optical carrier signals of
different wavelengths are transmitted
onto a single optical fiber.
 WDM allows communication in both the
directions in the fiber cable.
 When the light propagation is reversed,
the multiplexer becomes the
demultiplexer, and conversely. However,
that the coupling efficiency is not
necessarily preserved in reverse
operation. For example, if the multiplexer
uses single-mode entrance fibers and a multimode output fiber, the coupling losses would be
excessive in the reversed use.

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WDM Concept and Process
▪ In WDM, the optical signals from different sources or (transponders) are combined by a
multiplexer, which is essentially an optical combiner.
▪ They are combined so that their wavelengths are different.
▪ The combined signal is transmitted via a single optical fiber strand.
▪ At the receiving end, a demultiplexer splits the incoming beam into its components and each
of the beams is send to the corresponding receivers.

History of WDM
 The concept was first published in 1978, and by 1980 WDM systems were being realized in
the laboratory.
 The first WDM systems combined only two signals.
 The promise of wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) to increase optical fiber information
carrying capacity was well known for a long time, and the invention of the optical amplifier in
the late 1980s made it theoretically possible to amplify multiple optical channels in a single
device without wavelength separation and electronic regeneration.
 At that time, optical transmission systems required electronic regeneration of each signal at
intervals of several tens of miles.
 Previous commercial attempts to exploit the promise of WDM and optical amplification were
not sophisticated systems but crude assemblies of optoelectronic components combining 2 or
4 WDM signals together, coupled with optical amplifiers that required manual adjustment and
tuning for each wavelength addition.
 They saw limited commercial success due to poor reliability and the heavy maintenance
required. Later, major suppliers of telecommunications transmission equipment were engaged
in the development of WDM interfaces for their SONET add/drop multiplexers, initially
targeting support for 4 WDM channels.
 The 16-channel DWDM system designed by Ciena commercially introduced in early 1996,
was the first of its kind and instantly set the benchmark for performance, ease of use, and
reliability.
 Modern systems can handle 160 signals and can thus expand a basic 100 Gbit/s system over
a single fiber pair to over 16 Tbit/s.
 Most WDM systems operate on single-mode fiber optical cables which have a core diameter
of 9 µm. Certain forms of WDM can also be used in multi-mode fiber cables (also known as
premises cables) which have core diameters of 50 or 62.5 µm.

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Categories of WDM

Both CWDM and DWDM are technologies used in fiber-optic networks to send
multiple signals on different wavelengths of light across a single strand of fiber cable.

2.4 Course Wave Division Multiplexing (CWDM)

Course Wave Division Multiplexing (CWDM)
 CWDM is a technology that allows up to 18 channels to be connected over a dark fiber pair
with 20nm spacing.
 Two wavelength regions are most commonly associated with CWDM, 1310nm and 1550nm.
 The 1550nm region is more popular because it has a lower loss in the fiber (meaning the
signal can travel farther).
 If we use our road analogy, it’s like painting 18 lanes on the road, with nine in the 1310 region
of the fiber (1270nm to 1450nm) and nine in the 1550 region (1470nm to 1610nm).

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Course Wave Division Multiplexing (CWDM)
 CWDM is a convenient and low-cost solution for distances up to 70km. But between 40km
and its maximum distance of 70km CWDM tends to be limited to 8 channels due to a
phenomenon called the water peak of the fiber (more about this further down).
 CWDM signals cannot be amplified, making the 70km estimate an absolute maximum.

Course Wave Division Multiplexing (CWDM)

Advantages of CWDM
 The most important is that the cost of the equipment is low.
 Can reduce the operating costs of Network.
 Can significantly improve the transmission capacity of optical fiber, improve the utilization of
fiber resources.
 Small size and low power consumption.
 Good flexibility and extendibility.

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2.5 Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM)
Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM)
 With DWDM, we can convert our road to an expressway with more than 100 lanes as the
number of multiplexed channels are higher than CWDM.
 DWDM systems can carry 40, 80, 96 or up to 160 wavelengths by utilizing a much narrower
spacing 0.8 or 0.4 nm instead of the 20nm you would find in a CWDM system.
 DWDM uses the C-Band (1530 nm-1565 nm) transmission window but with denser channel
spacing.

 DWDM systems can transmit the huge quantity of data through a single fiber link.
 DWDM is generally applied in core networks of telecommunications and cable networks.
 DWDM can handle higher speed, even 400Gbps per channel over single fiber.
 In addition to the increased channel capacity, it can also be amplified to support much longer
distances.

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Bidirectional DWDM

Features of DWDM

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Advantages of DWDM
 Its protocol and transmission speed are irrelevant.
 The OMU and ODU of integrated DWDM are respectively used at the transmitter and the
receiver
 The structure of integrated DWDM is simple and smaller, only about one-fifth of the open
DWDM, save room resources.
 Integrated DWDM only use passive components at the transmitter and the receiver (e.g.:OMU
or ODU).
 Telecom operation unit can order directly from manufacturers to reduce the supply chain,
lower costs, save equipment costs.

ITU DWDM Channels

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2.6 Optical Multiplexer and Demultiplexer
Optical Multiplexer
 The key component in Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM), as the name suggests, is the
multiplexer itself (often referred to as the “Mux”).
 The multiplexer combines data signals it receives from the transceiver into one beam of light
containing multiple optical wavelengths to be transmitted simultaneously over a single fiber.

 At the other end of the fiber connection, sitting at the remote site, is the demultiplexer (Demux)
which takes the multiple wavelengths that it receives and separates them back into the
individual data channels. It also means that one Mux & Demux is required at each end of the
fiber.
 Today, multiplexers are typically built into many high-capacity transceivers, which allows
multiple data streams to be combined and speeds of 40G to 800G (and more) to be achieved.
 Today’s multiplexers allow for up to 96 channels to be carried simultaneously over a fiber pair.

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Single fiber Optical Multiplexer
 In a single fiber multiplexer configuration, the data can be carried in two directions with
different wavelength.
 In the diagram below, you can see that the alternative wavelengths chosen for a single fiber
mux. For example, 1470nm wavelength in one direction and 1490nm on the return.

Dual Fiber Optical Multiplexer

 The single fiber option is more complex and restricts the number of channels that can be
carried, but the cost of fiber is kept down by halving the amount of fiber.
 Dual Fiber enables more channels to be carried using the same multiplexer, so the multiplexer
is no more expensive, but using twice the amount fiber can drastically increase costs.

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Passive DWDM Mux/Demux
 Passive DWDM systems have no active components.
 The line functions only due to the optical budget of transceivers used. No optical signal
amplifiers and dispersion compensators are used.
 Passive DWDM systems have a high channel capacity and potential for expansion, but the
transmission distance is limited to the optical budget of transceivers used.
 The main application of passive DWDM system is metro networks and high speed
communication lines with a high channel capacity.

Active DWDM Mux/Demux

 Active DWDM Mux/Demux indicates the device needs power supply.
 An active DWDM Mux/Demux includes wavelength adjustable laser, wavelength adjustable
filter and wavelength selective amplifier, etc.
 Active setups grant you more control over your optical network, you can dynamically re-tune
wavelengths without dropping connections.
 Active DWDM systems commonly refer to as a transponder-based system.

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Active DWDM Mux/Demux
 They offer a way to transport large amounts of data between sites in a data center interconnect
setting.
 The transponder takes the outputs of the SAN or IP switch format, usually in a short wave
850nm or long wave 1310nm format, and converts them through an optical-electrical-optical
(OEO) DWDM conversion.
 When creating long-haul DWDM networks, several EDFA amplifiers are installed sequentially
in the line.
 The number of amplifiers in one section is limited and depends on the optical cable type,
channel count, data transmission rate of each channel, and permissible OSNR value.
 The possible length of lines when using active DWDM system is determined not only with
installed optical amplifiers and the OSNR value, but also with the influence of chromatic
dispersion—the distortion of transmitted signal impulses, on transmitted signals.
 If necessary, chromatic dispersion compensation modules (DCM) are included in the line.
DCM introduces additional attenuation into the line, which leads to a reduction of the amplified
section length.

Pros and Cons of Passive DWDM Mux/Demux

Cost savings: Unlike active backbone networks with amplifiers and dispersion compensators, the
passive DWDM allows to arrange a high-speed system having high channel capacity with substantial
cost savings.

Less complex: Passive DWDM isn’t complex at all. It’s really plug and play, and there is nothing to
provision.
Even though passive DWDM has the two main benefits, it still has the drawback.
Scalability: You are limited to colored optics, and less wavelengths on the transport fiber. As you
grow, you would be required to have more passive devices. Furthermore, with the more passive
devices, you have more difficulty to manage. And you will have to start managing the same
wavelength on multiple passive devices and they could be serving different purposes on each
depending on your setup.

Control: If you need to change a wavelength or connection for whatever reason, your option is limited
to taking it out of service and disconnecting the physical cabling as the wavelength is tied to the optic.

Active DWDM can fit more wavelengths onto a single fiber pair: The composite signal that is
sent over a single fiber pair can carry more bandwidth than a passive of the same size could. In
turn, you don’t need as much physical fiber between your two sites. This is advantageous when
distance is a problem because it allows you to get more out of a single fiber pair as opposed to
passive.

Active setups grant you more control over your optical network: You can dynamically re-tune
wavelengths without dropping connections. It’s transparent to whatever is riding on that wavelength.
Moreover, active DWDM can be easier to scale as your network grows. You can fit more
wavelengths on the fiber.

Active DWDM has drawbacks, too.

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Expensive: Active DWDM setups are extremely expensive compared to passive DWDM. If you
don’t need that long distance requirements, not choose active DWDM.

Configuration: Depending on your vendor, configuration can be a serious undertaking, and require
a solid understanding of optical networks. There are many more components in active builds.
DWDM necessarily require transponders, further, after muxing the signals, they typically need active
amplification to have any interesting reach. Without this, you’re only going a relatively short
distance.

2.7 Optical Transponder

Optical Transponder
 An optical transponder consists of a transmitter and a responder, which is similar to a
transceiver that includes a transmitter and a receiver.
 Optical transponder, also referred to as O-E-O (optical-electrical-optical) is an integrated part
and is very crucial for the signal
transmission in the whole WDM
network system.
 An optical transponder works by
converting the incoming signal
from the end or client service to a
WDM wavelength.
 The optical transponder extends
the transmission distance by
converting the wavelengths and
amplifying the signal.
 It automatically receives, amplifies
and then retransmits a signal on a different wavelength without changing the data/signal
content.
 An optical signal received by the transponder is converted to an electrical data stream which
it then processes and regenerates.
 The transponder then converts the signal of standard optical wavelengths to an optical CWDM
or DWDM signal. This process is commonly referred to as OEO (optical to electrical to optical)
conversion.
 Instead of simply regenerating the original signal during the process, modern WDM
transponders are endowed with the 3R system (Reshape, Retime, Reamplify), which is
capable of cleaning up, monitoring and amplifying the signal accurately and closely.

4 channels multirate WDM transponder (line card type) with 8 SFP/SFP+ ports

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Need of Optical Transponder
 In a case where equipment of different wavelengths needs to communicate with each other,
the optical transponder can solve the incompatible problem between them.
 When there is more than one fiber optic network provided by different providers and of different
standards, we need WDM transponder to traverse from one fiber optic network to another.
 These requirements are divided into three converting types in practical applications.
 Convert Multimode to Single-mode Fiber
 Convert Dual Fiber to Single Fiber
 Convert Wavelengths

Convert Multimode to Single-mode Fiber

 Mode conversion is needed when the transmission distance exceeds the limitation of MMF or
when connectivity between a multimode device and a single-mode device is required.
 For instance, the following two switches located far from each other are connected via two
optical transponders that convert MMF to SMF.
 Typical application of this function is for extending the distances of 10G Optical Transport
Network (OTN) and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) ring.

Convert Dual Fiber to Single Fiber

 Dual fiber uses same wavelength over two different strands of fiber, while single fiber uses
two different wavelengths over one strand of fiber, which is known as bidirectional (BiDi)
transmission.
 In this case, two dual fiber switches of long distances are linked via two optical transponders.
 As the BiDi single fiber owns two different wavelengths in one strand of fiber, the transmit (Tx)
at one end of the fiber matches the receive (Rx) from the other end, and vice versa.

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Convert Wavelengths
 Fiber network equipment with fixed fiber interfaces that operate over legacy wavelengths (850
nm, 1310 nm, 1550 nm) must be converted to CWDM or DWDM wavelengths via optical
transponders, which are capable of wavelength conversion together with small-form pluggable
(SFP) transceivers that transmit different wavelengths.
 In the figure below, a 10G switch with signal output at 1310 nm is needed to be connected to
a CWDM Mux/Demux channel port with wavelength of 1530 nm.
 A transponder operating with a SMF SFP+ and a 1530nm CWDM SFP+ is used between the
switch and the CWDM Mux/Demux to achieve wavelength conversion.

Standalone WDM Transponder

 WDM transponders enable high utilization of the same fiber to carry up to 96 services, as each
service is mapped into a separate spectral wavelength.
 Transponders reduce the number of optical amplifiers
needed, as the integrated amplifier can amplify up to 96
wavelengths sharing the same fiber.
 Standalone Transponder requires an individual monitoring
as well and takes up more spaces. Standalone WDM
transponders are usually with smaller capacity and fewer
slots compared with same-size line card types and the price for standalone transponders is
higher due to its design. They come in two types:
• Rackmount type
• Desktop type.
 Rack mount types have ears allowing for easy installation on standard racks, while desktop
types are usually not in standard 1U size and can only be put on shelves or desks.

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Line Card WDM Transponder
 OEO line cards are plug-in types that are used with empty rackmount chassis.
 They have advantages of smaller size, more interfaces taking up only a few spaces, and
higher capacity in the same dimension.
 The OEO cards are managed together with other functional line cards, which means they can
be flexibly removed, installed and monitored as a group.
 The line cards cannot be used alone and should be used in the chassis that hold them up.

2.8 Muxponder
Optical Transport Network
 OTN (Optical Transport Network) consists of various optical network elements connected by
optical fiber lines.
 They are used for supporting various functionalities in order to maintain optical links carrying
client optical signals.
 Typical functions include multiplexing, transport, switching, management, supervision,
survivability etc.
 It is defined in ITU-T G.709 standard.
 It uses WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing) unlike SDH/SONET.
 OTN was designed to provide higher throughput (currently 400G) than its
predecessor SONET/SDH, which stops at 40Gbit/s, per channel.

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Muxponder
 A muxponder is the element that sends and receives
the optical signal on a fiber in much the same way as a
transponder except that the muxponder has the
additional functionality of multiplexing multiple sub-rate
client interfaces onto the line interface.
 Muxponder technology utilizes ITU OTN (Optical
Transport Network) protocol and mapping to reduce
the number of wavelengths needed to transport the
data, making it the preferred choice for maximizing fiber
capacity and simple future network growth.
 Muxponder technology aggregates multiple services
such as Ethernet, SONET/SDH, Fibre Channel,
HD/SD-SDI, OTU2/3/4, etc. into a single
10G/100G/200G/400G wavelength/uplink. This reduces the number of wavelengths needed
for the solution, and increases spectral efficiency of the network.
 The muxponder product family solves the challenge of networks with wavelength shortages,
aggregating multi-protocol/multi-rate 10G, sub-10G and 10G/40G services into 100G uplink
using OTU2 and OTU4 uplink trunks.
 Increasing fiber utilization and spectral efficiency of data transport further reduces the solution
cost and operation complexity while increasing the reach and simplifying the growth path.

The 10G OTU2 uplink can simultaneously aggregate SDH/SONET, Ethernet, Fiber Channel,
and native video services, providing a perfect access platform for multiple clients’ needs

Benefits of Muxponder
 Reduction of the number of wavelengths needed in the optical network
 Every port can be used for multiple types of services, reducing management cost and CAPEX
of the optical transport network
 OTN provide extensive monitoring information, this improve the maintenance of the optical
network (OPEX)
 Unify legacy and next generation protocols and services over a common optical layer
 Cost reduction of the optical solution by:
 Reducing the number of colored optics by a factor of 8-24
 Reducing the number of WDM filters and patch cords / patch panels needed
 Reducing cost of amplification as there are less wavelengths to amplify
 Lower power consumption and reduction of the rack space needed for the optical solution
 Higher spectral efficiency, leveraging existing infrastructure for serving additional clients
 Layer-1 encryption per service or per uplink for secure data transport
 Cost-effective alien wavelength over existing WDM or OTN infrastructure

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Muxponder vs Transponder
 Muxponder accommodates two 40G QSFP+, ten 10G SFP+ client interfaces and a 100G CFP
line interface, supporting pluggable
short range, DWDM metro and long
range coherent 100G optics.
 It receives several data signals at
its client ports, then it utilizes the OEO
conversion to convert the client input
signals on to an aggregated WDM
signal.
 Muxponder allows for a random
combination of 10G and 40G client interface to get 100G rate. You can make the choice
according to your network condition.
 10 x 10G client services into 100G DWDM uplink
 2 x 40G LAN + 2 x 8/10G client services into 100G DWDM uplink
 1 x 40G LAN + 6 x 8/10G client services into 100G DWDM uplink

 Transponder receives a data signal (usually an optical signal) at the client port, converts it to
an electrical data stream which it then processes and regenerates.
 Then it converts the signal back to an optical WDM signal which is presented on the line port.
 This conversion process is commonly referred to as OEO (optical to electrical to optical)
conversion.

 When establishing a WDM-based system, transponder and muxponder can be used in

combination. Or using an embedded WDM signal on the same system.
 The amount of line signal should be less than or equal to the number of ports on the WDM
multiplexer.
 Sometimes, transponders and muxponders present to be a preferred choice over embedded
WDM transceiver, since some switch vendors don’t offer WDM transceivers or carrier needs
to provide a client signal to its users.

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2.9 Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer (ROADM)
ROADM
 Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer (ROADM) are used in systems that employ
wavelength division multiplexing.
 This device can add, block, pass or redirect modulated infrared (IR) and visible light beams of
various wavelengths in a fiber optic network.
 This is achieved through the use of a wavelength selective switching module.
 This allows individual or multiple wavelengths carrying data channels to be added and/or
dropped from a transport fiber without the need to convert the signals on all of the WDM
channels to electronic signals and back again to optical signals.

Components of ROADM
ROADM Components include:
 Wavelength selective switch
(WSS) - An active component
that performs the actual
wavelength switching. The WSS
enables the user to dynamically
route any wavelength to and from
any port and then seamlessly
change connectivity as needed.
 Optical channel monitoring (OCM) - Monitors the optical power of each wavelength.
 Variable optic attenuators (VOAs) - Configures the attenuation of optical power in each
wavelength
The last two components allow monitoring and dynamic balancing of optical power for all channels
across the network.

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ROADM device with four input ports (P1 to P4)

Advantages of ROADM
The main advantages of the ROADM are:
• The planning of entire bandwidth assignment need not be carried out during initial deployment
of a system.
• The configuration can be done as and when required without affecting traffic already passing
the ROADM.
• ROADM allows for remote configuration and reconfiguration.
• In ROADM, as it is not clear beforehand where a signal can be potentially routed, there is a
necessity of power balancing of these signals.
• ROADMs allow for automatic power balancing.
• The ROADM node comprises several ROADM devices connected to each other using their
input ports.
• Each RODAM device is connected to a different ROADM switching direction, called degree.
ROADM Nodes
 The ROADM node comprises several ROADM devices connected to each other using their
input ports.
 Each RODAM device is connected to a different ROADM switching direction, called degree.
ROADM Nodes in Ring Networks

This architecture adds an additional level of flexibility, allowing wavelengths to route or drop from
any line to any line. In an event of failure of any of the services, the protecting wavelength routes its
path through the network to overcome or bypass the failure.

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ROADM Nodes in Mesh Networks

 Two-degree ROADM nodes can be used in simple ring topologies. For more complex mesh
network architecture higher degree ROADM nodes are required.
 The number of node degrees depends on the number of WSS components present in the
node, as the multi-degree node is formed by connecting several WSS.
 Below figure shows a 3-degree ROADM node, where 3 ROADM devices each face a different
fiber and connect to the other fibers and the add/drop port.

2.10 Optical Amplifiers and Regenerations

Concept of Optical Amplifiers and Regeneration

 Regeneration is an amplifier with addition of 3-R function.

 It suppresses the noise at intermediate station. Regeneration requires at every 600Km
distance.
 Role of amplifiers in the optical network are that Pre-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the
receive side.
 The post-amplifier amplifies the communication pulses on the transmitted side (post amplifier)
and the receiving side (preamplifier).
 Line amplifiers (ILAs) are placed at different distances from the source to provide recovery of
the optical signal before it is degraded by loss.

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What are 3R Regeneration

Amplifiers in optical networks are defined as type 1R, 2R and 3R, which we call 3R Regeneration.

1R- Re-amplification:
Boost up the received weak signals to transmit further. It is done by the optical amplifier. In one
word we can say that 1R = Re-amplify.
2R- Re-Shaping:
Correcting noise and dispersion. Remove noise from a digital signal. It is done by DCF and OEO. In
other word we can say that 2R= Re-amplify and reshape.
3R- Re-timing:
Synchronizing with network clock. Using PLL and optical clock recovery. In simple word we can say
that 3R = Re-amplify, reshape, and retime.

Below given image shows the effect on a degraded optical signal once it has been 1R, 2R, or 3R
regenerated.

Optical Network and Regeneration

 With the help of the picture given below, it is shown that optical networks can have 1R, 2R,
and 3R devices.
 In the optical network the 1R device only amplifies the received optical signal.
 Amplification and reshaping of the waveform are provided by 2R device to provide some data
recovery.
 Amplification, reshaping and retiming is provided to the optical network by the 3R device. It
can provide for the transponder. Transponders have asynchronous input, do not depend on
timing and cannot be retimed.

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Optical Amplifiers
Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers
 For DWDM amplification gain
mechanism provided by the
Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers
(EDFAs).
 Erbium amplifier is very efficient in
the 1500 nm range.
 The light is pumped to about 1400
nm (pumped laser diode) excite the erbium ions, and then amplify the 1500 nm light signal
coming from the source system.
 Last active component in the DWDM system and erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) shows
in the image on the transmit side (post amplifier). In the give image the first active component
is on the receive side, the preamplifier (a receive EDFA).

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 P2P Connection in WDM with Optical Fiber Amplifiers (OFAs)

CATV EDFA Amplifier 1550nm 14 dBm

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Fiber Bends and Amplifiers
 For fiber-optic DWDM networks
there are three optical frequency
bands are used today. These three
bands are C- band, L-band and S-
band, which are considered the
most useful. The bands are:
➤The range of C-band
(conventional) is from 1530 nm to
1570 nm.
➤The range of L-band (long wavelength) is from 1570 to 1625 nm.
➤The range of S-band (short wavelength) is from 1450 to 1500 nm.
 Different types of amplifiers like C- and L-band amplifiers are required because EDFA must
be adapted for either C-band or L-band amplification.
➤For C-band, amplifiers uses high pump power with short EDFA fiber.
➤For L-band, amplifiers uses the medium pump power with long EDFA fiber.
 Thulium-doped fluoride-based fiber amplifiers (TDFAs), 1450–1490nm (S-band) are used in
conjunction with Raman fiber amplifiers (RFA).
Raman Amplifiers
 The Raman amplifier makes use of stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) within the fiber, which
transfers the energy of higher-frequency pump signals to lower-frequency signals.
 Recent discoveries have resulted in hybrid networks that use Raman amplification to achieve
greater distance performance.
Features include:
➤ Silicon fiber used as the gain
mechanism
➤ The lower efficiency of optical signal
is compensated for by the higher linear
density of silicon in the fiber.
➤ Amplifies over C-, L-, and S-bands.
 Distributed Raman amplifiers general used to accomplish operation over longer spans with
fewer regeneration sites.

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 Section 3: Exercises
Exercise 1: Tabulate SDH Bit Rates.
Exercise 2: Draw Global Network Hierarchy.
Exercise 3: Draw functional diagram of Single and Dual Fiber Optical Mux.
Exercise 4: Draw a diagram showing effect on a degraded optical signal once it has been 1R, 2R,
or 3R regenerated.
Exercise 5: Participate in group discussion on following topics:
a) TDM and WDM
b) PDH and SDH
c) Difference between CWDM and DWDM Techniques
d) Active and Passive Optical Mux/Demux
e) Transponder vs Muxponder
f) ROADM
g) EDFA and RAMAN Amplifiers

Section 4: Assessment Questionnaire

1. What are the various network topologies?
2. What is the data rate of the E1 signal?
3. On which multiplexing SONET works?
4. What is Bit Rate for SONET OC-3?
5. What is Wavelength Division Multiplexing?
6. What are the two types of DWDM?
7. Two wavelength regions are most commonly associated with CWDM, that are, ____nm and
_____nm.
8. What is channel spacing n CWDM and DWDM?
9. DWDM uses the _______transmission window.
10. What are the advantages of DWDM?
11. _____ is a device that combines the data, whereas, ____ device separates back the data.
12. ______DWDM Mux/Demux indicates the device needs power supply.
13. ___________ is also referred to as O-E-O (optical-electrical-optical).
14. Which device works by converting the incoming signal from the end or client service to a
WDM wavelength?
15. When there is more than one fiber optic network provided by different providers and of
different standards, we need __________ to traverse from one fiber optic network to
another.
16. What is line rate of OTU-1?
17. When establishing a WDM-based system, transponder and muxponder can be used in
combination. (True/False)
18. Which device allows individual or multiple wavelengths carrying data channels to be added
and/or dropped from a transport fiber without the need to convert the signals?
19. What are the components of ROADM?
20. What is 3R Regeneration?
21. Erbium amplifier is very efficient in the ____nm range.
22. For C-band, amplifiers use ____pump power with ____EDFA fiber and for L-band, amplifiers
use the ____ pump power with ____ EDFA fiber.
23. Distributed _______ amplifiers general used to accomplish operation over longer spans with
fewer regeneration sites.

----------End of the Module----------

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 MODULE 3
GPON Technology and Global Broadband
Network Deployment

Section 1: Learning Outcomes

After completing this module, you will be able to:

 Explain concept of Passive Optical Network (PON)
 Differentiate between AON and PON
 Describe the Design, Architecture and Technology of the GPON
 Explain GPON Data Multiplexing
 Discuss the summary of the GPON ITU-T G.984.1, G.984.2, G.984.3 and G.984.4 Standards
 Narrate the User Story from Broadband Networks Deployment in various Nations

Section 2: Relevant Knowledge

3.1 PON (Passive Optical Network)
Common Network architectures

 Point To Point, P2P

– Dedicated fiber to each user

 Point to Multipoint, P2MP

– The fiber is shared
– Active Optical Networks, AON
– Passive Optical Network, PON

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Decimal Multiple of Bits

PON – Passive Optical Network

PON is a point to multi-point technology used to provide fiber to the end consumer, both domestic
and commercial.

Passive Devices - Splitter, Combiners, Connectors, etc.

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Evolution of PON

Active Optical Network (AON)

 AON is an Active Optical Network, which mainly uses a point-to-point (PTP) network. architecture,
and each user can have a dedicated optical fiber line.
 In an active optical network, electrical switching equipment are deployed, such as a router or a
switch, to manage signal distribution and route data to proper different user terminals.

Active Devices - Amplifiers, Switches, Repeaters, Shifters, etc.

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Difference between AON and PON

Difference between AON and PON

PON vs P2P

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3.2 GPON (Gigabit Passive Optical Network)
GPON Technology
 GPON is a point-to-multipoint access mechanism.
 It mainly consists of three components viz.:
1. Optical Line Termination (OLT)
2. Optical Network Unit (ONU) or Optical Network Termination (ONT)
3. Optical Distribution Network (ODN) that contains splitters
 GPON supports triple-play services, high-bandwidth, long reach etc.
 It provides 2.5 Gb/s of downstream bandwidth and 1.25 Gb/s upstream.
 1550nm band is used from OLT to ONT (Downstream) and 1310nm band is used from ONT to
OLT (Upstream) communication.
 GPON adopts Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) technology, facilitating bi-directional
communication over a single fiber.
 To separate upstream/downstream signals of multiple users over a single fiber, GPON adopts two
multiplexing mechanisms:
 In downstream direction, data packets are transmitted in a broadcast manner
 In upstream direction, data packets are transmitted in a TDMA manner

GPON Fiber Cabling

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GPON – Triple Play
Triple play service includes High Speed Internet Access, Television and Telephone services over a
single broadband connection.

 GPON also supports all types of Ethernet protocols.

 GPON supports triple-play (Data, Voice & Video) through following services:

Pros and Cons of GPON Technology

Pros:
 GPON reduces equipment requirement compared with point-to-point architectures.
 Higher bandwidth enabling faster digital communications.
 GPON has a low building and maintenance cost relative to active optical networks.
Cons:
 GPON has less range than an active optical network (Max. 20Kms).
 It is difficult to isolate a failure in GPON network.
 Data transmission speed may slow down during peak usage times.

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3.3 GPON Data Multiplexing
GPON Technology

Downstream Data Flow in GPON

Downstream - Broadcasting Mode

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Upstream Data Flow in GPON
Upstream - Time Mode

OLT-ONT Distance
 Max. Logical Reach: 60 km (Regardless of the optical budget)
 Max. Physical Reach: 20 km (Considering optical losses with 1x128 optical splitter)
 Max. Differential Reach: 20 km (Due to maximum equalization delay ~250 microsecs)

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3.4 GPON ITU-T Standards
GPON ITU-T Standards
 G.984, commonly known as GPON, is a standard for passive optical networks (PON) published by
the ITU-T.
 It is commonly used to implement the outermost link to the customer (last kilometer or last mile) of
fiber-to-the-premises (FTTP) services.
 The first version of GPON was ratified in 2003.
 Since then, it has been expanded upon and revised several times. Work on the standard continues.
 As of July 2018, G.984.5 is currently being revised.
 The most recent version comprises seven parts.
G.984.1 : General characteristics, 2008, with amendment 1 (2009) and 2 (2012)

G.984.2 : Physical Media Dependent (PMD) layer specification, 2003, with amendment 1 (2006) and
2 (2008)

G.984.3 : Transmission convergence layer specification, 2008, with amendments 1 (2009), 2 (2009),
3 (2012) and erratum 1 (2010)

G.984.4 : ONT management and control interface (OMCI) specification, 2008, with amendments 1
(2009), 2 (2009), 3 (2010), erratum 1 (2009), corrigendum 1 (2010), and an implementer's guide
(2009)

G.984.5 : Enhancement Band, 2014, Coexistence with future WDM PON technology on the same
medium

G.984.6 : Reach extension (2008), with amendments 1 (2009) and 2 (2012)

G.984.7 : Long reach (2010)

In this module, we will learn about G.984.1 to G. 984.4 standards

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G.984.1
 G984.1 provides the GPON framework, and
is known as the GPON service
requirements (GSR). The GSR summarizes
the operational characteristics that service
providers expect of the network, in terms of
transport speeds, tolerances, delay, etc.
 The general characteristics include
examples of services, User Network
Interfaces (UNI) and Service Node
Interfaces (SNI) that are requested by
network operators. Also, this
Recommendation shows the principal
deployment configuration.
 This recommendation describes a flexible
optical fiber access network capable of
supporting the bandwidth requirements of
business and residential services and
covers systems with nominal line rates of
1.2 Gbit/s and 2.4 Gbit/s in the downstream direction and 155 Mbit/s, 622 Mbit/s, 1.2 Gbit/s and
2.4 Gbit/s in the upstream direction.
 Both symmetrical and asymmetrical (upstream/downstream) Gigabit-capable Passive Optical
Network (GPON) systems are described.
 It proposes the general characteristics for GPON based on operators' service requirements.
 This Recommendation aims to improve on the G.983.1 system by reconsidering a supporting
service, security policy, nominal bit-rate, and so on.
 In order to insure maximal continuity with existing systems and optical fiber infrastructure, this
Recommendation maintains some requirements of ITU-T Rec. G.983.1.

G.984.2
 This Recommendation describes a flexible optical fiber access network capable of supporting the
bandwidth requirements of business and residential services, and covers systems with nominal
line rates of 1 244.160 Mbit/s and 2 488.320 Mbit/s in the downstream direction and 155.520 Mbit/s,
622.080 Mbit/s, 1 244.160 Mbit/s and 2 488.320 Mbit/s in the upstream direction.
 Both upstream/downstream GPON systems are described.
 This Recommendation proposes the physical layer requirements and specifications for the physical
media dependent (PMD) layer.
 The transmission convergence layer and ranging protocol for GPON systems are described.
 It describes a system that represents an evolutionary development from the system described in
ITU-T G.983.1.
 To the greatest extent possible, this Recommendation maintains the requirements of ITU-T
G.983.1 to ensure maximal continuity with existing systems and optical fiber infrastructure.

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G.984.3
 G984.3 provides the GPON Transmission Convergence (GTC) specifications.
 The GTC is responsible for correct implementation of the data flow process in the physical layer
and addresses issues such as the frame structure, the control sequence between the OLT and the
ONTs, and the packet encryption function.
 This Recommendation includes the specifications of the following:
 Gigabit PON transmission convergence (GTC) layer framing
 Upstream time division multiple access mechanism
 Physical layer operation, administration and maintenance (OAM) messaging channel
 Principles and signaling mechanism of the upstream dynamic bandwidth assignment
 Optical network unit (ONU) activation method
 Forward error correction
 Security
 This Recommendation forms an integral part of the G.984-series of ITU-T Recommendations that,
together, specify a single coherent set of access transmission systems.

G.984.4
 G984.4 defines the ONT management and control interface (OMCI) for a GPON.
 Recommendation ITU-T G.984.4 provides the optical network termination (ONT) management and
control interface (OMCI) specification for GPON systems as defined in Recommendations ITU-T
G.984.2 and G.984.3.
 It specifies the managed entities of a protocol-independent management information base (MIB)
that models the exchange of information between the optical line termination (OLT) and the optical
network termination (ONT).
 It covers the ONT management and control channel, protocol and detailed messages.
 This revision endeavours to remove all references to the optional ATM transport capabilities of G-
PON, since all modern systems do not support it.

3.5 User Story from Broadband Networks Deployment in various

Nations JAPAN
 In Japan, it can be said that connecting to the Internet using telephone lines installed in homes
and businesses is one of the reasons that led to the spread of the broadband type.
 When it comes to the type of Broadband Internet in Japan, the choice is between home
wifi and fiber optic (which allows wireless connectivity anyway).
 Users are generally looking at a minimum of 50 Mbps and a maximum of 1 Gbps to 10 Gbps (with
fiber).
 Close to 94 percent of households with internet access in Japan used a broadband connection in
2021, whereas less than six percent used a narrowband connection.
 Among broadband connections, optical fiber and mobile phone lines were the most common ones,
being used by the majority of households.

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Japan ISPs
 Some of the biggest internet service providers in Japan include: Nuro Hikari, au Hikari, NTT
Docomo (Docomo Hikari), SoftBank, Sony (So-net) and Asahi Net.
 NTT East accounted for more than 36 percent of fiber to the home (FTTH) subscriptions in Japan
as of 2021. NTT East and NTT West together held more than 64 percent of the market.
The information in the table below is subject to change.
Source: https://tokyocheapo.com
ISP Type of internet Speed  Japan's telecommunications infrastructure is overall
Wi-FiRental.com Portable wifi Up to 187.5Mbps stable and the number of outages is low. Although you
Mobal Wifi Portable wifi Up to 150Mbps can access to the Internet at a certain level of quality
NTT Docomo fiber
Up to 1Gbps-
even on a Broadband circuit, Guaranteed
optic/
Asahi Net
NTT FLET’S fiber
10Gbps/ Bandwidth circuits are recently selected.
Up to 1Gbps
optic
 The Guaranteed Bandwidth service, as its name
Assist Solutions NTT FLET’S fiber
(SonixNet) optic
Up to 1Gbps implies, is a circuit that guarantees a certain specified
NTT FLET’S fiber
amount of bandwidth. If a contract was signed for
Sakura Fiber Internet Up to 1Gbps
optic 1Gbps, a Guaranteed Bandwidth connection is a
SpinNet
NTT FLET’S fiber
Up to 1Gbps service system that guarantees both upstream and
optic
downstream speeds of 1Gbps, exactly as stated on
Up to 1Gbps-
au (KDDI) Hikari au fiber optic the contract.
10Gbps

SoftBank fiber Up to 1Gbps-  It comes with a premium price, but it is used for
SoftBank
optic 10Gbps
important products and networks that want to maintain
Docomo fiber Up to 1Gbps-
Docomo Hikari
optic 10Gbps
a stable communication environment and speed at all
times. This system has spread into general use in
Europe and the United States.
 In contrast, the broadband service does not guarantee 1Gbps even if the communication speed
was contracted as such; at best, it is a model that “provides services within the range of 1Gbps”.
As a result, it is rare to get the contracted maximum speed.
 To its merit, broadband easy to introduce, affordable, and is the system that is commonly used in
Japan.
No. of Subscriptions
More than 35 million fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) subscriptions were counted in Japan as of 2021,
following a constant increase in the recent years. FTTH was introduced to the Japanese market in
1999, providing high bandwidth and high-speed internet access at a comparatively low price.

Source: Statista 2022

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Individuals using the Internet

Source: Statista 2022

USA
 States differ in how they manage broadband
deployment and which agencies or offices
they task with identifying challenges,
charting goals, and encouraging investment.
 Some states have a centralized office
responsible for managing or coordinating
broadband efforts. In others, multiple
agencies have jurisdiction over broadband.
 More than half of states have established dedicated funds to support deployment of high-speed
internet, and many have developed goals, plans, and maps for
expansion of access.
 In 2015, the United States Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) defined broadband as any connection with a
download speed of at least 25 Mbit/s and an upload speed of at least
3 Mbit/s, though the definition has used a slower speed in the past.
 In 2016, The United States ranks #1 in the world with 7,000 Internet
Service Providers (ISPs) according to the CIA. Internet bandwidth per
Internet user was the 43rd highest in the world.
 As of 2019, 90% of adults in America use the internet, either
irregularly or frequently.
 The share of Americans with home broadband subscriptions has
similarly grown since 2019 – from 73% of adults saying they have one
in the previous survey to 77% today.
 There are more pronounced variations across some demographic
groups, particularly in differences by annual household income and
educational attainment.
 For example, 92% of adults in households earning $75,000 or more per year say they have
broadband internet at home. But that share falls to 57% among those whose annual household
income is below $30,000. The 35-percentage point gap between these two income groups is nearly
twice as large as the comparable gap for smartphone ownership – there is a 20-point gap between
those in households earning less than $30,000 per year and those in households earning $75,000
or more who say they own a smartphone. Educational differences follow a similar pattern.

 There remains a statistically significant gap between rural residents who have home broadband
and suburban residents, but while the gap was 16 percentage points in 2019, it is 7 points in 2022.
 The number of households in the United States with permanent internet access via broadband
continues to rise, reaching 120 million households in 2020. The United States are one of the
biggest online markets worldwide.
 In fourth quarter of 2021, the total number of broadband subscribers in the U.S. stood at 108.35
million, with the largest cable and telephone providers in the U.S. gaining over 50 thousand
additional broadband internet subscribers during the year of 2021.
 As of 2022, there are 1,410 Internet Service Providers businesses in the US, an increase of 4.6%
from 2021.

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SPAIN
 According to the European FTTH Council, Spain is the European country with the highest
penetration rate, with more than 44% of connected homes. This percentage translates to 22 million
dwellings equipped with fiber to the home.
 Spain has 42.40 million internet users; 91.0% of the population till 2020 and 33.6 million fixed
broadband subscriptions, 13th in the world; 83.4% of the population, 37th in the world till 2019.
 Spain has one of the highest coverages of FTTH, having more than Germany, France, Italy and
the United Kingdom altogether.
 Spain has a decent internet network; although your options regarding download speeds will largely
depend on where you live. Spanish connections are typically ADSL or fiber-optic cables, with the
latter becoming an increasingly popular and accessible choice.
 In more rural locations, you may need to explore cellular 4G internet options to ensure good
connectivity.
 As the former state provider, Movistar dominates the home internet market in Spain, accounting
for almost 40% of all connections in the country.
 Tariffs are typically priced according to download speed, cable type, and any other extras. This
could be TV packages, music subscriptions, or something else.
 The leading internet providers in Spain include:
 Movistar
 Orange
 Vodafone
 MásMóvil/Yoigo
 Euskatel
 Movistar offers 1 Gbit/s symmetrical. Other operators also have 1 Gbit/s offers, some symmetrical.
The most common speed in Spain is 300 Mbit/s as it is the default offer from Movistar, the main
broadband supplier in the country.
 Movistar, Vodafone, Orange and MÁSMÓVIL are the main providers offering TV packages with
their broadband.
 Clients of other DSL companies usually have higher speeds sold as "Máxima velocidad"
(maximum speed) or "Hasta 1 Gbps" (up to 1 Gbit/s).
 In Spain, the faster Internet technology is the optic fiber. It is not available everywhere but it is
already present in many regions of the country.
 It offers a real speed and it can up to 50 Mb, 100 Mb, 200 Mb, 300 Mb, 600 Mb or even 1Gb. It is
high speed and good Internet. In case you do not have fiber coverage, user can
acquire ADSL providing speed up to 20 Mb.
 Reliability of broadband in Spain depends on where user live and what kind of broadband user
have. If user have standard broadband, he is unlikely to get the 'up to' speed advertised.
 For example, if user get a standard ADSL package advertised as offering up to 20 Mb, he is likely
to get about 6 Mb, which is the average download speed in Spain with this technology. This is
because the further he lives from the local telephone exchange, the less speed he'll get, so in
general he will get better speeds in cities than in small towns and villages.
 However, fiber optic broadband has quickly become widely available in Spain. The big providers
are putting in fiber optic cables across the country, with Movistar leading the race. Users can get
fiber in most of the bigger cities now, which offers download speeds of up to 300 Mbps.

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 EU Countries
 In Europe, it is estimated that there are approximately 189.8 million broadband internet
subscribers, which is an increase of over 65 million subscribers since 2008.
 The share of households with broadband internet in Europe (EU 28) stood at 83 percent in 2016,
with Luxembourg coming in first place (92 percent) and Bulgaria coming in last (63 percent). This
penetration rate includes mobile broadband as well as fixed-line broadband.
 Some broadband internet providers such as Vodafone and Orange operate in multiple regions.
However, most countries seem to have a different operator leading the market. For
example; Deutsche Telekom was in the lead in Germany with a market share of 41.3
percent; Orange was the leader on the French market in 2015 with a market share of 39.9 percent;
and in Spain, Movistar had the most connections with a total of 5.89 million in January 2017.
 Europe as a region boasts the lowest fixed broadband prices (as a percentage of gross national
income) compared with other regions as there are better income levels in a number of countries.
 In 2020, 91 percent of households across the EU-27 had access to the internet. The increase of
one percent in comparison to the previous year continued the trend of improved household access
that can be observed across the European Union.
 Countries like Germany and Belgium continued to expand their already high shares by small
increments, while other European countries with initially smaller shares
like Poland and Latvia made more headway in their improvements.
 Some countries like the Netherlands, Sweden, and Norway, however, saw a decrease of overall
access to the internet in 2020. All countries that saw such a decline still ranked among the nations
with the highest overall percentage of households with access to the internet.
 Internet performance in Europe has improved dramatically over the past year and a half. Average
fixed line download speeds have increased by more than half (+51.9 percent), from 68 Megabits
per second (Mbps) in March 2020 to 103.3 Mbps in June 2021.
 Liechtenstein has the fastest broadband in Europe and the world an average speed of
211.26Mbps.

Share of households in selected European countries with internet access from 2017 to 2020

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UAE-ME
 9.26 million people use mobile devices to access the internet, which is around 93% of the
population.
 In March 2022, the number of broadband internet subscriptions in the United Arab Emirates (UAE)
amounted to 40.3 subscriptions per hundred inhabitants.
 The number of internet subscribers in the UAE reached around 3.7 million subscribers in that
month.
 The fixed-broadband network in the UAE is dominated by fiber, with DSL having a minor and
declining presence.
 This focus on a fully fiberd infrastructure has also facilitated growth in e-commerce, and has
supported the government’s long-term aim of transitioning the economy from its dependence on
oil to being knowledge-based and supported by digital services.

Number of internet subscribers in the United Arab Emirates (UAE)

from January 2020 to March 2022

 The UAE is ranked number one for the highest Fiber to the Home (FTTH) penetration among all
its counterparts, maintaining consistent leadership since 2016, according to the leading industry
body FTTH Council. (The UAE has the highest Fiber to the Home (FTTH) penetration globally, with
a coverage of 94.3 %.)
 The council published its annual report that showcases the countries with the highest fiber optic
network penetration globally. The report highlighted UAE as the number one country with its fiber
network coverage surpassing Singapore, China, South Korea and Hongkong.
 Etisalat UAE has continuously invested in digital transformation, the mobile and fiber network. This
has led to the launch of innovative services meeting the growing demand and changing
requirements of Etisalat UAE’s customers.
 According to the latest data from Ookla, the UAE has ranked first in terms of mobile speed
at 193.51 Mbps, and among the top 20 countries globally in the fixed broadband index. The fastest
average download speed of 180 Mbps was recorded in May 2021.
 The average broadband connection internet speed in the United Arab Emirates in 2021 was
about 118.52 mbps, compared to about 86.8 mbps for mobile data.
 The Middle East has vastly outpaced the global average in its rise in internet penetration. In 2009,
the worldwide average and the Middle East sat at a sub-30 percent internet penetration rate.
 As of April 2019, internet penetration in the Middle East was 67.2 percent among the local
population.

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 By 2020, the global average had surged to 59 percent, being vastly outdone by the Middle East’s
70.2 percent.
 Iran is the most populous nation in the Middle East, being the home of nearly 84 million people. Its
surge to an 80.5 percent internet penetration rate marks a tremendous uptick from a mere 15.9
percent in 2010, and even 45.3 percent in 2015.

 Countries in the Middle East are investing in fixed networks to provide the infrastructure
underpinning digital transformation, and the long-term development of knowledge-based
economies.
 Investment in fiber has propelled the UAE as the top-ranking country in the region (16th globally)
for fixed broadband data rates, at 189Mb/s as of September 2021.
 Qatar’s substantial fixed broadband network based on GigaNet fiber has held it in good stead
during the COVID-19 pandemic.
 Saudi Arabia climbs in the Digital Infrastructure Index league table, and continues to implement
strategies as part of its the Vision 2030.
 Bahrain is pursuing its long-term Economic Vision 2030 strategy, aimed at developing digital
services across numerous sectors, including e-government, e-health, e-commerce, and e-banking.

Section 3: Exercises

Exercise 1: Draw a Gigabit Optical Passive Network diagram.

Exercise 2: Draw GPON Fiber Cabling Diagram.

Exercise 3: Differentiate between PON and P2P.

Exercise 4: Participate in group discussion on following topics:

a) GPON Data Multiplexing
b) Evolution of PON
c) GPON ITUT-Standards
d) Broadband Networks Deployment in various Nations

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 Section 4: Assessment Questionnaire
1. 1 Kbps = ____ bps
2. 1 Mbps = _____Kbps
3. 1 Gbps = _____Mbps
4. 1 Byte = _____ Bits
5. Passive devices are:
6. Active devices are:
7. What is the downstream and upstream data rates of data rates of GPON?
8. In downstream direction, data packets are transmitted in a _________.
9. In upstream direction, data packets are transmitted in a __________.
10. Triple play service includes:
11. Triple Play = ________, ________, ________.
12. What are the Pros and Cons of GPON technology?
13. In GPON, upstream data flows in _____ mode and downstream data flows in ____mode.
14. Logical Reach ___km, Physical Reach ___km, Differential Reach ___km.
15. ______ is a standard for passive optical networks (PON) published by the ITU-T.

----------End of the Module----------

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 MODULE 4
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY

Section 1: Learning Outcomes

After completing this module, you will be able to:
 Explain the importance of Safety
 Types of Workplace Hazards
 Use various Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) at workplace
 Differentiate between various Laser Classes and Safety Practices
 Adhere to Optical Fiber Safety procedures at workplace
 Explain the concept of Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) and Safety Procedures
 Perform Telecom Equipment Grounding
 Ensure General Electrical and Cabling safety
 Gauge and perform Fire Safety Actions
 Perform Medical Care at Site (First Aid and CPR)

Section 2: Relevant Knowledge

4.1 Introduction to Workplace Safety and Hazards

What is Safety?
Safety is:
 A general condition of being safe
 Living without fear of getting injured
 Being protected from the dangers of our work environment

“No work is so important that it need

be done without due consideration
for safety.”

Safety Basics

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Types of Hazards

Effective Health and Safety Procedures for the Workplace

 Create a Safety Plan - It's important for every worker, contractor, and visitor to have access to a
thorough safety plan
 Record Keeping
 Proper Safety Equipment
 Eliminate Potential Hazards
 Provide Proper Training

Types of Incidents

All Incidents irrespective of their nature/magnitude should be reported within 24 hours of occurrence
by the respective area in-charge/supervisor

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4.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Eye Protection
 Equipment: Safety spectacles
 Purpose: For protection against flying particles or any sudden impact
while executing the job
 Specification: Clear polycarbonate lens for low energy impact
resistant as per EN 166

 Equipment: Laser
goggles
 Purpose: For protection against radiation from a
laser system to eliminate the possibility of potentially
hazardous eye exposure.
 Specification: Class EN 207

Arm and Hand Protection

 Equipment: Cotton knitted gloves
 Purpose: For protection against cuts/abrasion during work execution and
material handling
 Specification: Seamless 100% cotton

 Equipment: Electrical gloves

 Purpose: For protection against electrocution while
working on live line
 Specification: Electrical resistant gloves made of rubber
as per EN 609033

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4.3 Optical Fiber Laser Classes and Safety
Fiber Laser
 Fiber Lasers have different wavelengths.
 They are widely used in industrial environments to perform cutting, marking, welding, cleaning,
texturing, drilling and a lot more.
 They are also used in other fields such as telecommunication and medicine.
 Fiber lasers use an optical fiber cable made of silica glass to guide light.
 The resulting laser beam is more precise than with other types of lasers because it is straighter
and smaller.
 They also have a small footprint, good electrical efficiency, low maintenance and low operating
costs.

Laser source: Fiber lasers vary according to the material with which the laser source is mixed.
Some examples include ytterbium-doped fiber lasers, thulium-doped fiber lasers, and erbium-
doped fiber lasers. All these types of lasers are used for different applications because they
produce different wavelengths.

Laser power: Laser power is expressed in watts and represents the average power of the laser
beam. For example, you can have a 20W fiber laser, a 50W fiber laser, and so on. High-power
lasers generate more energy faster than low-power lasers.

Fiber Laser Parameters

 The

wavelength produced by a fiber laser corresponds to the level of electromagnetic radiation of the
laser light. Typically, fiber lasers produce wavelengths between 780 nm and 2200 nm, which is
located in the infrared spectrum and is invisible to the human eye.
 This range of infrared light tends to react well with metals, rubber and plastics, making it useful for
a wide range of materials processing applications.
 Some fiber lasers such as green lasers produce visible light which can react well with soft materials
such as gold, copper, silicone and soft glass. Green fiber lasers are also used for holography,
therapy and surgery, among other things.

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Laser Classes
 Lasers are classified for safety purposes based on their potential for causing injury to humans’
eyes and skin.
 For visible-beam consumer lasers, there are four main classes. Class 2, Class 3R, Class
3B and Class 4 or in Roman numerals (I, II, IIIa, IIIb, IV).
 The first two Classes are relatively safe for eye exposure; the last two are hazardous.

 Lasers are categorized into 4 classes based on their optical power levels.

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Class 1:
 With the exception of optical amplifiers and the visible lasers, lasers used in FOC systems and test
equipment are low power level Class 1 or 1M types using Fabry-Perot (F-P) or distributed feedback
(DFB) types operating at 1310, 1490, 1550, and 1625 nanometers.
 These lasers produce large-diameter beams, or beams that are divergent, such as the beam
emitted from the end of an optical fiber.
Class 2:
 Lasers emit in the visible part of the spectrum between 400 and 700 nanometers where eye
protection is generally provided by a person’s natural aversion response to bright lights.
 Optical power levels can be up to 1 milliwatt while the Class 2M can have levels up to 5 milliwatts.
 Most fiber fault locators emitting red light are of these types.
Class 3B and 3R
 Lasers are the next category with higher power levels. While the "B" has no special meaning, the
"R" stands for Reduced (product safety) Requirements. Class 3R lasers represent a transitional
zone between safe and hazardous laser products.
 In fiber optics many optical amplifiers are Class 3 lasers.
Class 4
 Covers high power lasers ranging from 500 milliwatts and above. These lasers are a hazard to
eyes or skin from the direct beam, specular reflections, and, in some cases, even diffuse
reflections.
 When operating lasers of Classes 3B and 4 in a manner that may result in eye exposure in excess
of the maximum permissible exposure limit, protective eyewear is required in the workplace.
 EDFA and Raman optical amplifiers may be class 3 or 4 types when used individually or when
used together for long haul FOC systems.
4.4 Optical Fiber Risks & Safety
Optical Fiber Safety Practices

 Never look directly into the fiber. It may burn retina.

 Always cap connectors.
 Glass shards, if injected in skin/body, can cause internal hemorrhages.
 The broken ends of fibers and scraps of fiber should be disposed-off properly.
 Wear protective Apron to avoid fiber particles from attaching to clothing.
 Isopropyl alcohol, used as a cleaner, is flammable and should be handled carefully.
 Keep hands away from face.
 Do not touch your eyes while working with fiber optic systems.
 Mark enclosures with warning labels.
 Laser test sources are dangerous, don’t leave them lying around.

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Chemical Safety
MSDS: Material Safety Data Sheet is a document that lists the risks of a chemical
 Alcohol – Flammable
 Adhesives – Irritate skin, require ventilation
 Index matching gel – Irritate eyes
 Silicone adhesives are used as mechanical sealant – can irritate skin or eyes

4.5 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)

What is ESD?

 The transfer of an electrostatic charge between bodies at different electrical potentials.

 Also referred to as static electricity Electrostatic charge is most commonly created by the contact
and separation of two materials which results in
Tribocharging.
 A stationary electric charge, typically produced by friction,
which causes sparks, crackling or the attraction of dust or
hair.
 Usually, the charge flows through a spark between two
conductive bodies at different electrostatic potentials as
they approach one another.
 Many people have experienced static electricity and
"shocks", or electrostatic discharge when touching a
metal doorknob after walking across a carpeted floor
or after sliding across a car seat.
 There are innumerable ESD events occurring all the
time that we cannot see or feel.
 People Feel ESD at 2000 Volts!!!!
 Component damage - can occur with as little as 15 – 30 Volts!!!!

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Common Causes of ESD?
 Opening a common plastic bag
 Removing adhesive tape from a roll or container
 Moving people
 Walking across a floor and grabbing the door knob
 Transporting computer boards or components around
in their trays on no-ESD carts
 Sliding circuit boards on a work bench
 Improper grounding
 Unshielded cables
 Poor connections
 Moving machines
 Low humidity (hot and dry conditions)
 Relative movement on chair

ESD Conductors and Insulators

Conductors
 Materials that easily transfer electric charge
 Can be used to transfer charge to earths ground
Examples
• Metals
• Water
• Carbon
• People

Insulators
 Materials that hold an electric charge and cannot easily transfer the
charge
 Cannot be grounded to earth by common means

Examples
• Plastics
• Glass
• Dry Air
 This is why it is important that insulators should be avoided and all possible static electricity
generators (such as you) should (must) be grounded to eliminate any build up of charges.
 The options for insulators in and ESD Protected Area are:
o Remove the insulative item from the ESD Protected Area
o Substitute the item with an ESD protective version (such as tape, document holders, material
handling containers, plastic bottles, etc.)
o Periodically treat insulative surface with a topical antistatic
o Neutralize electrostatic charges using ionization

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Sources of ESD
The following items are examples of materials that generate and hold electrostatic charge.
 Vinyl binders
 Paper, schematics, etc.
 Equipment covers
 Plastic work travellers
 Plastic document holders/sheet
protectors
 Plastic spray bottles
 Plastic pens
 Bubble wrap
 Plastic housings on equipment
o Personal items
o Purses
o Sweaters/jackets
o Insulated lunch totes
o Combs/brushes
o Lotion bottles

ESD Sensitive Material

 ESDS – Electrostatic Discharge Sensitive Integrated Circuits (DIPs, QFP, BGA, SOT, etc.)
 Crystals and oscillators
 Printed Circuit Board Assemblies
 MOSFET transistors, used to make integrated circuits (ICs)
 CMOS ICs (chips), integrated circuits built with MOSFETs. Examples are computer
 CPUs, graphics ICs.
 Computer cards
 TTL chips
 Laser diodes
 Blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
 High precision resistors

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Prevent ESD Damage

Open the sensitive device’s static shielding packaging only

inside the ESD Protected Area (EPA)
 Follow the rules of the EPA
 EPAs can be as small as one table or as large as an entire
room

 Your process defines the control items you use.

 Use your wrist strap
 Use shoe grounders on both feet
 Use your ESD garment properly
 Check your wrist strap and footwear regularly

 Remove following materials from work area:

 Charge generating materials (common plastics)
 Insulating clothes
 Plastic Chairs
 General tools
 Water Bottles
 Radios
 Picture Frame
 Purses, etc.

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 Often an ESD-safe foam or ESD-safe bag are required for transporting Optical Networking
components.
 When working with them, an engineer will often use a grounding mat or other grounding tool to
keep from damaging the equipment.
 Networking Engineer may also wear antistatic garments or an antistatic wrist strap.

 Shielding bags should be large enough to enclose the entire product within.
 The shielding bag should be closed with a label or tape.
 Do not staple your shielding bag. The staple punctures the shielding layers and will provide a
conductive path from the outside of the shielding bag to the inside.

 Make sure you place the closed shielding bag on an ESD worksurface before removing the
product.
 This will eliminate any charge that might have accumulated on the surface of the shielding bag.
 Do Not Overuse Shielding Bags
 Shielding Bags Are Not A Working Surface

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4.6 General Electrical Safety
AC and DC Power Safety
 The power system is energized by power sources with hazardous voltage. Direct or indirect contact
(through damp objects) with the power sources may result in electric shock.
 Non-standard and improper operations may result in fire or electric shock.
 Do not connect or disconnect power cables with power on. Transient contact between the core of
the power cable and the conductor will generate electric arcs or sparks, which may cause fire or
personal injury.
 If the power supply to the equipment is permanently connected, install an easily accessible
disconnector at the exterior of the device.
 Before making electrical connections, switch off the disconnector on the upstream device to cut off
the power supply if people may contact energized components.
 If a "high electricity leakage" tag is attached on the equipment, ground the protective ground
terminal on the equipment enclosure before connecting the AC power supply; otherwise, electric
shock as a result of electricity leakage may occur.
 Before installing or removing a power cable, turn off the power switch.
 Before connecting a power cable, check that the label on the power cable is correct.
 Before connecting the power supply, ensure that cable connections are correct.
 If the equipment has multiple inputs, disconnect all the inputs before operating the equipment.
4.7 Cabling Safety
 When routing cables, ensure that a distance of at least 30 mm exists between the cables and heat-
generating components or areas. This prevents damage to the insulation layer of the cables.
 Do not route cables behind the air intake and exhaust vents of the equipment.
 Ensure that cables meet the recommended flame spread rating requirements.
 Bind cables of the same type together.
 When routing cables of different types, ensure that they are at least 30 mm away from each other.
 Ensure that all cables are securely bound.
 Route and bind cables so that they appear neat and tidy and their cable sheaths are intact.
 If an AC input power cable is connected to the cabinet from the top, bend the cable in a U shape
outside the cabinet and then route it into the cabinet.
 Ensure that the bending radius of each cable is at least five times the diameter of the cable.
 When routing power cables, ensure that there is no coiling or twisting.
 Do not join or weld power cables. If necessary, use a longer cable.
4.8 Telecom Equipment and Rack Grounding
Grounding or Earthing

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Purpose of Grounding
 Freedom from Electric Shock
 Human Safety including Plants and Animals
 Protection from Voltage due to Lightening Surges
 Avoid Damage to the Equipment
 Contribute to the Better Performance of the Equipment
 Apart from the above purpose, better earthing results in the less likelihood of the accidents to
personnel and devices
 Hazards like Shock and Fire may result from the inadequate Earthing of Equipment

Grounding and Bonding

A server rack grounding system is essential to ensure network uptime.
 Electrical Bonding creates a conductive path between equipment, housing, panels, metal parts and
other structures.
 In the event of an electrical fault or surge, lighting strikes or accidental contacts, electricity will flow
through the bonded components. To ensure bonded systems are as safe as possible, they should
also be grounded.
 Grounding is any intentional or unintentional connection between an electrical circuit and the earth.
 Grounding ensures all metal parts of an electrical circuit are connected to the earth. It doesn’t
impact the regular working of the electrical system.

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Telecom Equipment and Rack Grounding
 All electrical systems and communication cabling systems are
required to be grounded.
 This is required to provide a reliable means to safely conduct
the voltages imposed by lighting, line surges, or unintentional
contact with high voltage lines or equipment to ground.
 Simply grounding to structural steel is not enough when dealing
with telecommunication systems.
 The sensitivity of the electronic equipment requires that the
telecommunications cabling and power be effectively equalised
to prevent loops or transients that can damage the equipment.
 The root of the signal ground tree can be connected to the
cabinet ground and protective earth.
 The network grounding must be ensured in a way that the
system balances all electrical potentials for a low resistance avenue
to the ground.
 Installers should ensure that the grounding straps are
terminated at each end with a Listed ring or closed-loop terminal
which can be secured at one end to the door and at the other end to
Cabinet Enclosure chassis that are secured and making good
contact with the metal.
 Grounding – Panels are to be provided with termination for field wiring ground lug.
 The product is to be grounded to the main earthing conductor via a Listed-grounding lug. All other
dead-metal parts are considered bonded due to the nature of the assembly.
Incorrect Impedance
 When technicians install a surge protector- they use an impedance of not more than 8 to 15 ohms.
 For the protection of sensitive digital telecom equipment used to send and receive data or voice,
such as computers, phones, Ethernet Voice over IP, T1/E1, ISDL and DSL, installers should make
sure there are common grounding and ground potential of less than 1 ohm-ideally less than 0.5
ohm.

Wrapping Ground Wire

 Many installers bring lengthier than required cabling and end up often coiling the additional wire.
 Coiling the wire significantly increases resistance and can lead to malfunctioning surge protection
and profoundly impacting the effectiveness of the surge-protection technology.
 As a rule of thumb, not only should cable never be coiled, it should always be installed in as straight
a manner as possible. Any minor bends or loops can add dangerous resistance.

Size of Wire
 The thicker the wire gauge, the lower its resistance, which is good as lower resistance allows for
the unhindered transmission of the surge to the ground.
 Selecting which gauge of wire that will not only meet your needs today- but even when more
advanced technologies will likely need to be added to your grounding platform.
 It is always better to install a thicker gauge wire to ensure that your technology is well grounded
today and, in the years, ahead as well.

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Incorrect Way of Wire Connections
 The wire used to connect the electric copper ground rod to the telecommunications room common
busbar needs to be securely tied down with a spade or ring lug.
 If the joints in the grounding setup are not fastened tightly enough, extra resistance, known as
contact resistance, is generated; it can reduce the effectiveness of surge-protection equipment.

Technology Selection
 It is crucial to identify a technology that minimizes the chances for installation errors to occur.
 It is important that your surge connector comes with all of the hardware necessary for proper
grounding so that precisely the correct parts are used by the installer.
 Also, look for technologies that minimize the need to do additional grounding when new
technologies are added.

Lack of a Single Grounding Point

 Protector ground and all other equipment grounds that are being protected must be connected to
a “single common ground point.”
 A single ground point balances the ground resistance.
 If more than one single common ground point is used, surge and lighting can travel from one
ground point through the equipment to the other ground point. This process is called “ground loop”
and can damage the equipment.

Telecom Equipment and Rack Grounding

 The protective ground of the equipment should be reliably connected to the ground screw on the
metal enclosure (grounding resistance ≤ 0.1 ohm).
 For the equipment that needs to be grounded, install the ground cable first when installing the
equipment and remove the ground cable last when removing the equipment.
 Do not damage the ground conductor.
 Do not operate the equipment in the absence of a properly installed ground conductor.
 For the equipment that uses a three-pin socket, ensure that the ground terminal in the socket is
connected to the protection ground.

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4.9 Fire Safety

Fire Prevention at site

Use of Fire Extinguishers are Fire Buckets help workmen to prevent fire at site.

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Types and Classes of Fire Extinguishers

How to use Fire Extinguishers?

On Discovering Fire
 Inform Fire brigade
 Break the glass of the nearest pill box
 Attack the fire with nearest accessible extinguisher
 Handle the extinguisher only if you know how to operate it
 Do not use water for extinguishing fire in electrical installations unless power supply is
disconnected.
 Ensure that mains & battery is switched OFF in case of fire in equipment/ power distribution
system.
 Always position yourself with an exit or means of escape at your back before you attempt to use
an extinguisher to put out a fire.

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4.10 Medical Care at Site
Medical Care at Site

First Aid Kit

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Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)
CPR is a life-saving technique.
Ø CPR is administered whenever heart and/or breathing stop (cardiac and/or respiratory arrest).
Ø CPR can keep a person alive until more advanced medical procedures can treat the cardiac arrest.

CPR steps are called CAB

 Chest Compression
o Providing artificial circulation via chest
compressions.
 Airway
o Opening and maintaining the airway.
 Breathing
Providing artificial ventilation through artificial
breathing.

Steps before starting CPR

Within 5 to 10 seconds, check for:
1. Responsiveness
2. No breathing [or only gasping]
3. Check responsiveness by gently tapping on shoulders and asking loudly “Are you OK?” or “Do you
hear me?”

CPR provides circulation of blood to the brain and air to the lungs in order
to prevent damage to the brain.
If breathing stops → brain damage occurs within few minutes usually 4
minutes, and brain death could occur within 8-10 minutes

Carotid Artery Checking

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1. Hands Placements for Compressions:
Ø Put the heel of one hand on the center of bared chest over the lower half of the breastbone, then
put the heel of the other hand over the top of the first.
Ø Your shoulder should be right over your hands and your elbows should be straight/extended.
You should deliver compressions in a smooth fashion at a rate of at least 100 compressions per
minute. At the end of each compression, allow the chest to recoil completely.

2. Airway step
Ø Put the victim on his back on a firm surface.
Ø Kneel close to the victim neck or shoulders.
Ø To open the airway, tilt the forehead backward and the chin upward. (called head-tilt/chin-lift
maneuver)

3. Breathing
Ø Close the nostril and give 2 breaths (mouth to mouth) and observe the chest rises.
Ø Give each breath over one second to allow chest recoil.

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After two (2) minutes of “compression: ventilation CPR cycles”
Ø If the victim has no pulse, give chest compressions and resume CPR.
Ø Check for a pulse every approximately 2 minutes.
Ø If the pulse is present BUT breathing is absent, continue artificial breathing only (called rescue
breathing).
Ø Give 1 breath every 5‐6 seconds for about 10‐12 breaths/minute.
Ø Each breath should be delivered over 1 second, making the chest rise.
Ø Re-check the pulse every two minutes.
Ø If the pulse and breathing returned to normal, place the victim in recovery position.

Recovery Position

When should CPR be Stopped?

Ø Patient is recovered.
Ø You are too exhausted to continue.
Ø The victim is pronounced dead.
Ø The cardiac arrest continues for 30 minutes (controversial).

Why CPR may fail?

Ø Improper procedures and techniques (example, forget to pinch nose).
Ø Delay in administration of CPR procedure.
Ø Terminal disease or unmanageable disease
Ø Massive heart attack

Key Points for OFC Workplace Safety

 Keep responsibility of own’s and Other’s safety
 Prevent accidents from occurring by following guidelines
 Follow rules and no shortcuts
 Don’t operate equipment without training
 Use right tools and equipment
 Assess risk before initiating work

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 Section 3: Exercises
Exercise 1: Tabulate Laser Class, Injury or Risk and Risk Level.

Exercise 2: Enlist most common types of ESD Protection Equipment.

Exercise 3: Participate in group discussion on following topics:

a) Types of Workplace Hazards in Networking Environment
b) Optical Fiber Safety Practices
c) Electrostatic Discharge
d) General Electrical Safety
e) Cabling Safety
f) Bonding vs Grounding
g) Fire Safety
h) Medical Care at Site

Section 4: Assessment Questionnaire

1. What are different types of Hazards?
2. What are various types of Incidents?
3. Devices used to protect employees from injury or illness resulting from contact with chemical,
radiological, physical, electrical, mechanical, or other workplace hazards are known as:
4. Which item is used for protection against radiation from a laser system to eliminate the possibility
of potentially hazardous eye exposure?
5. Which protective gear is used for protection against electrocution while working on electric line?
6. What safety precautions should be adhered while using optical fiber?
7. Document that lists the risks of a chemical is called as:
8. What can keep a person alive until more advanced medical procedures can treat the cardiac
arrest?
9. What do we call the steps of CPR?
10. CPR provides circulation of blood to the brain and air to the lungs in order to prevent damage to
the brain. True or False?
11. When should CPR be Stopped?
12. Why CPR could fail?
13. What are three constituents of fire?
14. What are some good Health and Safety procedures for the workplace?
15. Which chemical can be hazardous while performing fiber splicing?
16. What are various types of fire extinguisher and their classes?
17. Which classes of Laser are relatively safe for eye exposure?
18. What is visible wavelength range?
19. What are the common causes of ESD?
20. Give examples of ESD Conductors and Insulators.
21. Name some ESD sensitive materials.
22. What are the ways to prevent ESD damage?
23. What is difference between Grounding and Bonding?

-----------End of the Module----------

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 MODULE 5
CONDITION-BASED ASSET MANAGEMENT AND OPTICAL
SPECTRUM ANALYSER

Section 1: Learning Outcomes

After completing this module, you will be able to:
 Explain the design of Fiber Distribution Management System (FDMS)
 Install equipment on FDMS
 Describe function of FMS
 Explain functions of different ports of DWDM Multiplexer
 Connect DWDM Mux with switch
 Perform Condition-based Asset Maintenance of WDM
 Describe features and use case of Optical Spectrum Analyzer

Section 2: Relevant Knowledge

5.1 Fiber Distribution Management System
Fiber Distribution Management System (FDMS)
OFC is entered in FDMS and terminated in Fiber Management System (FMS)

Rack Size- 42U, 19’’

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Concept of ‘U’
 One Rack Unit (U) is equal to 1.75 inches or three threaded, square or circle holes.
 These holes are placed in a vertical orientation and are used to secure mounting equipment to the
rack.
 Spacing between holes within a rack unit are the same at 0.625 inches, but that on its own would
only make up 1.35 inches of height. The remaining 0.5 inches comes from the distance from the
bottom hole to the top hole of the rack unit below it.
 Generally, server racks are available anywhere from 1U to 70U (sometimes even 90u).

Floor Mount

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FDMS Installation Practices

Fiber Management System (FMS)

 A Fiber Management System (FMS) manages optical fiber connections from outside of fiber rack
to the active WDM equipment.
 Fiber-optic cable duct containing many fibers comes from far end sites and terminates on the
FMS using splicing technology.
 FMS has FIBER IN and FIBER OUT ports.
 FMS is also known as:
o Line Interface Unit (LIU)
o Fiber Distribution Management System (FDMS)
o Fiber Distribution Frame (FDF)
o Fiber Optic Interconnect Unit (FOIU)
o Fiber Patch Panel (FPP) etc.

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DWDM Rack
AMPLIFIER RACK

5.2 DWDM Mux Ports and Connections

Ports of WDM Mux/Demux
Line Port
Line port, sometimes also called as common port, is the one of the must-have ports on CWDM and
DWDM Mux/Demux. The outside fibers are connected to the Mux/Demux unit through this port, and
they are often marked as Tx and Rx. All the WDM channels are multiplexed and demultiplexed over
this port.

Channel Port
Like the line port, channel ports are another must-have ports. They transmit and receive signals on
specific WDM wavelengths. CWDM Mux/Demux supports up to 18 channels from 1270nm to 1610nm
with a channel space of 20nm. While DWDM Mux/Demux uses wavelengths from 1470nm to 1625nm
usually with channel space of 0.8nm (100GHz) or 0.4nm (50GHz). Services or circuits can be added
in any order to the Mux/Demux unit.

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Monitor Port

Monitor port on CWDM and DWDM Mux/Demux offers a way to test the dB level of the signal without
service interruption, which enable users the ability to monitor and troubleshoot networks. If the
Mux/Demux is a sing-fiber unit, the monitor port also should be a simplex one, and vice versa.

Expansion Port
Expansion port on WDM Mux/Demux is used to add or expand more wavelengths or channels to the
network. By using this port, network managers can increase the network capacity easily by connecting
the expansion port with the line port of another Mux/Demux supporting different wavelengths.
However, not every WDM Mux/Demux has an expansion port.

1310nm and 1550nm Port

1310nm and 1550nm are one of WDM wavelengths. Many optical transceivers, especially the CWDM
and DWDM SFP/SFP+ transceiver, support long runs transmission over these two wavelengths. By
connecting with the same wavelength optical transceivers, these two ports can be used to add
1310nm or 1550nm wavelengths into existing WDM networks.

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Connections of Different Ports of WDM Mux/Demux
Although there are several different ports on WDM Mux/Demux, not all of them are used at the same
time. Here are some examples of these functioning ports in different connections.

Example 1: Using 8 Channels CWDM Mux/Demux with Monitor Port

This example is a typical point-to-point network where two switches/routers are connected over
CWDM wavelength 1511nm. The CWDM Mux/Demux used has a monitor port and 1310nm port, but
the 1310nm does not put into use. In addition, an optical power meter is used to monitor the power
on fibers connecting the site A and B.
Example 2: Achieve 500Gbps at Existing Fiber Network with 1310nm Port
In this example, two 40 channels DWDM Mux/Demux with monitor port and 1310nm port are used to
achieve total 500Gbps services. How to achieve this? First, plug a 1310nm 40G or 100G fiber optical
transceiver into the terminal equipment, then use the patch cable to connect it to the existing DWDM
network via the 1310nm port on the DWDM Mux/Demux. Since the 1310nm port is combined into a
40 channels DWDM Mux, then this set-up allows the transport of up to 40x10Gbps plus 100Gbpx
over one fiber pair, which is total 500Gbps. If use 1550nm port, then the transceiver should be
available on the wavelength of 1550nm.

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Example 3: Stack Two CWDM MUX/DEMUX Using Expansion Port
The connection in this example is similar to the last one. The difference is that this connection is
achieved with expansion port not 1310nm port. On the left side in the cases, a 8 channels CWDM
Mux/Demux and a 4 channels CWDM Mux/Demux are stacked via the expansion port on the latter
Mux/Demux. And the two 4 channels CWDM Mux/Demux are combined with the line port. If there is
a need, more Mux/Demux modules can be added to increase the wavelengths and expand network
capacity.

How DWDM System Components Work Together?

1. The transponder accepts input in the form of a standard single-mode or multimode laser pulse.
The input can come from different physical media and different protocols and traffic types.
2. The wavelength of the transponder input signal is mapped to a DWDM wavelength.

3. DWDM wavelengths from the transponder are multiplexed with signals from the direct interface to
form a composite optical signal which is launched into the fiber.
4. A post-amplifier (booster amplifier) boosts the strength of the optical signal as it leaves the
multiplexer.
5. An OADM is used at a remote location to drop and add bitstreams of a specific wavelength.
6. Additional optical amplifiers can be used along the fiber span (in-line amplifier) as needed.
7. A pre-amplifier boosts the signal before it enters the demultiplexer.
8. The incoming signal is demultiplexed into individual DWDM wavelengths.
9. The individual DWDM lambdas are either mapped to the required output type through the
transponder or they are passed directly to client-side equipment.

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Mux/Demux Packaging Types
DWDM Mux/Demux come in three different packaging forms:

 1U 19" rack-mounted
19" rack-mounted package, easy
for installation.
 FMU plug-in
Used with 19" rack chassis, which is
very convenient for use by just
plugging in
 Splice/pigtailed ABS box
It is based on standard thin film filter
(TFF) technology and its pigtails are
labeled with wavelengths. It takes
little space and can be installed in
various chassis.

5.3 Condition-based Asset Management

Condition-based Asset Management
 Condition-based management/maintenance (CBM) is a maintenance strategy that monitors the
real-time condition of WDM equipment to determine what maintenance needs to be performed.
 CBM dictates that maintenance should only be performed when certain indicators show signs of
decreasing performance or upcoming failure.
 This strategy monitors the real-time condition of an equipment to determine what maintenance
needs to be performed.
 Unlike preventive maintenance, which uses things like calendar-based maintenance or other
means to determine when to schedule and perform maintenance, CBM dictates that maintenance
should only be done when these real-time indicators show irregularities or signs of decreasing
performance.
 The goal of CBM is to continuously monitor WDM devices to spot impending failure, so
maintenance can be proactively scheduled before the failure occurs.
 The idea is that this real-time monitoring will give maintenance teams enough lead time before a
failure occurs or performance of equipment drops below an optimal level.

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Gauging the Maintenance Requirements

Checking a machine for these indicators may include:

 Non-invasive measurements
 Visual inspection
 Performance data and scheduled tests
 Machine Measurements
 Internal Sensors
 Alarms

Advantages and Disadvantages of CBM

DWDM Equipment Maintenance

Visual Inspection
Ongoing inspection may include review of operating parameters, generator performance, air and
water temperature, humidity, and more.

Cleaning
Keeping the asset clean protects systems from common environmental threats. For example,
accumulation of dust and debris can hinder cooling and lead to equipment failure and increased
cooling cost. Basic cleaning maintenance can include:
 Remove dust accumulation
 Clean racks and cabinets
 Change filters
 Sweep under raised floors

Testing
 Test critical components and systems regularly to ensure they are operating within desired
specifications. For example, UPS battery testing is critical for preventing system failure.

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Reporting & Monitoring
 Use measurements, reports, and other analysis to help identify trends and changes in the
infrastructure that may pinpoint issues requiring equipment repair or replacement.

Repairs
 Corrective maintenance includes repairs like tightening nuts and bolts. Repair and replacement
decisions are a critical part of the maintenance process to ensure reliability of system operations.

Cautions: DWDM Equipment Maintenance

Prevention of Pins
 Exercise caution and apply proper force to prevent pins on the backplane from bending when
removing and reinserting, or replacing aboard. If pins are bent, a short circuit may cause service
interruption in the system, resulting in huge loss. Wear an ESD wrist strap at all times when
touching aboard.

Board Replacement
 Before replacing a board, check whether the to-be-inserted board and the to-be-removed board
are of the same type and whether their working features are the same. Because different OTU
boards output different optical wavelengths, do not randomly interchange the boards.
 Use boards of the same type and output optical wavelength for replacement. Optical
multiplexer/demultiplexer boards, optical amplifier boards, and optical add/drop multiplexing
boards are classified into different sub-categories in terms of working band and working feature.
Always use boards of the same type for replacement.

Resetting the Board

 When a board is running abnormally, you can perform a warm or cold reset on the board. You can
reset the board using either way.
 Note that the reset operation will adversely affect the communication between the board and the
system control board, and may even interrupt the services. Always be cautious if you must reset
aboard.
 In the equipment room, you can perform a cold reset by reseating aboard. As to the SCC board,
you can also press the RST button on the front panel to perform a cold reset. Generally, you are
advised to reset a board using the NMS.

Cleaning Air Filters

 Periodically clean air filters. Each air filter of a fan tray assembly is equipped with a handle. To
remove the air filter, firmly grasp and pull the handle. After removing the air filter, clean it with water
and dry cloth. Then, allow it to dry in an area with proper ventilation.
 After cleaning the air filter, re-insert it into the fan tray assembly along guide rails at the bottom of
the subrack. When pushing the air filter, apply only proper force. Do not shut down the fan power
supply.

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Caps on Unused Ports
 Protect unused optical ports on an OA board with protective caps. This prevents personal injuries
and protects optical ports against dust.
 When a fiber jumper is not used, protect the connectors on both ends of the fiber jumper with
protective caps.
 When removing or inserting optical fibers or performing a line fiber cutover, clean optical fiber
connectors and optical ports with dust-free fiber cleaning tissues or fiber cleaning kits.
 In addition, ensure that the optical power does not deteriorate.
Use of Protective Glasses
 Do not look into an optical port without wearing protective glasses to protect your eyes against
laser radiation, especially in the case of an OA board, which outputs invisible light with high optical
power.
Use of Attenuator during Loopback
 When applying a fiber loopback between the receive and transmit optical ports, use an optical
attenuator between the two ports to prevent the receiver from being damaged because of
excessively high input optical power.
 During routine maintenance, if you need to adjust the mechanical variable optical attenuator, note
that clockwise adjustment increases the attenuation value and decreases the output optical power,
whereas counterclockwise adjustment decreases the attenuation value and increases the output
optical power. Because the mechanical variable optical attenuator has high sensitivity, adjust its
attenuation slowly and apply a steady force to avoid an abrupt increase or decrease in the optical
power that will affect services, and may even damage the attenuator.
Maintaining Bending Radius of Fiber Cords and Cables
 A DWDM system is sensitive to optical power. If a fiber jumper is excessively bent or squeezed,
the optical power will deteriorate.
 Always ensure that the bending radius of a fiber jumper inside a cabinet is greater than 4 cm and
that of a fiber jumper outside a cabinet is greater than 6 cm.
5.4 Optical Spectrum Analyzer
Optical Spectrum Analyzer
 An Optical Spectrum Analyzer (or OSA) is a precision instrument designed to measure and display
the distribution of power of an optical source over a specified wavelength span.
 OSA displays the power in the y (vertical) axis and the wavelength in the x (horizontal) axis.
 OSA is commonly used to test networks utilizing wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) that allow
multiple optical carrier signals to be carried over a single fiber.
 Three key parameters that are measured by an optical spectrum analyzer are the wavelength,
power level, and optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR).

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Trace on Optical Spectrum Analyzer

Features of Optical Spectrum Analyzer

 DWDM systems, telecommunication channels become ever more closely spaced.
 OSA has excellent optical wavelength resolution down to 5 picometers (pm), allowing optical
signals in close proximity to be clearly separated and accurately measured.
 It also offers a wavelength range of 1200 to 1650 nm, allowing one unit to meet diverse wavelength
measurement needs. With the ability to alter the wavelength resolution from 5 pm to 2 nm, a wide
range of applications can be supported, from narrowband peak/notch measurements to wideband
spectral measurements.
 To maintain consistently high accuracy, OSA features on board calibration based on a built-in light
source. Wavelength calibration is automatically performed at set intervals by switching the optical
path with an internal optical switch.
 Fast measurement speed is another major benefit. Modern OSA can capture data points in only
0.23 seconds.
 Few OSA has built-in analysis functions to characterize optical spectrum from a variety of optical
systems and devices, such as WDM system, DFB-LD, EDFA, and filters.
 The portable optical spectrum analyzer (OSA) is an essential instrument in any plan for network
reliability when DWDM is present.
 Desirable features in a portable OSA include ruggedness, high absolute wavelength accuracy, the
ability to work continuously for long periods without mechanical wear, and software that turns long-
term monitoring into a powerful analysis tool.
 Portable OSA monitoring during provisioning can immediately identify simple problems such as
incorrect connections. More importantly, it can help troubleshoot more subtle problems with the
system.

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Optical Spectrum Analyzer Use Case
 Fiber optic networks utilize light pulses to convey digital information over thousands of kilometers.
 High speed data transmission and WDM technology are now part of fiber networks such as CATV
HFC/DAA, 5G x-haul,
and hyperscale data center
interconnects.
 Test solutions in the field must
be capable of wavelength
selective measurement to
capture the key parameters for
individual channels/services.
 As the accuracy, resolution, and
usability of optical spectrum
analyzers improves, new
opportunities arise for world
class product development and
efficient production testing of
optical systems and
components.

Lab and Manufacturing

 The optical spectrum analyzer is commonly used in R&D labs worldwide, as next generation laser,
LED, WDM, and transponder innovations push the limits of optical technology.
 As these components are integrated into new systems and manufactured at scale, accurate and
reliable production scanning in milliseconds keeps pace with demand.
 High-Resolution Spectral Measurement capabilities enable deeper analysis of modulated DWDM
transmitters in both lab and manufacturing environments.
 Volume Manufacturing of modules, passive components, lasers, and amplifiers requires a fast and
flexible spectrum analyzer working over the entire single mode wavelength range (1250nm to
1655nm).
 Key measurements like channel power, bandwidth, noise power and OSNR. It delivers unmatched
test speed and simplicity in an ultra-compact plug-in module.

Field Testing
Wavelength and power measurements must be performed throughout the network lifecycle. For high-
speed fiber networks with inline amplification and reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexers
(ROADM), the optical signal to noise ratio is used to assess performance of an optical network link.

CWDM Testing:
 Fiber networks utilizing CWDM with channel spacing benefit from compact, full-featured OSA
solutions.
 Analyzer features for access network testing in this category includes wavelength flexibility from
1250nm to 1650nm, ≥18 channel capacity, and a power measurement range typically from -50dBm
to +10dBM, occasionally up to +25dBm to support higher power CATV applications.

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DWDM System Testing:
 Once limited to long haul (>100km) deployments, DWDM with channel spacing below 0.8 or 0.4nm
and utilizing the C-band is now being used for access networks and data centers.
 ROADM technology makes OSNR measurement essential for installation, optimization, and
maintenance of network links and service performance.

Line Side 100G Testing:

 100G networks with inline ROADM present unique challenges for spectral testing. Although the
installation, maintenance, and troubleshooting processes are like legacy 10G networks, new
coherent modulation formats have introduced new challenges.
 An advanced optical spectrum analyzer capable of measuring wavelength, power, and in-band/in-
service OSNR, by utilizing a spectral correlation technique, for each DWDM channel from an
amplifier test access point is recommended to characterize coherent 100G networks accurately
without disrupting services to customers.

Section 3: Exercises

Exercise 1: On a paper, draw Rack Units (U).

Exercise 2: Enlist ports of Mux.

Exercise 3: Draw a diagram showing how DWDM system components work together?

Exercise 4: Participate in group discussion on following topics:

a) Condition-based Asset Maintenance (CBM) vs Preventive Maintenance
b) Advantages and Disadvantages of CBM
c) Cautions of DWDM equipment Maintenance
d) Features of Optical Spectrum Analyser
e) Use case of Optical Spectrum Analyser

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 Section 4: Assessment Questionnaire

1. One rack unit is equal to:

2. A ____________ manages optical fiber connections from outside of fiber rack to the active WDM
equipment.
3. What are the ports of DWDM Mux/Demux?
4. What are the DWDM Mux/Demux packaging forms?
5. ____________ is a maintenance strategy that monitors the real-time condition of WDM
equipment to determine what maintenance needs to be performed.
6. DWDM maintenance activities involves:
7. What cautions should be practiced while using DWDM equipment?
8. OSA displays the power in the _____axis and the wavelength in the ________axis.
9. OSA has excellent optical wavelength resolution down to _______meters
10. For accuracy and reliability, OSA should be:
11. OSA cannot be used for Line side testing. (True/False)

-----------End of the Module----------

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 MODULE 6
OPTICAL LINK TESTING PROCEDURES
Section 1: Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you will be able to:
 Calculate optical link budget for Long Distance Links and FTTx Links
 Explain functions and working principle of OTDR
 Configure the OTDR for link testing
 Read and understand the information on OTDR trace and test results
 Describe OTDR performance parameters
 State OTDR undesirable properties
 Housekeep the OTDR
 Perform Power Meter test
 Perform fiber test using Visual Fault Locator (VFL)
 Use Fiber Detection Meter and Chromatic Dispersion Analyzer
 Distinguish between various optical attenuators
 State features of JDSU (Viavi) and Anritsu Optical Testing Equipment
 Perform DWDM System Testing

Section 2: Relevant Knowledge

6.1 Optical Link Budget Calculation for Long Distance Links
Optical Link Budget Calculation
Insertion Loss
 Insertion loss is the amount of light that a signal loses as it travels along a fiber cable link.
 Insertion loss is measured in decibels (dB)
 It can be called as attenuation as well.
 Each component in a fiber link has its own insertion loss. Typical insertion loss of few components
of fiber link is tabulated below:

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Rx/Tx Power Range
dBm
 The units dB and dBm stand for decibel and decibel milliwatt, respectively.
 dBm is a unit of power used to indicate an Output power, Input power and Receiver Sensitivity in
optical systems.
 Power injected or power received in the fiber optic cables is
expressed in dBm.
 It is the power level with reference to one milliwatt (mW).
 A measurement of 0 dBm using an optical power meter
indicates 1 milliWatt of power.
 It is used in radio, microwave and fiber-optical communication networks as a convenient measure
of absolute power because of its capability to express both very large and very small values in a
short form.

Optical Link Budget Calculation

 The optical link budget is the amount of loss that a cable link should have if it is installed properly.
 It is just a theoretical calculation and may differ from actual link loss given by testing instruments.
 It is calculated by adding the estimated average losses of all the components used in the cable
link to get the estimated total loss of the link.

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Theoretical link loss is calculated using following formula:

Example 1:
Assume a 10 km single mode fiber link at 1310nm with 2 connector pairs and 4 splices.

Link Budget = [10km × 0.36dB/km]

+
[0.5dB × 2]
+
[0.1dB × 4]
=
5 dB

Example 2:
Assume a 60 km single mode fiber link at 1550nm with cable drum length of 4 Kms installed
in the link.
Link Budget = [60km × 0.22dB/km]…..loss at 1550nm is 0.22dB/km
+
[0.5dB × 2]……..2 connectors at each end
+
[0.1dB × 16]………16 splices (15 drums + 1 splice behind FMS)
=
15.8 dB

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6.2 Optical Link Budget Calculation for FTTx Links
Optical Link Budget Calculation for FTTx Links
 Conventional PON based FTTH the minimum transmitter power and minimum receiver sensitivity
is set as 0 and -34 dBm.
 34dBm power value or power budget is generally considered for the design architecture.
 Dynamic range also consider 31dBm with margin of 3dBm but you should remember that total
allowed optical budget from the OLT to the ONT is 28dB.
 All FTTH design losses from OLT to ONT cannot be bigger than 26.5db (5% margin).

 Because of these losses, the maximum average distance that this FTTH-GPON network can reach
is about 15 Km with 1:64 splitting ratio (20 km with 1:32).
 The actual maximum distance depends on the brand and type of FTTH equipment used.

Budget loss calculation = (Fiber cable + Connectors + Splices + Splitter) Losses

Where:
 Fiber attenuation = 0.4 dB/Km for (1310 – 1490) nm; and 0.25 dB/Km for 1550 nm.
 Connector Loss = 0.35 dB SC/UPC & = 0.25 dB for SC/APC connectors
 Fusion Splice Loss = 0.1 dB
 Splitter losses = 4 – 20.1 dB, depending on ratio; should be provided by the vendor.

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6.3 Introduction to OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer)
Introduction to OTDR
 The Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) is a
test equipment used for measuring fiber length,
attenuation in optical fiber cable (OFC) and event loss
(reflective and non- reflective).
 Generates a baseline trace: A “visual” of the link.
 Can identify and evaluate specific events in the link.
 Cable acceptance tool
 Fault localization tool
 Excellent documentation

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Purpose of using OTDR
 To have a visual representation of the fiber link (Loss vs Distance Graph).
 To detect and locate the cut in fiber, attenuation, splice, connector and bending loss in the fiber
link.
 To perform optical network testing and troubleshooting.

Functions of OTDR
A typical OTDR can locate and determine optical fiber’s:
 Attenuation characteristics along length of fiber
 Splice Loss
 Connector Loss
 Bending Loss
 Section Loss
 Total Loss in the fiber
 Fiber Cut Distance
OTDR Wavelengths
OTDRs commonly operate at following spectral bands.

 1310, 1550, and 1625 nm is required for DWDM testing.

 The wavelength 1490 nm is used for FTTx network.
 1625nm wavelength gives better display of the fiber bends in the link and used for testing purpose
only, not communications.

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6.4 Working Principle of OTDR
Working Principle of OTDR

1. An OTDR sends light pulses into the fiber.

2. The light pulses reflect back to OTDR due to discontinuities such as:
 Change in Refractive Index of fiber
 Change in Medium (Connector, Mechanical Splice)
 Events like splices, bends and fiber cut
3. OTDR then calculates the travel time and power of reflected pulses to determine event distance
using following formula.

Speed of Light in Optical Fiber (approx.) = 2 x 105 Km/Sec

Inside the OTDR
1. The laser diode injects the light pulses of selected pulse width into the fiber.
2. The returning light pulses due to discontinuities in fiber is fed to the photodiode by the coupler to
convert optical signal into electrical signal.
3. The electrical signal is then amplified and sampled.

OTDR processes the resulting data to display trace on the screen.

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Information on OTDR Display

OTDR Trace with Summary

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6.5 OTDR Test Parameters Configuration
OTDR Measurement Flow Chart

OTDR Test Parameters Configuration

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Wavelength Settings
 The desired test wavelength should be selected in OTDR.
 Higher wavelengths are more sensitive to bends.
 Fiber bend is identified by testing the fiber on two wavelengths.

Acquisition Mode
 ‘Manual’ Mode - OTDR setup can be done manually.
 ‘Auto’ Mode - OTDR automatically sets the test parameters

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Distance Range
 ‘Manual’ - Fiber length can be entered manually.
 ‘Auto’ - OTDR automatically sets the fiber length and corresponding pulse width.
 User may select other available distances, if fiber length is known.

Pulse Width
Pulse Width is the time duration of Pulse that is launched into the fiber. In OTDR, it is mentioned in
microseconds and nanoseconds

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Resolution
Resolution is the ability of OTDR to distinguish between two events in the fiber

Acquisition Time
Acquisition time is the time taken by OTDR to calculate the results and show trace on the screen

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Link Description
Link parameters can be saved in OTDR to track the trace in future and fill the link information in export
file.

6.6 OTDR Performance Parameters

Dynamic Range
 Dynamic Range is the parameter that signifies the maximum optical loss an OTDR can measure
in a fiber link.
 Typical Dynamic Range of OTDR is 20 to 45 dB.
 Bigger the dynamic range (in dB), the longer the distance reached.
 Larger pulse width provides larger Dynamic Range.

Accuracy
 Accuracy of OTDR represents the correctness of the measured value with respect to the true
value of Loss and Distance measurements.
 The Distance Accuracy depends on:
 Fiber Refractive Index setting in OTDR
 OTDR Calibration

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Dead Zone
 When there is a strong reflection, the power received by the OTDR can saturate the photodiode.
In such times, it will not detect the backscattered signal accurately. The length of fiber, within which,
fiber is not able to detect any event and losses is termed as Dead Zone.

The OTDR cannot detect the splice The OTDR can detect the splice

 It is specified in distance
 It determines how close to OTDR you can detect and measure an event loss
 It determines how close together two events can be measured
 The longer the pulse width, the longer the Dead Zone
 The higher the reflection loss, the longer time OTDR takes to recover resulting in longer Dead
Zone.

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Countering the effect of Dead Zone
Dead Zones can be reduced by:
 Configuring Lower Pulse Width
 Inserting a Launch Cable of known fiber length between the OTDR and the link under test

Spool length must be longer than the pulse width setting used for the OTDR test

6.7 OTDR Undesirable Properties

OTDR Undesirable Properties
Non-reflective Break
This occurs when:
1. Fiber is cut and fiber end is bent excessively
2. Fiber is cut and immersed in liquid

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Gainer
When two fibres with different core diameter are spliced and measured with OTDR, splice shows gain
from one direction and loss from opposite direction.

Different Core Diameter of Spliced Fibers

This loss measurement error is overcome by taking Bidirectional OTDR Measurements and calculate
Average of the Splice Losses recorded from both the directions

Ghost
 Ghosts are repetitions of a trace or portion of a trace.
 The most common cause of 'ghosts' is an 'echo' of light reflected back and forth multiple times.
 Correct Distance Range needs to be selected to avoid Ghost in the OTDR trace.

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6.8 Housekeeping of OTDR
 To clean body of OTDR, use a lint- free cloth moistened with soapy water. Never use product
containing Alcohol, as these will erase the printed markings.
 To clean the screen, use an antistatic product.
 To clean the OTDR connector, use spray cleaner containing Iso-Propyl Alcohol.

6.9 Light Source and Power Meter (LS & PM)

Single Mode Light Source
This device is used to insert optical power in fiber. It is a singlemode source with 3 wavelengths on
one port for testing networks at 1310 nm, 1550 nm and 1625 nm.

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Optical Power Meter
This device is used to measure the power level of optical signal.

Most power measurements are in the range of +10 dBm to -40 dBm

Light Source – Power Meter Test

Measurement Tips
 If a light source is used with a power meter to make link loss measurements, the power meter must
be referenced to the light source output power before the loss measurement is made.
 To minimize measurement error, optical patch cords attached to the output port of the light source
and power meter for the reference power measurement should remain attached for all link loss
measurements for the complete session.
 Always make measurements with alcohol dampened clean connectors.
 Avoid kinking or inducing sharp bends (smaller than a golf ball) into fiber patch cords.
 If no wavelengths are specified for the post-construction measurements, measurements should be
made at 1310 nm and 1550 nm.

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6.10 Visual Fault Locator (VFL)
 A Visual Fault Locator (VFL) is used to inject visible red laser light into the fiber.
 It helps in visually identifying fiber bends in pigtail and patch cord, fiber breaks, faulty connectors
and fiber swap.

 When you test fiber optic cable networks, a VFL is connected to one end of the cable that can be
used to verify the transmission to the opposite end. The process is called fiber continuity testing.

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6.11 Fiber Detection Meter
 Bends the fiber to detect the light
 Can be used on live fiber without interrupting service
 Can detect a special modulated tone sent down a fiber

 Combined with the Tone Generator, the Fiber Detection Meter enables technicians to identify a
specific live fiber without having to disconnect it.
 Induces minimal loss: ≤1 dB

This brings key benefits:

 No more network outages as a result of fiber detection/identification procedures
 The minimized need to access the network helps prevent errors

6.12 Optical Attenuators

 An optical attenuator is a device, used to reduce the power level of an optical signal. It temporarily
adds calibrated amount of signal loss in order to test the power level margins in a fiber optic
communication system.

To achieve the desired signal loss, attenuators may use the:

 Gap-Loss Technique
 Absorption Technique
 Reflective Technique

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Types of Optical Attenuators

Fixed Optical Attenuator

Fixed attenuators are designed to have a fixed attenuation level.

Variable Optical Attenuator

 Stepwise Variable Attenuator is a device that adjusts the attenuation in known steps such as 0.1
dB, 0.5 dB, or 1 dB etc.
 Continuous Variable Attenuator produces precise level of attenuation for desired wavelength.

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6.13 Optical Dispersion Analyzer
 Chromatic Dispersion Analyzer measures the chromatic dispersion of the fiber caused due to
difference in velocity of signals having different wavelengths.
 More the Chromatic Dispersion, more the Bit Error Rate (BER).

 It measures differential delay (group delay) between optical pulses of various wavelengths, using
a multiple wavelength transreceiver.
 The resulting chromatic dispersion represents the average dispersion over the wavelength
interval.

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6.14 JDSU (Viavi) Optical Testing Instruments
Viavi Optical Testing Instruments
Fiber Microscope
P5000i Fiber Microscope
The P5000i makes it fast and easy to certify that every connection in your network is clear and
optimized. This intelligent fiber microscope removes the guesswork from fiber inspection and provides
a reliable and objective pass/fail analysis of the fibers that connect customers to your network,
ensuring the best user experience possible. The P5000i fiber microscope also works with the many
VIAVI test solutions users already rely on for essential network testing.

VFL and Fiber Identifier

FFL-050/-100 Visual Fault Locators
A visual fault locator (VFL) is an essential tool that quickly and easily locates problem areas in fiber
cables. By pinpointing the exact location of fiber damage, technicians can diagnose, troubleshoot,
and fix the problem efficiently.

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FI-60 Live Fiber Identifier
The VIAVI FI-60 LFI enables users to easily detect the presence of an optical signal without
disconnecting fiber or disrupting network traffic. FI-60 LFI also includes the unique SafeChek™
system, which ensures safe and
repeatable engagement with most
fiber types without the hassle of
changing out costly dies. The FI-60
also converts to an Optical Power
Meter (OPM), providing twice the
value for your investment and
reducing the number of tools carried
on the job.
VIAVI also provides F1-10/-11
Optical Fiber Identifiers that identify
optical fibers by detecting the
optical signal being transmitted
through a single-mode fiber

Power Meters
MP-60/-80 Miniature USB 2.0 Power Meters
Key Features
 Lightweight, small form-factor design for ultimate
portability
 Generates measurements in dB, mW, and dBm
 Automated data logging capabilities
 Automatic wavelength detection
 Easily connect to VIAVI test devices (ONX-580, ONX-
620 & 630, T-BERD/ MTS-2000/4000V2, CellAdvisor, DSAM, SmartOTDR), PCs, and mobile
devices

SmartPocket™ OLP-34/-35/-38 Optical Power Meters

Key Features

 The OLP-38 is the higher power (+26 dBm) version for any CATV (with
analog RF transmission) or amplified DWDM system applications
 Extra long battery lifetime (>200 hr)
 Universal optical interface for all 2.5 mm/1.25 mm connector
 Individually-setable wavelengths per 1 nm step
 Micro USB interface for power supply or data transfer

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SmartPocket™ OLP-37 RFoG & PON and OLP-37X G-PON & XGS-PON Power Meters
Key Features
 Testing B-PON, E-PON, G-PON downstream at 1490 nm
 Testing RFoG/video at 1550 nm downstream and at 1610 nm
return path
 Wavelength-selective PON and RFoG power meter
 Wavelength-selective G-PON and XGS-PON power meter
(OLP-37X)
 Tests B-PON, E-PON, G-PON downstream at 1490 nm
(OLP-37X)
 Tests XGS-PON at 1550 nm downstream and at 1577 nm
(OLP-37X)
 Indication of simultaneous presence of G-PON and XGS-
PON signals (OLP-37X)
 Internal memory can hold 100 test results
 Interchangeable FC/APC and SC/APC optical adapters
 Transfer data via micro-USB interface
 Smart Reporter PC software for data management and report
generation
 Uses dry or rechargeable batteries

SmartPocket™ OLS-34/-35/-36/-37/-38 Optical Light Sources

Key Features
 The OLS-34 is dedicated to LAN/WAN access and enterprise multimode networks with 850/1300
nm
 The OLS-35 covers all standard singlemode telecommunication
networks applications with 1310/1550 nm
 The OLS-36 is a quad-wavelength solution covering both multimode
and singlemode wavelengths in one product (850/1300/1310/1550
nm)
 The OLS-37 is a singlemode source with 3 wavelengths on one port
for testing FTTH/PON networks at 1310/1550 nm and 1490 nm
 The OLS-38 is a singlemode source with 3 wavelengths on one port
for testing networks at 1310/1550 nm and 1625 nm
 Combines up to 4 wavelengths in one instrument (SM+MM)
 Micro USB interface for power supply
 One output port for 2 or 3 wavelengths (depending on model)

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Optical Level Attenuator SmartClass OLA-55 Optical Level Attenuator
Key Features
 Emulating fiber loss for testing system dynamics
 Simulating line loss for BER testing and amplifier testing
 System installation and maintenance of multimode fiber (OLA-54) and singlemode fiber
 Robust, shock-proof, and splash-proof design for field operation
 USB port for remote operation
 Absolute and relative attenuation setting
 Traceable measurements to NIST/PTB standards for confidence in accuracy
 400 adjustable wavelengths
 Long battery operation time (>1000 hr)

FTTx/PON Optical Power Meter OLP-8

Key Features
The new generation of PON tester performs downstream and upstream PON power level
measurements like traditional PON power meters and identifies ONU/ONT by serial number with
detection of rogue/alien ONUs/ONTs. For GPON systems carrying PON-ID, it also identifies OLT.

 Field-portable λ-selective PON power meter with through-mode capability

 Variations of 1490/1550/1578 nm downstream and 1270 nm/1310 upstream
 Individual NG-PON2 downstreams and upstream power levels
 Pre-defined threshold sets for auto Pass/Fail analysis of PON power measurements
 High performance broadband power-meter option
 Automated pass/fail fiber inspection analysis with optional P5000i microscope
 Integrated patchcord microscope version available

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OTDRs SmartOTDR™ Handheld Fiber Tester
Key Features
 5 inch touch-screen display
 Single-/dual-/tri-wavelength versions with 1310, 1550, and in-service 1625 or 1650 nm
wavelengths
 PON optimized to test through a 1x128 splitter (B version)
 Integrated CW light source on OTDR port
 Built-in optical power meter and VFL options
 Automated pass/fail fiber inspection analysis with optional P5000i microscope Smart Link Mapper
(SLM) eliminates OTDR interpretation errors without impacting test times

T-BERD/MTS-2000 Handheld Modular Test Set

Key Features
 5 inch touch-screen display
 Single-/dual-/tri-wavelength versions with 1310, 1550, and in-
service 1625 or 1650 nm wavelengths
 Dual multimode (850/1300 nm) or quad wavelengths
multimode/singlemode (850/1300/1310/1550 nm) versions
 PON optimized to test through a 1x256 splitter
 Automated pass/fail fiber inspection analysis with optional P5000i
microscope
 OTDR modules are compatible with T-BERD/MTS-4000 V2 multiple
services test platforms
 Smart Link Mapper (SLM) eliminates OTDR interpretation errors
without impacting test times
 Built-in optical power meter and VFL options

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T-BERD/MTS-4000 V2 Optical Test Platform
Key Features
 9 inch high visibility multi-touch screen with
permanent function keys
 Essential tools integrated and supported in the
platform (visual fault locator, optical power meter,
optical microscope and talkset)
 Smart Access Anywhere (SAA) for remote control &
field tech support
 StrataSync enabled – centralized cloud-based
asset, configuration, test data and workflow
management
 Report Generation – on-board instrument, via PC/laptop (FiberCable SW suite) and StrataSync
 Cost-effective (3yr warranty), compact and handheld platform

T-BERD/MTS-6000A V2 Compact Network Test Platform

Key Features
 OTDR testing of very short multimode or singlemode
fiber links to ultra-long hauls (up to 220 km)
 PMD, spectral attenuation profile, and chromatic
dispersion (CD) testing
 CWDM and DWDM optical spectrum analysis
 High resolution OTDR for Avionics (aircraft,
spacecraft, satellite, UAV) and maritime (submarine &
ship) fiber certification
 8 inch touchscreen display
 Automated pass/fail fiber inspection analysis with
optional P5000i microscope
 OTDR, CD/PMD, and OSA modules are compatible with the T-BERD/MTS-8000 scalable multitest
platform
 Smart Link Mapper (SLM) eliminates OTDR interpretation errors without impacting test times y
Built-in optical power meter and VFL options

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T-BERD/MTS-8000 Scalable Multitest Platform
Key Features
 OTDR testing of very short multimode or singlemode fiber links to ultra-long hauls (up to 220 km)
 PMD, spectral attenuation profile, and chromatic
dispersion (CD) testing
 PMD testing on fiber with live traffic and in-band
& in-service OSNR testing in DWDM/ROADM
systems
 CWDM and DWDM optical spectrum analysis
 10.4 inch high-visibility touch-screen display
 High-speed PowerPC processor, rugged SATA
solid-state hard disk, and latest highcapacity
LiON battery technologies
 1 Gigabit Ethernet, wireless connectivity (3 G,
Wifi, Bluetooth) and four USB interfaces
 Automated pass/fail fiber inspection analysis with
optional P5000i microscope
 Compatible with T-BERD/MTS-6000 V2 compact
network test platform test modules
 Smart Link Mapper (SLM) eliminates OTDR interpretation errors without impacting test times

Distributed Fiber Optic Sensing OTDRs (Scalable with T-BERD/MTS-8000)

Key Features
 Distributed fiber optic sensing allows you to use specialized DTS Raman or DTSS Brillion OTDR
technology to measure strain or temperature continuously on a fiber.
 Fiber characterization with B-OTDR reveals fiber strain and elongation or temperature.
 Ensure installations, like submarine cables are done correctly without strain.
 Reduce and reverse cable strain by locating and releasing it before it breaks the cable or reduces
the cable life using the portable DTSS.

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Optical Dispersion Analyzer
Optical Dispersion Measurement Module

Optical Broadband Sources for Dispersion Testing

VIAVI Optical Dispersion Modules require a broadband light source at the far end to perform CD,
PMD and AP measurements. Three broadband sources with different wavelength range coverage
and output power are available depending on the application.

Optical Spectrum Analyser

COSA-4055 CWDM Optical Spectrum Analyzer Module for T-BERD/MTS-2000, -4000 V2, -5800
V2 Platforms
Applications
 Performance verification in Metro Access networks
 Maintenance and troubleshooting of CWDM networks
 Upgrade of CWDM networks y Spectral and drift testing of CWDM sources
 Point-to-point Mux/Demux and point-to-multipoint OADM testing Key
Features
 Fast scanning speed (4s)
 Power and wavelength drift test application
 Pass/fail analysis
 1260 to 1625 nm wavelength range
 ITU-T G. 694.2 CWDM wavelength and customized grids
 Compliant with ITU-T G.695 and G674.2 standards
 Additional slots for up to two SFP CWDM transceivers

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DWDM Optical Channel Checker Module (OCC-4056C) for T-BERD/MTS-2000, -4000 V2, -5800
V2 Platforms
Applications
 Qualify any DWDM channel Frequency and Power level
 Validate wavelength routes for Fiber Deep & Remote-PHY
 Qualify forward/return path links through Mux and Demux
 Spectral and drift testing on DWDM sources
 Performance verification in Metro Access Networks
 Maintenance and troubleshooting of DWDM networks
Features
 Supports ITU-T G.692 DWDM grid with 50/100 and 200GHz channel spacing
 Supports C-band applications (Ch61 to Ch12)
 Complete spectral trace & fast scanning speed (<4s)
 Drift measurements for wavelength and power
 Zoom and marker functions
 Pass/Fail analysis
 Dual SFP slots for fixed or tunable SFP

OSA-110M/110H/110R Compact Full-Band OSAs

Applications
 Deploying and maintaining DWDM metro and core networks
 Installing and maintaining CWDM systems in CATV, access, and
mobile backhaul
 Verifying high-speed 40/100 G interfaces
 Provisioning and troubleshooting ROADM networks
Features
 Full-band measurement: 1250 nm up to 1650 nm
 Guaranteed ±0.05 nm wavelength accuracy with built-in
wavelength calibrator
 High power measurement version (up to +30 dBm) for CATV
applications (OSA-110H)
 In-band OSNR measurement version (OSA-110R)
 Compatible with the T-BERD/MTS-6000A v2, -8000 Platforms

High resolution OSA-610 for T-BERD/MTS-6000A V2, -8000 Platforms

Applications
 Qualify 10/40/100/400 G components and systems
 Validate and deploy 100 G & 400 G flexgrid DWDM systems
 Qualify Nyquist signals and super channels
Features
 Industry’s first field OSA that fully analyzes 400 G Nyquist WDM signals
 Extended C-band acquisition range (1526- 1568 nm)
 Frequency, power level and OSNR measurement
 3 pm wavelength accuracy
 Side-mode suppression ratio measurement capability
 The smallest and lightest high-performance 400 G ready OSA available

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Optical Spectrum & Correlation Analyzer
In-service Pol-Mux OSCA-710 for T-BERD/MTS-8000 Platforms
The OSCA-710 is the first Optical Spectrum & Correlation Analyzer that can
perform in-band OSNR measurement in high speed, ROADM based DWDM
networks using polarization multiplexing transmission formats without
shutting down optical channels. Supported by the T-BERD/MTS-8000
platform
In-service Pol-Mux OSCA-710 for T-BERD/MTS-8000 Platforms
Applications
 In-band and in-service OSNR measurement, characterize traffic without shutting down the network
or individual channels
 Installation, commissioning and maintenance testing of core and metro DWDM networks with or
without ROADMs
 Testing undersea communication links
Features
 Power, wavelength, and in-band OSNR measurement for any kind of data rates and modulation
schemes, including polarization-multiplexed signals
 Supports PM-BPSK, PM-QPSK, and PMxQAM modulation formats used in 100, 200, and 400 G
systems
 Tolerant of high chromatic dispersion (CD) and polarization mode dispersion (PMD) y
 Measures per channel in-service CD
 Coherent OSA design with ultra-high-resolution bandwidth for testing Nyquist and Super-Channels
Channel Checkers
SmartClass OCC-55/-56C Optical Channel Checkers
OCC-55 CWDM Optical Channel Checker and OCC56C DWDM Optical Channel Checkers are
compact and low-cost test alternative solutions to optical spectrum analyzers (OSA) for field service
groups tasked with the installation, maintenance and upgrades of WDM systems testing. These
selective power meters scan the WDM channels according to ITU-T wavelength grid and
automatically records wavelength/frequency and related power level.
Applications
 Installation, maintenance and upgrade of CWDM and DWDM systems
 Analysis of single channel before MUX and DEMUX Qualification of multiplexed signals
 In-service measurement and network element verification Channel drop testing at optical add/drop
multiplexers (OADM)
Features
 ITU-T G.694.2 CWDM channels measurements (up to 18 channels) ITU-T 50/100/200 GHz DWDM
channels OCC-56C)
 Channel drift monitoring y Bar Graph and Table of results display mode
 Light and compact (0.5 kg/1.1 lb)
 Report generation via OFS-355 Smart Optical Reporting Software

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6.15 Anritsu Optical Testing Instruments
OTDR
Anritsu's comprehensive OTDR range ensures fast and highly accurate measurements of optical fiber
cables with a unique range of handheld, benchtop, and OEM module solutions. Experts in fiber testing
Anritsu's range includes the unique Coherent OTDR for testing submarine cables up to 12,000 km
and the NEW uOTDR, with performance that rivals traditional OTDRs that are four times the size and
more than double the price.

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Optical Loss Test Set/Light Source/Optical Power Meter
The CMA5 series (Optical Loss Test Set/Light Source/Optical Power Meter) offer superior accuracy
and reliability for evaluating a wide range of optical devices and systems including WDM.

Optical Spectrum Analyzers

Anritsu's Optical Spectrum Analyzers offer superior accuracy and reliability for evaluating a wide
range of optical systems.

Video Inspection Probe

 With today's high data rates and high-definition services, connector quality and inspection has
never been so important. Research reveals that up to 75% of all optical network failures are
attributed to poor connector quality - reduce your installation time and ensure your network is
reaching its full potential.
 The Video Inspection Probe (VIP) application for Anritsu field testing platforms gives operators a
safe, easy way to analyze and document connector conditions.

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6.16 DWDM System Testing
DWDM System Tests
 The tests run on a DWDM system fall into four main
categories:
o Tests at the transmission side of the system
o Tests of the optical components in the system
o Tests on the fiber-optic paths, and
o Tests at the receiver side of the system
 The majority of tests require standard optical test
equipment such as an optical power meter, an
optical spectrum analyzer (OSA).
 You can make the wavelength and power
measurements using an OSA.
 At the transmitter, you’ll also need to measure power output, or launch power, from the laser.
 The output power a system needs depends on the type of communication protocol the system
employs and on whether transmissions take place over long-haul or short-haul links.
 The SDH, SONET, Fibre Channel, and Gigabit Ethernet specs spell out acceptable power ranges.
 An optical power meter can make the measurements, which can go as low as –40 dBm.
 As in all measurements, be sure that the instrument you plan to use has spectral characteristics
that match your signal’s characteristics.
 Be sure that you use a realistic signal source to stimulate the laser so it produces the type of signal
the system will actually carry.
 If the transmitters in a DWDM directly modulate the lasers, you may need to measure chirp.
 The chirp appears as a small amount of added noise and as slight, but abrupt, changes in
wavelength that depend on the laser’s construction.
 Rapid changes in power levels that occur at bit rates of about 10 GHz can slightly alter the optical
characteristics of solid-state lasers, causing the output to “chirp.” Chirp may broaden the laser’s
output, which results in chromatic dispersion, an ill effect that slightly spreads the arrival of the
laser’s signal at the receiver.
 You must make measurements of insertion loss, crosstalk, and polarization effects for the
demultiplexer.
 Insertion loss simply describes how much the demultiplexer attenuates a signal at a given
wavelength.
 You measure the power at a specific wavelength prior to its reaching the demultiplexer and then
repeat the measurement after the signal leaves the demultiplexer.
 The difference, in decibels, tells you how much power gets lost in the demultiplexer. If too much
power is lost, perhaps as evidenced by high bit-error rates, you will have to increase the power at
the transmitter.
 When power reaches a receiver, it comes simultaneously from adjacent channels. The blending of
these signals causes crosstalk, which means a receiver gets information from its corresponding
optical source and also from one or both of the channels on either sides.
 In most cases, crosstalk includes only small amounts of power from adjacent channels, but even
small amounts can affect receiver performance. Crosstalk can arise from laser wavelengths that
drift into an adjacent channel or a demultiplexer that does not effectively divide the optical
channels. You can measure crosstalk using the results from an OSA.

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 (a) Bandwidth measurements occur at the –1 dB and –20 dB points for a laser signal.
(b) (b) You can use those measurements to help you compute crosstalk between adjacent
channels, lx and ly .

 You may find other ways of determining crosstalk, but this technique provides the most
conservative value. Typically, crosstalk in channels spaced at 100 nm should be less than –20 dB,
and it can reach as low as –45 dB.
 The larger the negative number, the less crosstalk exists. The crosstalk specification for a DWDM
system comes from the system designers, who know how much crosstalk it can accept.
 If the system designers can decrease crosstalk, they can place channels closer together. But the
close proximity comes at a real cost.
 The equipment that operates at close wavelength spacings costs more than equipment that works
with wider-spaced wavelengths.
 Polarization can affect signal loss and the accurate reception of signals. You can measure
polarization effects using a polarized broadband source, a polarization controller, and an OSA.
 The controller lets you adjust the polarization of the light reaching the device undergoing testing.
 The test setup also includes a tunable laser and a wavelength meter that help calibrate the OSA
during use.
 An OSA alone may not have enough resolution to precisely measure band edges in polarization
testing.
 By including a tunable laser and a wavelength meter in your test setup, you can accurately
measure the locations of band edges.
 The OSA provides fast measurements to locate areas of interest and then the wavelength meter
measures them accurately.
 The optical switches in the test setup make it easy to configure tests without making changes by
hand.

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 The power loss in a demultiplexer shows a dependence on the polarization of the incoming signal.
 As the polarization of the light reaching the demultiplexer changes, so does the loss. The power
loss between the maximum and minimum value forms a band called polarization dependent loss
(PDL). This loss forms a small part of the demultiplexer’s insertion loss.
 You can expect a PDL that may range from a high of –0.5 dB to as little as –0.05 dB, although
designers aim for the latter value; values typically reach as low as –0.1 dB. Theoretically, you
should add this loss to the maximum insertion loss, but in most cases, the value doesn’t change
the overall response of the system.

 The measured center wavelength of the arriving signal will also vary slightly, depending on the
signal’s polarization.
 The actual center wavelength remains the same, but the polarization will affect the signal as seen
at the receiver by shifting the signal slightly to the left or right, or it will narrow or broaden the signal
slightly.
 By varying the polarization of the test signal and measuring the center wavelength, you obtain data
that lets you determine the maximum variation of the center wavelength.
 The variation of the center wavelength in effect reduces the 1-dB bandwidth of the demultiplexer.

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 Section 3: Exercises
Exercise 1: Calculate the link budget of the following links based on the below given details.
a) Assume a 20 km single mode fiber link at 1550nm with 2 connector pairs and 5 splices.
b) Assume an 80 km single mode fiber link at 1310nm with cable drum length of 4 Kms installed in
the link.
Exercise 2: Draw an OTDR trace showing various events.
Exercise 3: Enlist the common parameters to be configured in the OTDR to test an optical link.
Exercise 4: Find Rx level at ONT having following link details:
Link Length: 10 km single mode fiber
Wavelength: 1550 nm
Transmitter Power: 3 dBm
Splitter Loss: 3 dB
Splices: 10 nos.
Connectors: 4 nos.
Exercise 5: Find Rx level at OLT having following link details:
Link Length: 15 km single mode fiber
Wavelength: 1310 nm
Transmitter Power: 0 dBm
Splitter Loss: 6 dB
Splices: 10 nos.
Connectors: 4 nos.
Exercise 6: Participate in group discussion on following topics:
a) Fiber Optic Attenuators
b) Working Principle of OTDR
c) Viavi Optical Testing Instruments
d) Anritsu Optical Testing Instruments
e) DWDM System Testing

Section 4: Assessment Questionnaire

1. Name the equipment used for Link testing?
2. Which equipment is used to calculate overall loss in fiber using visual trace?
3. What is the unit of Insertion Loss?
4. _________ is the amount of light that a signal loses as it travels along a fiber cable link.
5. The ________is the theoretical calculated loss that a cable link can have.
6. What are some functions of OTDR?
7. What are some common wavelengths available at which OTDR operates?
8. The wavelength 1490 nm is generally used for:
9. What is the formula that OTDR uses to calculate event distance?
10. What are Test Parameters settings for OTDR configuration?
11. What are two different Acquisition modes?
12. What distance range is selected if length is unknown?
13. ___________is the time duration of pulse that is launched into the fiber. In OTDR, it is mentioned
in microseconds and nanoseconds.
14. The ability of OTDR to distinguish between two events in the fiber is called:

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15. The time taken by OTDR to calculate the results and show trace on the screen is called:
16. ____________is the parameter that signifies the maximum optical loss an OTDR can measure
in a fiber link.
17. Higher the dynamic range lower the distance range. True or False?
18. Larger pulse width provides ________Dynamic Range.
19. On what factors, accuracy of OTDR depends?
20. The length of fiber, within which, fiber is not able to detect any event and losses is termed as:
21. What is unit of dead zone?
22. How to reduce Dead Zone?
23. Give reasons for occurrence of non-reflective break in OTDR?
24. ________are repetitions of a trace or portion of a trace.
25. How to avoid Ghost in OTDR trace?
26. When two fibres with different core diameter are spliced and measured with OTDR, splice shows
______ from one direction and _____ from opposite direction.
27. ______________ analysis determines correct measurement of splice loss.
28. Which of the following OTDR can detect fiber event at longer distance?
a) Dynamic Range: 45 dB
b) Dynamic Range: 30 dB
c) Dynamic Range: 25 dB
29. If you choose smallest pulse width in OTDR, two closed fiber events can be detected separately.
True or False?
30. Which device is used to insert optical power in fiber?
31. Which equipment is used to measure power level of Optical Signal?
32. What is function of VFL?
33. How can we reduce the power level of optical signal?
34. Which mechanism or technique is adopted in attenuators to achieve the desired signal loss?
35. What are two types of optical attenuators?
36. What are two types of Variable Optical Attenuators?
37. Which test equipment can be used to detect fiber swap?
38. Optical attenuators are used in an optical link to decrease the bit rate. True or False?
39. OTDR screen and body should be cleaned using iso-propyl alcohol. True or False?
40. OTDR trace is a graph between _____ on X axis and _____ on Y axis.
41. Can fiber bend loss be measured by VFL?

-----------End of the Module----------

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 MODULE 7
FUNCTIONS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
NETWORK ELEMENTS

Section 1: Learning Outcomes

After completing this module, you will be able to:

 Explain the architecture and mechanism of Fiber Ring Network
 Advantage and Disadvantages of Fiber Ring Topology
 Explain Access Ring Protocols
 Describe the design of Ring and Mesh Networks Architecture
 Explain the concept of Dedicated and Shared Protection Rings
 Explain rerouting mechanism (Restoration and Protection) in Mesh Network Architecture
 Describe the design of Mesh based WDM Transport Networks
 Compare various Network Architectures
 Define the term ‘Network Scalability’
 Tell the ways to increase Network Capacity in Fiber Networks

Section 2: Relevant Knowledge

7.1 Fiber Ring Network

Fiber Ring Network
 A ring topology is a topology that creates a circle such that each node is connected to two other
nodes. Because every node is connected to two others, there is no beginning
and no end. It is easiest to visualize this as a circle or ring.
 In a basic ring topology, data typically travels in one direction. The data goes
from node to node until reaching its destination.
 Fiber ring is a network topology in which each node connects to two other
nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node – a
ring. Data travels from node to node, with each node along the way handling
every packet.
 Rings can be unidirectional, with all traffic travelling either clockwise or
anticlockwise around the ring, or bidirectional (as in SONET/SDH).
 A unidirectional ring topology provides only one pathway between any two nodes, unidirectional
ring networks may be disrupted by the failure of a single link.
 A node failure or cable break might isolate every node attached to the ring.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Fiber Ring Topology
Advantages:
 In ring network topologies, each node gets equal time share. Ring topologies make sure all the
computers don’t try to talk at the same time, and they also eliminate collisions.
 Equal time share for each node. This helps to avoid the noisy neighbor problem where one node
tends to take the majority of the time and bandwidth on the network.
 Everyone takes their turn talking. It was important in early topologies to avoid collisions. The early
competitor to the Ring topology was the busy topology which had a high affinity for collisions.
 No collisions. The lack of collisions leads to more time sending actual data instead of transmissions
being halted to retries and avoiding further collisions.

Disadvantages:
 A break in the ring could render the entire ring useless. Traffic also flowed in a singular direction.
This was mitigated by dual ring networks but that increased the cost.
 If two separate nodes had a break in the ring, the same problem existed as a singular break in a
one ring topology.
 The issue at hand was that a break in the network could impact the functionality of it.

Ring requires continuity

While this may not seem like an issue, a failed network card in one of the machines could lead to the
entire network segment being brought down.

Cost
In order to help mitigate the continuity issue and traverse long distances, FDDI was required which
was the most expensive ring implementation.
Difficult to wire
This is likely the main reason it has become mostly extinct. Running a single or dual ring required
quite a bit of cabling. It can be difficult to architect the wiring necessary to facilitate this type of
topology.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Fiber Ring Topology
Advantages
 Execution
 Administration
 Adaptability
 Fidelity
 Direction of the data
 Server Specification
 Troubleshooting Features
Disadvantages
 Expense
 Activity Rate
 Protection
 Hardiness
 Device Attachment
 Cable Breakdown
 Bandwidth Deficiencies

In the Ring topology there is a risk of cable breaks or CP equipment malfunctioning leading to
service interruptions, due the lack of redundancy. On the other hand, topology is minimizing the
costs of fiber cable. Deployment of passive Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers or protected bidirectional
CWDM rings might solve some of the issues.

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Access Protocols
 Rings can be used to carry circuits or packets or a combination of both.
 SDH rings carry circuits. Circuits are set up with out-of-band signaling protocols, whereas packets
are usually carried via a Medium Access Control Protocol (MAC).
 The purpose of media access control is to determine which station transmits when. As in any MAC
protocol, the aims are to resolve contention and provide fairness. There are three main classes of
media access protocol for ring networks:
o Slotted
o Token
o Register Insertion

 The slotted ring treats the latency of the ring network as a large shift register that permanently
rotates.
 It is formatted into so-called slots of fixed size. A slot is either full or empty, as indicated by control
flags in the head of the slot.
 A station that wishes to transmit waits for an empty slot and puts data in. Other stations can copy
out the data and may free the slot, or it may circulate back to the source who frees it. An advantage
of source-release, if the sender is banned from immediately re-using it, is that all other stations get
the chance to use it first, hence avoiding bandwidth hogging. The pre-eminent example of the
slotted ring is the Cambridge Ring.

7.2 Design of Ring based - WDM Transport Networks

Ring Network Architecture
 The basic building blocks for WDM rings are the Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers (OADMs).
 Such OADMs terminate two fiber pairs and allow to extract and insert one or more wavelength
channels from the WDM comb, while (transparently) passing through the remaining wavelengths.
 Automatic ring protection mechanisms on the channel or multiplex level, well known from the
SDH/SONET technology, can be implemented analogously for WDM-based rings.
 As such two main types of WDM rings can be distinguished:
o Dedicated Protection Rings
o Shared protection Rings

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Dedicated Protection Rings
 The dedicated protection ring consists of two counter-rotating fibers using WDM on each of the
fibers.
 Each wavelength demand is protected using a main path along one side of the ring and a backup
path along the other side of the ring.
 As the channels are protected on a per wavelength basis, this ring is also referred to as optical
channel dedicated protection ring (OCh-DPRing).
 When a link or node failure occurs within the ring, the affected traffic is switched over to the
protection path.

 The advantage of this ring type is its relative simplicity: when based on 1+1 protection, the signal
is split at the source node and the switching action is initiated by a selector at the receiver side,
based on the monitoring information of the optical channel.
 This approach is simple and robust because no complicated signaling protocol is required.
 The main drawback of the OCh-DPRing is that it uses capacity rather inefficiently because more
than 100% spare capacity is required, since a protected demand consumes capacity on the entire
ring.
 The required ring capacity is determined by the total amount of protected demand to be carried by
the ring and independent of the individual node to- node demand distribution.
 On the other hand, this makes the OCh-DPRing architecture flexible with respect to unpredictable
demand dispersions.

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Shared Protection Rings
 In the shared protection ring, 50% of the ring capacity is dedicated for protection purposes, which
allows to share this pool of protection capacity amongst different wavelength demands routed on
the ring.
 The protection switching can occur on a wavelength basis, in a so-called optical channel shared
protection ring (OCh-SPRing) or on a multiplex section level, in a so-called optical multiplex section
shared protection ring (OMS-SPRing).

 There are two variants of the OMS-SPRing protection concept:

o 2-fiber OMS-SPRing
o 4-fiber OMS-SPRing
 The 2-fiber OMS-SPRing scheme only requires two fibers between each pair of adjacent OADMs.
 Half of the wavelengths on each fiber are reserved as protection channels. To accommodate
transmission demands, optical paths are routed on the other half of the wavelengths (i.e., the
working channels).
 The working channels in one fiber are protected by the protection channels in the other fiber,
traveling in the other direction around the ring.
 In the event of a failure condition, the OADMs adjacent to the failure will loop back the affected
lightpaths on the protection channels of the ring.
 It is interesting to note that bi-directional traffic has to use different wavelengths for both directions,
otherwise wavelength conversion is required when traffic on a working channel is switched to a
protection channel in the opposite direction.
 A 4-fiber OMS-SPRing
requires four fibers between
adjacent OADMs.
 Working and protection
channels are now carried
over different fibers, which
enables to assign both
directions of each working
path to the same wavelength.

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 The 4- fiber arrangement combines both ring protection and span protection on the same
architecture. If only the OMS in the working fiber of the ring is affected (e.g., failure of the inline
amplifier), the parallel protection fiber can be addressed by a simple span switch and no loop back
occurs.
 The OCh-SPRing uses the
same configuration as the
OMS-SPRing, and the same
advantages in terms of capacity
sharing, only the protection
switching is different.
 When a failure occurs, the
affected connections are
individually switched at the
terminating OADMs to the other
side of the ring, using the
protection capacity on the other
fiber.

 An important advantage of the OCh-SPRing over the OMSSPRing is the reduced length of the
protection path, an important consideration in optical networks, in which longer paths suffer from
more attenuation and signal distortion.

Dedicated vs Shared Protection Rings

 For most traffic patterns (particularly uniform and adjacent node patterns) the capacity utilization
of the shared protection ring is higher than that of the dedicated protection ring (which inherently
prohibits any sharing of protection capacity).
 On the other hand, the implementation and management of OADMs for a shared protection ring is
more complex – and potentially more expensive – than for a simple dedicated protection ring, e.g.
since the development of suitable protection switching protocols is required.

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Designing the Ring Network Architecture
 The process of designing an interconnected ring network can be considered, which typically
consists of 2 main sub-problems:
1. Ring identification (greenfield or not, hierarchical or not)
2. Ring dimensioning based on inter- and intra-ring routing (and wavelength assignment).

 The problem consists of finding a minimum cost combination of interconnected rings, such that all
demands in the network can be routed and protected.
 The problem can be stated in a greenfield scenario (i.e. no cables installed yet) or in an existing
network topology.
 As there exist a large number of potential ring positions (even in an existing network topology) this
is a very complicated problem.
 In the ring planning process, two important single ring design problems come forward: ring loading
(which considers which way around the ring the traffic must be routed) and wavelength assignment:
(which considers which particular wavelength will be use for each path on the ring).
 The objective of ring loading is to accommodate all node-to- node optical demands on the ring
while utilizing as few wavelengths as possible.
 On a shared protection ring, each demand can be routed either clockwise or counter-clockwise in
the working channels of the ring.
 For calculating the required number of wavelengths on a shared protection ring, the link of the ring
(i.e., optical multiplex section) carrying the most traffic is determinative. Hence, the routing strategy
that minimizes the utilization of the most loaded link results in a minimal number of required
wavelengths.
 When the nodes are able to perform wavelength conversion, the wavelength assignment problem
is trivial to solve, since we can change the wavelength of each lightpath in intermediate nodes to
avoid wavelength conflicts.
 When wavelength conversion is undesirable, each lightpath has to be assigned a unique
wavelength on all the sections it crosses.
 The wavelength conversion does generally not reduce the wavelength requirement on optical
rings.

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7.3 Design of Mesh based - WDM Transport Networks
Mesh Network Architecture
 Meshed networks rely on OXCs capable of interconnecting multiple fiber pairs.
 In the OXC, wavelengths can be routed between incoming, outgoing and local fibers by
appropriately configuring the space switch in the OXC.
 Optical cross-connects do not only provide a flexible means of routing wavelengths, but also allow
to reroute traffic in spare channel resources in case of failures.

 If there are no wavelength conversion facilities in the OXC, we talk about a Wavelength Routing
OXC (WR-OXC).
 Networks featuring WR-OXCs are denoted as Wavelength Path (WP) networks, because a path is
characterized by a unique wavelength.
 In that case a wavelength channel from an incoming fiber can only be routed to an outgoing fiber
if this wavelength is not yet occupied on that fiber. Otherwise, the route cannot be continued in this
fiber, although other wavelengths may be still available, which is then called ‘wavelength blocking’.
 To overcome wavelength blocking, the incoming wavelength can be converted to a free
wavelength in the outgoing fiber through the use of wavelength converters.

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Designing the Mesh Network Architecture
 Once a mesh architecture is adopted, the network design must decide on the amount of resources
required in the network to carry the traffic.
 This includes determining the size of the OXCs in the different nodes, and the amount of fibers
and wavelengths required between the nodes.

 The topology design phase starts from a set of candidate links between the nodes of the transport
network, and decides which links to install. The choice of the candidate links can be based on
availability in the field, traffic forecast considerations, architectural constraints or topology
connectivity considerations.
 Traffic routing and dimensioning can be tackled as one problem or as a sequence of sub-problems,
e.g. first solving the routing in an uncapacitated network, followed by the dimensioning of the
equipment, based on this routing.
 For the allocation of spare capacity, the survivability strategy that is selected is important since
every strategy requires a specific design approach. For link protection, the fibers in the links should
be doubled and it has to be assured that they follow a cable diverse route. For path protection, a
second disjoint path is required between the source and destination node. For restoration or shared
protection, the spare capacity should be minimized while optimizing the sharing.
 OXCs featuring such wavelength conversion are called Wavelength Translating OXCs (WT-OXC).
 Networks featuring WTOXCs are denoted as Virtual Wavelength Path (VWP) networks, because
a path is not longer characterized by a unique wavelength but can have different wavelengths on
subsequent links.
 WT-OXCs render a higher routing flexibility, yielding an increased throughput, however at the
expense of costly wavelength conversion elements and higher internal node connectivity.
 The complexity of the OXC depends on the use of wavelength converters: while the WR-OXC only
requires connectivity between corresponding wavelengths, the WTOXC requires full internal
connectivity.
Rerouting
 The rerouting can occur using protection or restoration.
 Protection reroutes the traffic on pre-assigned spare resources that have been provisioned for a
pre-determined failure or set of failures (which makes the rerouting 100% predictable).
 Restoration, on the other hand, makes use of a pool of spare resources in the network and for
each failure, a restoration algorithm computes a restoration path within these spare resources.
 As such, restoration can make better use of the shared spare resources.
 Furthermore, the optical signals can be protected/restored end-to-end (on the path level) or by
their constituting links.

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Restoration
Restoration strategies can be classified according to three main criteria:

Link Restoration
 In link restoration, the traffic is rerouted between the end nodes of the failed link (provided that
there are spare channels).
 The channels are either kept together or rerouted separately. This strategy consumes a lot of spare
capacity in the vicinity of the failure.
 Different links can be protected sharing the same spare capacity.
 In some cases backhauling may occur, i.e. the final route runs up and down in the same link as
can be seen

Path Restoration
 In end-to-end path restoration, in case of a link or node failure, all affected light paths are
individually restored. Thus, much more
switching actions are required
compared to link restoration, and the
restoration time could be slower.
 On the other hand, path restoration
works at a smaller granularity and can
use capacity more globally, such that is
makes better use of spare capacity in
the network.
 The restoration route can coincide
partly with the original route or a
completely disjoint restoration route
can be preferred.

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Pre-computed or Real-time Restoration
 The restoration routes can be pre-calculated (before the failure happens) or determined in real-
time (after the failure happens).
 The speed and optimality requirements for the restoration algorithms to compute the alternative
routes, have a different priority in both cases.
 Pre-calculation requires to calculate and store the restoration routes each time the network status
changes or at regular time intervals.
 The algorithm then has knowledge of the entire network status, and the restoration routes for a set
of pre-determined failure scenarios can be stored in a database.
 Upon a failure, a capacity reservation protocol then verifies the proposed restoration routes.
 Pre-calculation gives room for optimization, multiple failures are not considered to occur in a short
timeframe and thus the optimization can be done off-line.
 Real-time restoration on the other hand requires, upon a failure, to figure out the current network
status and to propose adequate restoration routes.
 While real-time restoration can typically survive from more unexpected failures than pre-calculated
restoration, it is also slower.
 The restoration process can be speeded up however, by sacrificing on the optimality of the
restoration algorithm.

Centralized Restoration
 In centralized restoration, computation of restoration routes is done in a centralized network
controller, where all necessary and up-to-date network information is available.
 After computation, the routes are downloaded into the databases of the nodes.
 Real-time centralized restoration is based on alarm messages to identify the failure and obtain
topology information, which is typically a slow process.
 Pre-calculated centralized restoration is much faster, but requires frequent communications
between the centralized controller and network elements to acquire up-to-date topology
information, which might not be scalable for large size networks.

Distributed Restoration
 Distributed restoration can be real-time, based on flooding messages, sent out by the terminating
nodes of a failed link, that search for alternative routes.
 Although simple, this mechanism is fairly slow and more importantly it has not yet shown to scale
beyond single link failures. Therefore, pre-computed distributed restoration seems like a more
viable alternative.
 To restrict the amount of restoration routes to be stored in memory, it is best to use failure
independent restoration paths.
 Although some vendors claim restoration within 50 ms., it is believed that in general this kind of
restoration requires more time and that unnoticeable interruption for the service layer is not
achievable, since a large sequence of events needs to be executed upon a failure.
 After the detection and isolation of the failure, a decision has to be taken (centrally or in a distributed
way) on the actions to be taken to resolve the failure, the involved cross-connects need to be
informed and reconfiguration of the cross-connects has to be effectively carried out.
 To achieve fast recovery in a mesh network, protection architectures are a better alternative,
because less coordination between network elements is required.

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Protection
 Path protection, reserves for each working path a dedicated end-to-end protection path and can
use 1+1 or 1:1 protection switching.
 The working and protection path can be link disjoint if the protection mechanism only has to protect
link failures or it can also be node disjoint if the protection mechanism also has to protect node
failures.
 Alternatively, link protection or optical multiplex section (OMS) protection, switches an entire
multiplex section, either to a dedicated parallel fiber, or to a disjoint fiber route in the network.
 For path protection, spare channels are dedicated for protection and are embedded in the fibers
together with working channels. These spare channels are made available in the OXC in the same
way as the working channels and they therefore contribute to the dimension of the switch matrix.
 Link protection can also be applied in a shared fashion, e.g. in a M:1 configuration: on the link there
are M working fibers, protected by 1 redundant fiber. Such an approach can be used to cope with
equipment failures (e.g. failure of one of the in-line amplifiers) or for maintenance of one of the
working fibers, during which the signal on one of these fibers can be shifted to the protection fiber.

7.4 Comparison of Network Architectures

Comparison of Network Architectures

The failure rates have been expressed as:

 Mean time between failures (MTBF)
 Mean time to repair (MTTR) a failure
The unavailability of the network element is thus:
MTTR / (MTBF+MTTR)
7.5 Network Scalability
 Scalability is the ability of a network to cope with increasing workloads in a cost-effective and
sustainable way, by expanding the network's bandwidth capacity and supporting its physical
expansion to new development areas.
 In other words, it is the ability for systems – such as applications, storage, databases and
networking to continue to function properly when changed in size or volume.
 It often refers to increasing or decreasing resources as needed to meet the higher or lower
demands of a business.
 Rather than relying on a typical ring topology, where all nodes depend on one central location, the
network architecture is built as a mesh.
 This structure allows for very high speed, low latency and true diversity, meaning that there is no
single point of failure.
 This is due to the presence of several cabinets that are interconnected and diversely fed to different
aggregation points on the network.
 As well as making the network more resilient, this structure makes it easier to expand the network
outwards or inwards as new needs arise.

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Ways to Increase Network Capacity in Fiber Networks
1. Upgrade Uplinks
The most common challenge for network operators comes at the uplink from local switches to an
aggregation switch. As local ports become oversubscribed, significant bottlenecks can develop and
data transmission can slow significantly.

2. Double Efficiency with Single Fiber

If you need to add more links but have no room in the budget for laying or leasing new fiber, single
fiber (bi-directional or bi-di) transceivers can help.

 These transceivers offer full-duplex 1G or 10G transmission over a single strand of fiber, effectively
doubling your available bandwidth over distances up to 80km (10G) or 120km (1G).
 Since these transceivers use the same standards-based form factors as traditional dual fiber
transceivers (e.g., SFP/SFP+, XFP, and more) and can be deployed in all the same switches,
switching over to bi-di optics is a painless way to reap huge fiber capacity benefits.
3. The Power of Passives
 Passive filters use either CWDM or DWDM to add new links off of a common fiber link.
 This high capacity makes these a great solution if you anticipate steady growth in bandwidth;
CWDM passives enable you to add 8 additional links, while DWDM passives have the capacity for
up to 40 links.
 While standard configurations will suit most needs, these filters are fully customizable to any
channel plan or form factor package your network requires.
 Their simple passive design means no power consumption, and fewer moving parts than active
systems lower costs and improve reliability.
 The diagram below shows a simple point-to-point passive network architecture:

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 Section 3: Exercises
Exercise 1: Tabulate the advantages and disadvantages of fiber ring network.

Exercise 2: Draw diagram showing path and link restoration.

Exercise 3: Participate in group discussion on following topics:

a) Fiber Design of Ring based WDM Transport Networks
b) Comparison of Network Architectures
c) Ways to Increase Network Capacity in Fiber Network

Section 4: Assessment Questionnaire

1. Which topology creates a circle such that each node is connected to two other nodes?
2. A _________ring topology provides only one pathway between any two nodes.
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fiber ring network?
4. What are three main classes of media access protocol for ring networks?
5. What are two main types of WDM protection rings?
6. What are single ring design problems come in ring planning process?
7. In the OXC, wavelengths can be routed between incoming, outgoing and local fibers by
appropriately configuring the space switch in the OXC. (True/ False)
8. What is the classification of restoration strategy?
9. In ______ restoration, the traffic is rerouted between the end nodes of the failed link (provided
that there are spare channels), whereas, in _______ restoration, in case of a link or node failure,
all affected light paths are individually restored.
10. _______ restoration can be real-time, based on flooding messages, sent out by the terminating
nodes of a failed link, that search for alternative routes.
11. What is called the ability of a network to cope with increasing workloads in a cost-effective and
sustainable way, by expanding the network's bandwidth capacity and supporting its physical
expansion to new development areas?
12. What are the Ways to Increase Network Capacity in Fiber Networks?

-----------End of the Module----------

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 MODULE 8
Digital Radios/Microwave Transmission Theory
Section 1: Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you will be able to:
 Define Radio link Parameters
 Describe the technique of Point-to-Point (Microwave) Communication
 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Microwave Systems
 Classify Microwave Link System
 Explain the functions of different components of Microwave Communication System (Split
Mount Microwave Equipment)
 Describe Microwave System Installation, Link Alignment and Testing practices
 Tell the concept of Point-to-Multipoint Wireless Network
 State deployment techniques of Point-to-Multipoint (P2MP) Radio links
 Explain P2MP Mesh Wireless Network Architecture and Bridging techniques

Section 2: Relevant Knowledge

8.1 Wireless Backhaul and Radio Parameters
Wireless Backhaul
 Connecting two or more physically disparate networks to logically seem like one network to nodes
of both the physical networks.
 Also called Wireless Backhaul Devices that create a wireless backhaul.
 Wireless Bridges are distribution later devices and Access Points (APs) are access layer devices.

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Relative Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI)
 Relative Signal Strength Indicator or Radio Signal Strength Indicator
 Values are negative number.
 Scale closer to zero is a better metric than farther from zero.
 Keep usable power within usable range.
 Above -35 dBm: Signal too Strong, Saturated Amplifiers
 Below -70 dBm: Signal too Weak, Subject to external interference
 Desired RSSI: -40 dBm to -50 dBm
 Usable RSSI: -35 dBm to -70 dBm

2.4 Ghz Vs 5 Ghz

The lower the frequency, the less the capacity to carry traffic but the greater the range.

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Utilization and Airtime
 Utilization is how busy the RF medium is
 Airtime is how long RF communications are occupying the channel

EIRP and FSPL

EIRP
Equivalent Isotopically Radiated Power or Effectively
Isotopically Radiated Power measures the combination of
the power emitted by the transmitter within the beamwidth
of the antenna.
FSPL
Free Space Path Loss states the attenuation of radio energy between two antennas.

SOM and Link Budget

System Operating Margin
SOM is the delta between the signal a radio is actually receiving vs receiver sensitivity at a certain
data rate.

Link Budget
 Link budget is the calculation and accounting of all gains and losses of transmitter, through the
medium (FSPL, Cable, Tx and Rx antenna gains, etc.) to the receiver.
 It does not take into account the receiver sensitivity.

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Link Budget Calculation

Tx Output Power and Receiver Sensitivity

8.2 Introduction to Microwave Communication

Point to Point Wireless Network
 Point to point wireless communication (also called wireless P2P) typically uses directional
antennas, and other similar instruments, to provide a technical communication connection from
one location (or building) to another.
 Depending on the clarity of the line of sight, wireless
point to point communication can travel small or large
distances from one building to another.
 Depending on the height of the antennas and other
devices, the frequency and power level used, and the
surrounding environment, communications can travel
up to tens of miles to its designated location.

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Microwave Communication
 A microwave link is a communications system that uses a beam
of radio waves in the microwave frequency range to transmit
video, audio, or data between two locations, which can be from
just a few feet or meters to several miles or kilometers apart.
 Also coined as Line-of-Sight or LOS communications, Radio
Link, Point-to-Point communications.

Microwave links are widely used for point-to-point communications because their small wavelength
allows conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow beams, which can be pointed directly at
the receiving antenna.
Microwave Communication Spectrum
 Microwave communication system transmits electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in
the range 1 m - 1 mm, hence the name ‘Micro’ waves.
 Small capacity systems generally employ the frequencies less than 3 GHz while medium and
large capacity systems utilize frequencies ranging from 3 to 15 GHz. Frequencies > 15 GHz are
essentially used for short-haul transmission.
 High frequency of microwaves gives the microwave band a very large information-carrying
capacity.
 the microwave band has a bandwidth 30 times that of all the rest of the radio spectrum below it.
 A disadvantage is that microwaves are limited to line-of-sight propagation; they cannot pass
around hills or mountains as lower frequency radio waves can.
 The next higher frequency band of the radio spectrum, between 30 GHz and 300 GHz, are called
"millimeter waves" because their wavelengths range from 10 mm to 1 mm.
 Radio waves in this band are strongly attenuated by the gases of the atmosphere. This limits their
practical transmission distance to a few kilometers, so these frequencies cannot be used for long-
distance communication.
Microwave Communication Applications
Microwave radio transmission is commonly used in Point-to-point communication systems on the:
 Surface of the Earth
 Satellite communications
 Deep space radio communications
 Radars
 Radio navigation systems
 Sensor systems
 Radio astronomy
Advantages of Microwave System
 Due to their high operating frequencies, microwave systems can carry large quantities of
information.
 There is much less background noise at microwave frequencies than at RF.
 Microwave systems do not require a right-of-way acquisition between stations.
 Distances between switching centers are less.
 Fewer repeaters are necessary for amplification.
 Underground facilities are minimized.
 It requires small antennas.
 Increased reliability and less maintenance.

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Disadvantages of Microwave System
 Conventional components (resistors, inductors, and capacitors) cannot be used at microwave
frequencies.
 Microwave frequencies propagate in straight line, Distance of operation is limited by line of sight
(LOS).
 Microwave signals are easily reflected and/or diverted because of the very short wavelength.
 Atmospheric conditions such as rain/fog can attenuate and absorb the microwave signal
especially at 20 GHz and up.

Types of Terrestrial Microwave

 Terminals – are points in the system where the baseband signals either originate or terminate

 Repeaters – are points in the system where the baseband signals maybe reconfigured or simply
repeated or amplified.
o Passive Microwave repeaters – a device that re-radiates microwave energy without
additional electronic power.
 Back to back
 Billboard type
o Active Microwave repeater – a receiver and a transmitter placed back to back or in tandem
with the system. It receives the signal, amplifies and reshapes it, then retransmits the signal
to the next station.

8.3 Classification of Microwave Link System

Classification of Microwave Communication
 Nature
o Analog
o Digital

 Distance / Frequency
o Short Haul
Used for short distance microwave transmission usually at lower capacity ranging from 64
kbps up to 2Mbps.
o Medium Haul
o Long Haul
Used for long distance/multi-hop microwave transmission. Used for backbone route
applications at 34 Mbps to 620 Mbps capacity.

 Capacity / Bandwidth
o Light (Narrow Band)
o Medium (Narrow Band)
o Large (Wide Band)

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Classification of Microwave Link System
According to distance between the points to be connected

 Long-haul microwave links (20 to 50 km, in certain cases even more)

 Short-haul microwave links (a few hundred metres up to 20 km)

According to transmission capacity and multiplex process

 Up to around 34 Mbit/s (classical PDH)
 Up to around 1000 Mbit/s per system (Ethernet or mixed with PDH)
 Up to n times 155 Mbit/s (SDH)
 Up to 8 Gbit/s for multiband microwave systems

According to frequency band used

 6 to 8 GHz (long-haul microwave links of up to over 50 km, for the highest possible capacity)
 11 to 15 GHz (medium-haul distances of 10 to 20 km)
 18 to 38 GHz (short-haul microwave links between 1 and 10 km)
 40 to 70 GHz (shortest distances of all, up to around 1 km)
 above 70 GHz especially for multiband microwave systems

According to equipment technology

 Classical indoor equipment with waveguide between equipment and antenna
 Splitting equipment (microwave link system with the indoor and outdoor unit separated)
 Multiband microwave systems

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8.4 Components of Microwave Links
Networking Structure

Split Mount Microwave Equipment

Split Mounted Microwave Equipment has following units:
 Antenna: Focuses the RF signal transmitted by ODU and increases the signal gain.
 Outdoor Unit (ODU): RF Processing, Conversion of IF/RF Signals.
 IF (Intermediate Frequency) Cable: Transmitting of IF signal, management signal and power
supply of ODU.
 Indoor Unit (IDU): Perform access, dispatch, multiplex/demultiplex and modulation/ demodulation
for services.

Split Mount Microwave Equipment

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ODU
 The term ODU is used in Split-Mount Microwave systems
where an Indoor Unit (IDU) is typically mounted in an
indoor location (or weatherproof shelter) connected via a
coaxial cable to the ODU which is mounted on a rooftop
or tower top location.
 The ODU converts data from the IDU into an RF signal
for transmission.
 It also converts the RF signal from the far end to suitable
data to transmit to the IDU.
 ODUs are weatherproofed units that are mounted on top
of a tower either directly connected to a microwave antenna
or connected to it through a wave guide.
 Generally, Microwave ODUs designed for full duplex operation, with separate signals for transmit
and receiver.
ODU Power and Data Signals
 The ODU receives its power and the data signals from the IDU through a single coaxial cable.
 ODU parameters are configured and monitored through the IDU.
 The DC power, transmit signal, receive signal and some command/control telemetry signals are
all combined onto the single coaxial cable.
 This use of a single cable is designed to reduce cost and time of installation.
ODU Frequency Bands and Sub-bands
 Each ODU is designed to operate over a predefined frequency sub-band.
 For example, 21.2 – 23.6GHz for a 23GHz system, 17.7 – 19.7GHz for a 18GHz system and 24.5
– 26.5GHz for a 26GHz system as for ODUs.
 The sub-band is set in hardware (filters, diplexer) at time of manufacture and cannot be changed
in the field.
Mounting Types
1. One ODU using one antenna
 Directly mounted to the antenna.
 Separately mounted to the antenna using a soft flexible wave guide

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Two ODUs sharing one antenna – For protection of link
 Directly mounted to the antenna.
 Separately mounted to the antenna using a soft flexible wave guide
In this configuration antenna is coupled to the two ODUs using a Hybrid Coupler. The Hybrid
Coupler is a passive device used in radio and telecommunications. It is a type of directional
coupler where the input power is equally divided between two output ports.

In Direct mounting method avoid the loss caused by the soft waveguide. Separately Mounted
method is used when there is little installation space on the tower.
1+0, 1+1, 2+0 Deployments
Microwave ODUs can be deployed in various
configurations.
Microwave ODU in 1+0 Configuration with Antenna
 The most common is 1+0 which has a single ODU,
generally connected directly to the microwave antenna.
 1+0 means “unprotected” in that there is no resilience or
backup equipment or path.

 For resilient networks there are several different

configurations. 1+1 in “Hot Standby” is common and
typically has a pair of ODUs (one active, one standby)
connected via a Microwave Coupler to the antenna.
 There is typically a 3dB or 6dB loss in the coupler
which splits the power either equally or unequally
between the main and standby path.
 Other resilient configurations are 1+1 SD (Space
Diversity, using separate antennas, one ODU on
each) and 1+1 FD (Frequency Diversity).
Two Microwave ODUs in 1+1 HSB or
2+0 configuration with Coupler and
Antenna

 The other non-resilient configuration is 2+0 which has two ODUs connected to a single antenna
via a coupler. The hardware configuration is identical to 1+1 FD, but the ODUs carry separate
signals to increase the overall capacity.

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Typical ODU Features and Specifications:
 4-42GHz frequency bands
 Fully synthesized design
 3.5-56MHz RF channel bandwidths
 Supports QPSK and 16 to 1024 QAM (Some ODUs may support 2048QAM)
 Standard and high power options
 High MTBF, greater than 92.000 hours
 Software controlled ODU functions
 Designed to meet FCC, ETSI and CE safety and emission standards
 Supports popular ITU-R standards and frequency recommendations
 Software configurable microcontroller for ODU monitor and control settings
 Low noise figure, low phase noise and high linearity
 Compact and lightweight design
 Very high frequency stability +/-2.5 ppm
 Wide operating temperature range: -40°C to +65°C
IDU
 IDU is the intelligence of the microwave system.
 IDU is independent of any frequency band, but capacity dependent. Configuration and monitoring
of link performance can be done through the IDU.
 Its main function includes:
o Data Interface
o Error Connection
o Modulation and Demodulation
o Alarm Status Monitoring
o Site to Site Communications
 Display of Local & Remote Radios and
Alarm Relay Status LEDs are there in IDU
for fault identification.
 IDU can maintain the configuration in event of a DC power loss.

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Antenna
 Antennas are used to send and receive microwave signals.
 Microwave antenna diameters includes: 0.3m, 0.6m, 1.2m, 1.8m, 2.0m, 2.4m, 3.0m, 3.2m etc.
 Different frequency channels in same frequency band can share one antenna.

Antenna
Adjustment

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IF Cable
 In microwave networks, for cabling, common options include twisted-pair copper cable, coaxial
cable and fiber-optic cable.
 Flexible cables are installed in microwave network structure.

8.5 Microwave System Installation, Link Alignment and Testing

Short-haul and Long-haul Links
Short-haul Links
A short haul communications link is defined as link that:
 Handles communications traffic usually over distances less than 20 km (kilometer).
 Usually is within the area covered by a single telephone system switching center or central office
(C.O.), such as metropolitan areas, large cities, or all or parts of counties.
 Is characterized by not having long-distance lines and trunks between towns and cities.
Long-haul Links
 Long-haul microwave links can be identified by their use of large, parabolic dish antennas at each
end of the link.
 Frequency plays a part in any link budget, especially for longer links, since long-distance links
require the longer propagation distances of larger-wavelength, lower-frequency signals rather than
smaller-wavelength, higher-frequency signals.
 Long-distance microwave radio links are usually operating at lower frequencies licensed by an
applicable government organization.
Microwave System Installation
Microwave link installation includes:
 Rooftop, tower or monopole locations through use of riggers (crane, bucket, etc.)
 Installation of dish antenna on existing antenna mast
 Installation of ODUs and IDUs as per link design
 Running, labeling and securing of required cables (Cat5e, IF, fiber, power)
 Termination of connectors at ODU and IDU ends
 Installation of grounding cable
 Installation of DC power cable from customer provided power source and breakers
Microwave Link Alignment and Testing
The link alignment and testing service includes:
 Precise alignment of antennae at both ends of the link
 Any final radio configurations as required
 Validation of traffic continuity of the link at the link designed throughput speeds
 Measurement of latency and throughput values using standard RFC tests
 Bit Error Rate test to confirm error-free traffic for the link between link demark endpoints (RJ45
connector terminating at local switch or communication equipment)
 Completion of Acceptance Test Plan

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8.6 Point to Multipoint Radio Link Deployment
Point to Multipoint Wireless Network
 Point-to-multipoint wireless is defined by the fact that one of the devices in the network (the “point”)
can communicate over radio waves with several other devices at the same time (hence
“multipoint”).
 This is often also referred to as a star topology. Star topologies are ideal for networks where there
are a lot of nodes to be connected in a dense environment.
 Point-to-multipoint is generally abbreviated as PTMP, P2MP or PMP. PMP communication is
commonly used in telecommunications.

 The point-to-multipoint topology consists of a central base station that supports several subscriber
stations. These offer network access from a single location to multiple locations, permitting them
to use the same network resources between them.
 The bridge located at the central location is known as the base station bridge or root bridge.
 All data that passes between the wireless bridge clients should initially go via the root bridge.
 A point-to-multipoint network can be easily deployed when compared to the deployment of a point-
to-point network because the equipment has to be deployed only at the new subscriber's site.

The only condition is that all the remote sites must come within the visibility and range of the
base station. Hills, trees and other kinds of obstructions make point-to-multipoint nods
unsuitable for office and residential coverage.

P2MP Applications

P2MP is usually used for establishing private enterprise connectivity to:

 Offices in remote locations
 Long-range wireless backhaul solutions for various sites
 Last-mile broadband access
 IP telephony
 Wireless Internet by means of gigahertz radio frequencies.
 Distribution amenities
 Huge corporate campuses
 School districts
 Public safety applications, etc.

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P2MP Ethernet Network Deployment
 Point-to-multipoint Ethernet networks involve data transmissions between one sender and multiple
receivers.
 In a P2MP scenario, multiple Ethernet LAN segments are bridged via multiple wireless/mesh
backhauls that carry traffic between the mesh portal and the mesh points. This provides
communication from the local LAN to multiple remote LANs.

 In this high-availability scenario,

multiple Ethernet LAN segments
are bridged via multiple wireless
backhauls that carry traffic
between the mesh portal and the
mesh points.
 You configure one mesh portal for
each remote LAN that you are
bridging with the host LAN. This
provides communication from the
host LAN to multiple remote LANs.
 In the event of a link failure
between a mesh point and its
mesh portal, the affected mesh
point could create a link to the
other mesh portal.
 The dashed lines represent the
current mesh link between the
mesh points and their mesh
portals.
 The diagonal dotted lines represent possible links that could be formed in the event of a mesh link
or mesh portal failure.

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Mesh Wireless Network
 In a mesh wireless network, multiple access points communicate with each other and broadcast a
common wireless network.
 Mesh mode enables you to have multiple access points where one is the root AP and the others
are repeater APs, called mesh APs. There can be multiple root APs. Mesh APs can broadcast the
SSID from the root AP to cover a larger area without cabling each AP.
 On the one hand, access points connected via a mesh network can broadcast the same wireless
network to clients, thus working as a single access point, while covering a wider area.
 On the other hand, a mesh network can be used to bridge Ethernet networks without laying cables.
 Access points associated with a mesh network can play one of two roles: root access point or
mesh access point. Both broadcast the mesh network, thus the amount of other wireless networks
they can broadcast is reduced by one.

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Mesh Access Point (MAP)—a wireless access point without a wired connection (untethered). Clients
associated with a mesh access point have the same connectivity to the network they would have
when associated to a wired access point.
Root Access Point (RAP)— An access point connected directly to a wired LAN provides a
connection point for wireless users.
 Using an AP as a mesh client with 5 GHz effectively reduces the maximum throughput by 50% per
hop, because all data sent to the AP needs to be forwarded to the other AP, taking up additional
airtime. Therefore, it is recommended to set the root AP to 5 GHz and the clients to 2.4 GHz.
 When an AP boots which is configured to use the mesh network, it tries to connect via cable to the
service.
 If this does not work, it turns into a repeater AP and scans if the mesh network is visible. If yes, it
will join the mesh network as a client.
 The access points realize by themselves if they are root, repeater (mesh) or bridge access points
in the network.

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Good to Know
There are some things you should know about mesh networks:
 At least one access point needs a LAN connection.
 Mesh access points need to be on the same channel to make a communication possible.
 Avoid using dynamic channel selection as after a reboot the channels of the APs may differ.
 The mesh network may need up to five minutes to be available after configuration.
 You can have only one mesh SSID.
 A mesh network can be realized only with Sophos access points.
 For setting up a mesh network you need to create a new SSID.
 There is no automatic takeover of the root AP. The decision to connect to mesh happens during
the boot.

Point to Multipoint Wireless Bridging

 In the point-to-multipoint bridging
scenario, a RAP serving as a root bridge
connects multiple MAPs to their
associated wired LANs as non-root
bridges.
 By default, this feature is disabled for all
MAPs.
 If Ethernet bridging is used, you must
enable it on the controller for each MAP.

A simple deployment with one RAP and two MAPs, but this configuration is fundamentally a
wireless mesh with no WLAN clients. Client access can still be provided with Ethernet bridging
enabled, although if bridging between buildings, MAP coverage from a high rooftop might not be
suitable for client access.

 A mesh network can also be used to bridge Ethernet networks without laying cables.
 To run a wireless bridge you have to plug your second Ethernet segment into the Ethernet interface
of the mesh access point.
 The first Ethernet segment is the one on which the root access point connects to the service.
 In a wireless outdoor mesh network, multiple mesh access points comprise a network that provides
secure, scalable outdoor wireless LAN.
 The optimum distance (in feet) that should exist between the root access point (RAP) and the mesh
access point (MAP) is called Range.

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 Access points can be configured
as root or non-root bridges. In this
role, an access point establishes a
wireless link with a non-root bridge.
 Traffic is passed over the link to the
wired LAN.
 Access points in root and non-root
bridge roles can be configured to
accept associations from clients.

Access Point as a Root Bridge with Clients

 When wireless bridges are used in a point-to-multipoint configuration the throughput is reduced
depending on the number of non-root bridges that associate with the root bridge.
 With a link data rate at 54 Mbps, the maximum throughput is about 25 Mbps in a point-to-point link.
 The addition of three bridges to form a point-to-multipoint network reduces the throughput to about
12.5 Mbps.

Access Points as Root and Non-root Bridges with Clients

 In workgroup bridge mode, the unit associates to another access point as a client and provides a
network connection for the devices connected to its Ethernet port.
 For example, if you need to provide wireless connectivity for a group of network printers, you can
connect the printers to a hub or to a switch, connect the hub or switch to the access point Ethernet
port, and configure the access point as a workgroup bridge.
 The workgroup bridge associates to an access point on your network.

Access Points as a Workgroup Bridge

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P2MP Wireless Link
 The wireless link uses a technology called Wireless Distribution System (WDS)
bridging, which dedicates a radio to communicate with one or more other radios, specified by the
MAC address of the remote radio(s).
 When in WDS bridge mode, the radio cannot be simultaneously used for
client access. All Layer 2 traffic parameters, most especially MAC address of downstream clients
and VLAN tags, are encapsulated and preserved across the link.
 Indoor deployments of WDS Bridge links are done in scenarios where installing Ethernet or fiber
cabling runs is either impossible or impractical, but power at each of the remote AP locations is
available.
 It is best practice to utilize the 5 GHz band for wireless link applications, to take advantage of fewer
sources of interference from access points on the 2.4 GHz band as well as the larger channel
selection and capacity of 40 MHz channels on the 5 GHz band with 802.11n technology, and 80
MHz channels on the 5 GHz band with 802.11ac technology.
 The use of the 2.4 GHz band for wireless links should be reserved only for scenarios where the
property is isolated from remote interference, where there is no co-located Wi-Fi coverage, and
where there may be trees or other objects that partially obstruct the Fresnel zone of the path (e.g.
a farm or nursery utilizing remote cameras for surveillance).
 By convention, the root node is defined as the upstream side of the link (i.e. towards demarc on
the property) and the remote / slave node is defined as the downstream side of the link (i.e. towards
the remote AP and/or camera).

Logical network diagram of a point-to-multipoint link

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 In general, a dedicated radio shall be used in a design of a wireless link, connecting to remote
access points

Wiring configuration for one AP per slave backhaul link

 In instances where only a single remote AP and/or camera is required, a dual-radio access point
can be used with the 5 GHz radio is dedicated to the WDS bridge link.

Wiring configuration for two APs per slave backhaul link

Logical design diagram showing a single remote AP connected via WDS on its 5 GHz radio. Clients
are served on the 2.4 GHz band only for such APs

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 Logical design diagram showing an omni-directional AP at the root location, for connecting multiple
remote locations that do not fall within the 18o directional envelope. Clients may optionally be served
with Wi-Fi on the 2.4 GHz band from such omni-directional APs

 At larger distances, the signal gets weaker and the wireless data rates get slower, leading to a
lower overall data throughput.
 Signal is measured by the receive signal strength indicator (RSSI), which indicates how well a
particular radio can hear the remote connected client radios.
 For point-to-(multi)point applications, the optimal RSSI on each end of the wireless link is between
-40 dBm and -50 dBm to achieve the highest possible data rates.
 Pre-configure the radios with a transmit power of 17 dBm and validate that a link
is properly established (which serves to validate security and MAC address settings as well).
 Once the access points are physically mounted in place, look at the RSSI readings on each radio
and adjust the transmit power settings on each side of the link up or down to get the RSSI to within
the -40 dBm to -50 dBm range.
 If the signal strength is greater than -35 dBm (typical for wireless links under 50 feet), then the
electronic amplifiers get saturated because the signal is too strong, which degrades throughput
performance.
 In such scenarios, turning down the power to minimum (11 dBm) may be insufficient, and if so we
recommend purposely misaligning the antennas.
 If the signal strength is less than -75 dBm (typical for very long distance shots over 4 miles), it may
be difficult to sustain a link reliably or to achieve high throughputs, especially in the presence of
external interference.
 For long distance shots, it is recommended to use laser tooling to optimize the antenna alignment
so as to maximize the signal.

Section 3: Exercises
Exercise 1: Draw network architecture of Point to Point and Point to Multipoint wireless Network.
Exercise 2: Enlist the classification of Microwave Link System.

Exercise 3: Draw Separate Mount and Direct Mount Microwave system.

Exercise 4: Draw equal and unequal path Mesh Wireless Network.

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Exercise 5: Participate in group discussion on following topics:
a) P2MP and P2P Applications
b) Advantages and Disadvantages of microwave communication
c) Point to Multipoint Wireless Bridging
d) P2MP Wireless Link
e) Radio Parameters

Section 4: Assessment Questionnaire

1. Relative Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) Values are negative number. (True/False)
2. __________ are distribution later devices and ________are access layer devices.
3. What is Desired RSSI value and Usable RSSI value?
4. The ____ the frequency, the ____the capacity to carry traffic but the ___ the range.
5. What is EIRP?
6. What is FSPL?
7. RF Link budget does not take into account:
8. Which communications system uses a beam of radio waves?
9. Microwave communication system transmits electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in
the range_____, hence the name ‘Micro’ waves.
10. What are the applications of microwave radio transmission?
11. Short haul communication has higher capacity. (True/False)
12. The ___ converts data from the IDU into an RF signal for transmission.
13. ODU parameters are configured and monitored through:
14. 1+0 configuration has ____ ODU, generally connected directly to the microwave antenna.
15. What are the functions of IDU?
16. Microwave antenna diameters includes:
17. Different frequency channels in same frequency band can share one antenna. (True/False)
18. In microwave networks, for cabling, what are the common options available?
19. Longer microwave links require larger-wavelength. (True/False)
20. What does Microwave link installation includes?
21. Which topology consists of a central base station that supports several subscriber stations?
22. What is Mesh Access Point and Root Access Point?
23. The optimum distance (in feet) that should exist between the root access point (RAP) and the
mesh access point (MAP) is called:
24. With a link data rate at 54 Mbps, the maximum throughput is about ______in a point-to-point link.
25. The wireless link uses a technology called Wireless Distribution System (WDS)
bridging, which dedicates a radio to communicate with one or more other radios, specified by the
______of the remote radio(s).
26. What should be the optimal RSSI to achieve the highest possible data rates in point-to-
(multi)point applications?

-----------End of the Module----------

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 MODULE 9
BASIC ELECTRICAL SYSTEM AND
POWER PROTECTION

Section 1: Learning Outcomes

After completing this module, you will be able to:

 Define the term Transient Overvoltage.
 Describe the Causes and Effects of Power Surge.
 Explain working mechanism of various Types of Surge Protection Devices (SPDs).
 Draw connection diagram of SPDs.
 Explain the use of Surge Protector and Surge Arrestor.
 Clarify the Concept, Purpose and Advantages of Earthing.
 Explain the technique of Integrated System Grounding.
 Demonstrate various Methods of Earthing.
 Compare Types and Connections of Batteries used in Telecom Power System.
 Explain the significance and operation of -48V and +24V Telecom Power System.

Section 2: Relevant Knowledge

9.1 Introduction to Power Surge
Transient Overvoltages
 Transient overvoltages are defined as short duration surges of electricity which occur due to the
sudden release of energy previously-stored or induced by other means.
 Transient overvoltages can be either:
o Naturally occurring
o Man-made
 Man-made transients appear due to switching of motors and transformers, along with some types
of lighting.
 Natural transient overvoltages occur due
to indirect lightning strikes most likely to
happen due to a direct lightning strike on
an adjacent overhead power or telephone
line causing the transient overvoltage to
travel along the lines, which can cause
significant damage to the electrical
installation and associated equipment.

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What is Power Surge?
 In general, a surge is a transient wave of current, voltage or power in an electric circuit.
 Power surges are abnormally high voltage spikes riding on the AC Power.
 Power surges occur when the flow of electricity is interrupted, then started again, or when
something sends electricity flowing back into the system.
 Surges can range from five or ten volts when you turn on your hair dryer to thousands of volts if
lightning strikes a transformer.
 Power surges that originate outside the premises are referred to as “externally generated surges”.
Those that originate inside the premises are referred to as “internally generated surges”.

 Various types of surge voltages occur in electrical plants and electronic systems.
 They are differentiated mainly by their duration and power.
 Depending on the cause, a surge voltage can last a few hundred microseconds, hours or even
days.
 The amplitude can range from
a few millivolts to some ten
thousand volts. The direct or
indirect consequences of
lightning strikes are one
particular cause of surge
voltages.

External - atmospheric over-voltage (lightning)

Both direct strikes to structure and indirect strikes near structure (up to 1km away).

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 Causes of Power Surge
 Lightning Strikes
 Switching Operations
 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)
 Electric Utilities (Motor, Lifts, Air Con, Transformers, etc.)
 Internal Loads of Electric Line

Surge voltages can reach a circuit in various ways. In reality, it is usually a case of an overlap between
individual coupling types.

Galvanic coupling: Two circuits that are connected to each other in an electrically conductive way
can directly and mutually influence each other. A change in the voltage or current in a circuit generates
a corresponding reaction in another circuit.

Inductive coupling: A rapidly rising flow of current through a conductor generates a magnetic field,
with quickly changing strengths around the conductor. If another conductor is located in this magnetic
field, then according to the induction principle, a voltage difference occurs here due to the change in
the magnetic field strength.

Capacitive coupling: An electrical field occurs between two points with different potentials. The
charge carriers of objects within this field are aligned according to the field direction and strength, in
line with the physical principle of influence. As such, a potential difference also occurs within the
object, in other words, a voltage difference.

Power Surge Effects

During the surge voltage, high surge currents with amplitudes of up to some ten thousand amperes
can occur. In this case, the consequences are particularly serious.

 Disruption – Loss of data, RCD’s tripping

 Degradation – Reduced equipment lifespan (~95% cases). Components weakened, until
unexplained equipment failure
 Damage – Immediate loss of equipment (~5% cases)

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Equipment typically vulnerable to Power Surge
Computer
 Alarms
 Sensors
 Telecom Devices such as Switches, Routers etc.
 Base Station Equipment
 Cameras

9.2 Surge Protection Devices (SPDs)

 Surge Protection Devices (SPDs) diverts surge currents and limit over-voltages, survive and
repeatedly protect personnel, buildings and equipment.
 A surge protective device functions in the same way as a switch that turns off the surge voltage for
a brief time.
 By doing so, a sort of short circuit
occurs; surge currents can flow to
ground or to the supply network.
 The voltage difference is thereby
restricted. This short circuit of
sorts only lasts for the duration of
the surge voltage event, typically a
few microseconds.
 The equipment to be protected is
thereby safeguarded and
continues to work unaffected.

Surge protective devices are installed either in parallel to the equipment, between the active
conductors themselves or between the active conductors and the protective conductor.

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Types of SPDs
Type 1 SPD (LINE SIDE)
 Installed at the origin, e.g. main distribution board.
 Permanently Connected SPD – Installation between the secondary of the service transformer and
the LINE side of the service disconnect over current device, as well as the LOAD side, including
watt-hour meter socket enclosures. (Not exceeding 1000V)

Type 2 SPD (LOAD SIDE)

 Installed at sub-distribution boards.
 Permanently Connected SPD intended for installation on the LOAD side of the service disconnect
over current device, including SPDs located at the branch panel.
 Combined Type 1 & 2 SPDs are available and are usually installed in consumer units.

Type 3 SPD
 Installed close to the protected load. They must only be installed as a supplement to Type 2 SPD.
 Point of utilization SPDs, installed a minimum of 10 meters (30 feet) from the electrical service
panel, for example cord connected, direct plug-in (DPI), receptacle type and SPDs installed at the
utilization equipment being protected.

Type 4 SPD
 Component SPDs, including discrete components as well as component assemblies.

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SPD Connection Diagram

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Surge Arrestors
 A surge arrester is defined as: "A protective device for limiting
surge voltages by discharging or bypassing surge current, and
it also prevents the flow of current while remaining capable of
repeating these functions".
 Surge arresters are usually installed in the substations to
protect the equipment by eliminating the effects of lightning and
switching over-voltages.
 A surge arrester usually contains a ground terminal as well as a
high-voltage terminal. When an electric surge occurs, the
surge arrestor sends the high voltage current directly to the
insulation or to the ground to prevent the system damage.
 A surge arrester is connected in parallel with the equipment that
needs to be protected.

Surge Protector

 The main job of a surge protector system is to protect

electronic devices from "surges". A surge protector
attempts to limit the voltage supplied to an electric device
by either blocking or shorting current to reduce the
voltage to a safe threshold.
 A surge protector allows the electrical current to flow from
the outlet to a number of electrical and electronic devices
plugged into the power strip. If the voltage from the outlet
surges or spikes rises above the accepted level, the surge
protector diverts the extra electricity into the grounding
wire.
 In most of the surge protectors, Metal Oxide Varistor
(MOV) are used to divert the extra voltage.

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Surge Protectors for Telecom and Data Networks
Below shown surge protectors are designed to protect, against surge voltages dues to lightning,
terminals equipment connected to industrial buses, telecom lines or datalines.

Below SPD is designed to protect, against surge voltages, terminals connected to telephone or data
networks.

The RJ family of surge protectors devices are designed to protect sensitive digital devices connected
to the analog telephone lines (PSTN) (ISDN) or ADSL against surges. They are equipped with RJ11
or RJ45 connectors.
Antenna SPD is designed for receiving/transmitting a system of RF, avoiding destruction result from
lightning over-voltage, induced over-voltage, and static discharge, mainly including satellite aerial,
microwave, mobile communication, intercommunication system, radar antenna, etc.
Antenna protector categories:
1. Gas discharge tube surge protector: Designed for antenna coaxial device and receive/transmit
system not to be spoiled by lightning over-voltage, induced over-voltage, and static discharge.
2. File RF protector
3. Quarter-wave stub RF protector: Quarter Wave RF Protector is designed for the RF system,
protecting the signal line of communication equipment from lightning over-voltage, induced over-
voltage, induced over-voltage, and operation over-voltage, widely applied in RF circuit protection
of wireless coverage, base station, etc.

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Applications of Antenna Lightning Protector
 Antenna arrester is suitable for lightning protection of all kinds of RF signal receiving and
transmitting system.
 Antenna protector is suitable for wireless Transmission of Network signal and Protection of
Interface equipment.
 Antenna surge arrester is suitable for protection of Wireless transmitting and receiving equipment
of Industrial Control signal.
 Antenna surge protector is suitable for protection of satellite TV receiving equipment.
 Antenna surge suppressor is suitable for protection of Wireless transmitting and receiving
equipment of Monitoring signal.
9.3 Concept of Earthing
 The process of connecting metallic bodies of all the electrical apparatus and equipment to huge
mass of earth by a wire having negligible resistance is called Earthing.
 In this process immediate discharge of the electrical energy is directly transmitted to the earth by
the help of the low resistance wire. The electrical earthing is done by connecting the non-current
carrying part of the equipment or neutral of supply system to the ground.
 Mostly, the galvanised iron is used for the earthing.
 The earthing provides the simple path to the leakage current.
 The shortcircuit current of the equipment passes to the earth which has zero potential. Thus,
protects the system and equipment from damage.

Purpose of Earthing
 To save human life from danger of electrical shock or death by blowing a fuse i.e. To provide an
alternative path for the fault current to flow so that it will not endanger the user
 To protect buildings, machinery & appliances under fault conditions i.e. to ensure that all exposed
conductive parts do not reach a dangerous potential.
 To provide safe path to dissipate lightning and short circuit currents.
 To provide stable platform for operation of sensitive electronic equipment i.e. To maintain the
voltage at any part of an electrical system at a known value so as to prevent over current or
excessive voltage on the appliances or equipment.
 To provide protection against static electricity from friction.
 It is a statutory requirement as per Indian Electricity Rule 1956.
Advantages of Earthing
 Freedom from Electric Shock
 Human Safety including Plants and Animals
 Protection from Voltage due to Lightening Surges
 Avoid Damage to the Equipment
 Contribute to the Better Performance of the Equipment

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9.4 Integrated Earthing System
 Integrated earthing means that all of the different earthing functions are integrated into a single
system: the so-called ‘earthing grid’.
 An Integrated Earthing System (Earthing Grid) aims to protect digital/electronic equipment against
the effects of severe electric and magnetic disturbances.
 This earthing grid provides a single metal matrix for the entire facility.

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Protective Earthing (Humans)
a. Conducting fault currents back to the power source without introducing the risk of local overheating
that might lead to fire.
b. Protection against indirect contact:
 Indirect contact occurs when a person
touches a conductive (metal) part which is
normally not live, but which has become
live due to a fault in the insulation.
 It also requires the use of a Residual
Current Device (RCD) and equipotential
bonding.
 Equipotential bonding is the connection
with each other of all conductive parts of
the electrical system and conductive parts
extraneous to the electrical system, and
subsequently connecting this bonding
network to the protective earthing network.
Functional Earthing (Equipment)
 Ensuring electromagnetic compatibility (EMC).
 All electric and electronic devices send out electromagnetic signals (waves). Electromagnetic
compatibility is ensured when those signals do not disturb the proper functioning of other electronic
devices.
 Although the requirements for these different aspects are often specified separately, the
implementation requires an integrated systems approach, as the solution for one aspect might
influence the proper and efficient functioning of another solution.

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Lightning Protection (Humans and Equipment)
 Conduct lightning currents to the earth without introducing any risk of electrocution or overheating.
 Prevent direct fires, flashovers. or explosions caused by a lightning strike.
 The earthing arrangement connected to the lightning arrester’s copper strip must not be connected
to the earthing arrangement made for the electrical installation earthing.
 The copper trip should be laid in such a way that it does not come in contact with the building.

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9.5 Methods of Earthing
Types of Earthing
The electrical equipment mainly consists of two non-current carrying parts. These parts are neutral of
the system or frame of the electrical equipment. From the earthing of these two non-current carrying
parts of the electrical system earthing can be classified into two types:
 Neutral Earthing
 Equipment Earthing

Neutral Earthing
 In neutral earthing, the neutral of the system is directly connected to earth by the help of the GI
wire.
 The neutral earthing is also called the system earthing.
 Such type of earthing is mostly provided to the system which has star winding. For example, the
neutral earthing is provided in the generator, transformer, motor etc.

Equipment Earthing
 Such type of earthing is provided to the electrical equipment.
 The non-current carrying part of the equipment like their metallic frame is connected to the earth
by the help of the conducting wire.
 If any fault occurs in the apparatus, the short-circuit current to pass the earth by the help of wire.
Thus, protect the system from damage.

Earthing Procedure
Step 1 - Measurement of Electrical Resistivity

Step 2 - Select the Type of Earthing Method

Step 3 - Boring Work / Excavation

Step 4 - Installation of Earth Electrode

Step 5 - Backfill with Homogenous Mix of Coal and Salt

Step 6 - Measurement of Earth Resistance Value

Earthing Electrode
The resistance of a ground electrode has 3 basic
components:
A) The resistance of the ground electrode itself and
the connections to the electrode.
B) The contact resistance of the surrounding earth
to the electrode.
C) The resistance of the surrounding body of earth
around the ground Electrode. It consists of three
basic components:
1. Earth Wire
2. Connector
3. Electrode

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Important Terms
 Earth:
The connection of an electrical installation through a conductor to another conductor buried in earth.

 Solidly Earthed:
An electrical installation or appliance is said to be solidly earthed when it is connected to earth
conductor/wire directly without using a circuit breaker, fuse, impedance or any other safety devices
or elements.

 Earth Electrode:
A conductor buried in earth for the purpose of electrical earthing is known as earth electrode. The
shape of the earth electrode may vary from conductive rod, conductive plate, metal water pipe or any
other conductor with low resistance. Earth electrodes are made of copper, galvanised iron, cast iron
etc.

 Soil Resistivity:
It is measured during the Geotechnical Process plays important Role to decide the number Earth
Electrodes. The Soil Resistivity generally varies from 10 Ohm Mtr to >300 Ohm Mtr.

 Earth Lead
The conductive strip or wire that connects an electrical installation or appliance to the earth electrode
is called Earth Lead. Earth lead can be of copper, galvanized iron etc.
 Earth Continuity Conductors
They are the conductors used for connecting the earth lead to various electrical appliances and
devices such as distribution boards, electrical sockets, appliances etc. It may be in the form of flexible
wire, cable metallic covering or metallic pipe.

 Sub Main Earthing Conductor

The wire connecting the distribution board to various switch boards. Flexible wires are used as sub
main earthing conductor.

 Earth Resistance
The resistance between the earth and earth electrode is called earth resistance. The Unit of Earth
Resistance is Ohms. It is the resistance of earth electrode, earth lead, earth continuity conductor and
earth added up algebraically. The earth resistance is measured using Earth Megger.

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Earth Continuity Conductor
 The conductor that connects all metallic part of the electrical installation like the conduit, metallic
shells, ducts, plug sockets, distribution boxes, fuses, controlling and regulating devices, metallic
parts of transformers, motors, generators etc. and the metallic framework where the electrical
components are installed.
 The earth continuity conductor’s resistance must be very low.
 As per IEEE rules, the resistance between the consumer earth terminal and the earth continuity
conductor must be less and 1 ohms.

Earth Continuity Conductor (bare copper conductor) Earth Continuity

Conductor (Cable)

 The size of these conductors depends on the size of the cable used for the wiring circuit.
 The cross-sectional area of the earth wire must be less than half of the cross-sectional area of the
thickest wire used in the electrical wiring installation.
 Generally, the size of the copper wire used as earth continuity conductor is 3SWG.
 Earth wires smaller than 14SWG must not be used. In certain situations, copper strips are used
instead of bare copper conductor.
Earthing Lead or Earthing Joint
 The conductor connecting the earth continuity conductor and the earth electrode is called earthing
lead or earthing joint.
 The point where the earthing lead meets the earth continuity conductor meet is called connecting
point.
 The earthing lead must be straight, lower in size and must have minimum number of joints.
 Eventhough copper wires are generally used as earthing lead, copper strips are preferred for high
installation as it can carry higher values of fault current due to its wider area.
 Hard drawn bare copper wires are also used as earthing lead. In that case all earthing conductors
are connected to the connecting point and the earthing lead is used to connect earth electrode to
the connecting point.

Copper strip used as Earthing Lead Galvanised iron strip used as

Earthing Lead

 To provide increased protection to the electrical installations, two copper wires are used as earthing
lead to connect the equipment’s metal body to earth electrode or earth plate. If there are 2 earth
electrode there should be 4 earthing leads.

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Earthing Electrode or Earth Plate
 Earth electrode or Earth plate is buried underground and
connected to the earthing lead.
 Earth electrode can be in the form of metallic rod, pipe or
plate which has very low resistance in order to carry the
fault current to the ground safely.
 The earth electrode can be of copper or iron (galvanized)
and must be buried in moist ground.
 The earth electrode is always put in the vertical position.
 Layers of charcoal lime and salt is put around the earth
electrode or earth plate.
 This helps in increasing the size of the earth electrode and
also helps in maintaining moisture around the earth
electrode or plate.
Methods of Earthing
 Plate Earthing
 Pipe Earthing
 Rod Earthing
 Chemical Earthing
Plate Earthing
 In this type of earthing plate either of copper or of G.I. is buried into the ground at a depth of not
less than 3 meter from the ground level.
 The earth plate is embedded in alternative layer of coke and salts for a minimum thickness of about
15cm.
 The earth wire (copper wire for copper plate earthing and G.I. wire for G.I. plate earthing) is
securely bolted to an earth plate with the help of bolt nut and washer made of copper, in case of
copper plate earthing and of G.I. in case of G.I. plate earthing.

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Pipe Earthing
 Pipe earthing is performed using GI pipe embedded
vertically in ground to work as earth electrode but the
depth depend upon the soil conditions.
 The earth wire is fastened to the top section of the
pipe with nut and bolts.
 The pit area around the GI pipe filled with salt and
coal mixture for improving the soil conditions and
efficiency of the earthing system.
 The earth wire connection with GI pipes being above
the ground level can be checked for carrying out
continuity test as and when desired, while in plate earthing it is difficult.
 In summer season to have an effective earthing three or four bucket of water is put through the
funnel for better continuity of earthing.

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Rod Earthing
 In this system of earthing solid rods of copper or GI or steel or hollow section of 25mm GI pipe of
length not less than 3 meters are driven vertically into the earth.
 In order to increase the embedded length of electrode under the ground, which is some time
necessary to reduce the earth resistance to desired value, more than one rod section is hammered
one above the other.
 This system of earthing is suitable for area which are sandy in character.

Three Point Grounding Rod

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Chemical Earthing
 In Chemical Earthing chemicals are added to earthing pits such as bentonite or graphite-based
compounds used that helps in improving the condition of the soil and reducing the soil resistivity.
 Chemicals are used in this earthing type to lower earthing resistance. They are maintenance free
and have minimum fluctuations and are eco friendly.
 Two types of powders are used in chemical earthing. One is Carbon powder and the other is
Bentonite powder.
 Carbon powder is black in color while bentonite powder is brown in color. Earthing with carbon
powder is used in a normal place while earthing with bentonite powder is used in a dry place.

The Material Used in Chemical Earthing:

Many materials are used while doing chemical earthing, the names of the main 7 of these materials
are as follows:
 Earth Electrode
 Reducing socket
 Funnel
 G.I. Nut (G.I nut)
 Carbon powder / Bentonite powder
 S.W.G. Copper Wire (S.W.G copper wire)
 Wire mesh
 A deep pit is first dug by an electrode for chemical earthing. After digging the pit, a little bit of water
is sprinkled in it.
 The pit is then filled with 40% to 50% chemical powder and the electrode is properly set in it.
 The end of the electrode is kept a little out of the hole so the reason for keeping it out is that the
earthing wire can be easily attached to it.
 The remaining pit is then filled with chemical powder, after which the earth wire is connected to
the reducing socket of the earth electrode.
 The reducing socket has new welding that we attach to the earthing wire.

Advantages of Chemical Earthing

The benefits of Chemical Earthing are as follows:
 Reduces the resistance of the soil.
 It does not need water like earthing like salt and coal so it is also called maintenance-free earthing.
 Chemical earthing life is longer.
 It gives us stable earth resistance in all seasons.

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9.6 Batteries in Telecom Power System
Introduction to Batteries
 Batteries convert chemical energy directly into electrical
energy.
 Batteries used in telecom are manufactured with aim of
powering telecom, and electrical devices.
 The batteries used in telecom sector are mainly two types:
 Lead acid battery
 Li-ion battery
 The majority of batteries used in the telecom industry are
Lead-Acid type.

Volt or Voltage (V):

 The number of volts is the amount of energy given to an electronic circuit.
 A battery always has a fixed voltage (e.g. 12, 24, or 36 volts) and a device always works at a
certain voltage.
 For example, a device that works on 12 volts obviously needs a battery that also supplies 12V.

Battery Capacity
 It is measured in Ah, or Amp-hours. This means how many amps the battery can deliver in an
hour.
 A12V lithium battery with a capacity of 100Ah can deliver 100A to a 12-volt device for one hour.
The same 100Ah battery could supply power for 4 hours (100/25=4) to a 25 ampere device.

Capacity – Watt-hour (Wh):

 Watt-hours (Wh) is calculated by multiplying the number of Amps with the battery voltage.
 A 12V100 (a 12 volt battery with a capacity of 100Ah) has a capacity of 12 x 100 = 1200Wh. A
24V50Ah battery has a capacity of 24 x 50 = 1200Wh.

Connecting in Series: Higher Voltage, Equal Number of Ah

 When we connect batteries in series, we connect the plus terminal of one battery to the minus
terminal of another battery.
 This means that we still have a minus terminal available on one battery and a plus terminal
available on the other battery. The electrical device should be connected to these two available
battery terminals.
 If we connect batteries in series, the voltage goes up, and the capacity measured in Ah remains
the same.
 In the picture above we see two 12V50Ah batteries.
 The two batteries are connected in series: the minus
and plus terminals are connected together. We have
created a 24V50 battery : 24V (due to series
connection) with 50Ah capacity (number of Amps
remains the same).
 If we measure the capacity in Watt-hours, the total
capacity is now 24 x 50 = 1200 Wh.

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Connecting in Parallel: Equal Voltage, Higher Number of Ah
 When connecting batteries in parallel, we connect the minus terminal
of one battery to the minus terminal of the other battery and the plus
terminal of one battery to the plus terminal of the other battery.
 We connect the minus wire of the equipment to one of the minus
terminals and the plus wire to the plus terminal of the other battery.
 The same voltage is now supplied but the number of Amps has
increased.
 There is still 12 Volt but the number of Amps has increased from 50
to 100. We have now created a 12V100Ah battery. If we measure the
capacity in Watt-hours, the total capacity is now 12 x 100 = 1200 Wh.
 So, the number of watt-hours always remains the same, whether you
connect them in series or parallel.

Lithium-ion Batteries
 Lithium-ion is a low maintenance, rechargeable battery.
 Li-ion cells use an intercalated lithium compound as the material.
 Li-ion batteries have definite technical
advantages in terms of power to weight to
volume ratio, absence of pollutants like acid
and lead.
 Li-ion batteries have more than double life
than of traditional lead-acid batteries and thus
help to cut cost.
 To power larger devices, such as electric cars, connecting many small batteries in a parallel circuit
is more effective and more efficient than connecting a single large battery.
 Life of a lithium-ion battery is typically defined as the number of full charge-discharge cycles to
reach a failure threshold in terms of capacity loss or impedance rise.

Anatomy of Li-ion Battery

 The cathode, or negative electrode, is the source of the lithium ions. The type of cathode you have
determines the voltage and capacity of the battery.
 The anode, or positive electrode, stores and releases lithium ions generated by the cathode. This
allows the passage of current through the external circuit.
 The separator, prevents contact between the cathode and the anode.
 The electrolyte, the medium through which the lithium ions move.

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Advantages:
 Highest energy densities
 Li-ion battery cells can deliver up to 3.6 Volts, 3 times higher than technologies such as Ni-Cd or
Ni-MH. This means that they can deliver large amounts of current for high-power applications.
 Li-ion batteries are also comparatively low maintenance, and do not require scheduled cycling to
maintain their battery life.
 Li-ion batteries also have low self-discharge rate of around 1.5-2% per month.
 They do not contain toxic cadmium, which makes them easier to dispose of than Ni-Cd batteries.

Advantages of Li-ion Batteries for Telecom

 They power the telecom device whenever there is a power outage.
 They are durable with wide operation, temperature, storage and operation range.
 They have a high power density level.
 Lithium-ion telecom batteries are manufactured or made with no poisonous metals, making them
human-friendly.
 They have high voltage and can have over 4000 cycles life.
 They are environmental-friendly because lithium-ion batteries are manufactured with lesser
metals to avoid pollution. This ensures no harm is done to the devices using the batteries and to
humankind.

Disadvantages
 Li-ion batteries have a tendency to overheat.
 It can be damaged at high voltages.
 In some cases this can lead to thermal runaway and combustion.
 Li-ion batteries require safety mechanisms to limit voltage and internal pressures, which can
increase weight and limit performance in some cases.
 Li-ion batteries are also subject to aging, meaning that they can lose capacity and frequently fail
after a number of years.
 Cost is around 40% higher than Ni-Cd.

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Lead-Acid Batteries
 It is the first type of rechargeable battery ever
created.
 Lead-Acid batteries are an inexpensive design.
compared to Lithium-Ion.
 These batteries have lower energy density, meaning
that larger and heavier batteries are required to
produce the same power equivalence of a
smaller, Lithium-Ion battery.
 Valve-regulated (commonly referred to as sealed)

lead-acid batteries are normally used

as the backup power source for
telecom power systems, due to their
low operating costs.
 Lead–acid batteries have
relatively low energy density but
require some time to cool down after
being used for several hours.
 They have ability to supply
high surge currents means that the
cells have a relatively large power-to-
weight ratio.

Positive plate: This is covered with a paste of lead dioxide.

Negative plate: This is made of sponge lead.
Separator: This is an insulating material between the two plates, but it allows the electrolyte and the
ions into it to enable conduction without the two plates touching.
Electrolyte: This consists of water and sulphuric acid.

Advantages
 Relatively cheap to manufacture and buy (they provide the lowest cost per unit capacity for
rechargeable cells)
 They have a large current and surge capability.
 Tolerant to abuse.
 Tolerant of overcharging.
 Wide range of sizes and specifications available.

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Disadvantages
 Heavy and bulky.
 Corrosion of the external metal parts of the lead–acid battery results from a chemical reaction of
the battery terminals, plugs, and connectors.
 Low specific energy, strict on charging and discharging.

Battery Selection Criteria

 Ensure to check battery capacity: Telecom requires battery backup systems with high power
capacity to run the device smoothly. Therefore, you need to get a battery that can power your
appliances without any challenges.
 Ensure the battery has high power density, is durable, and the one that requires less maintenance.
 Look for batteries that take less time to charge and can be used for a long life span.
 You need to look for a battery that can run a big telecom industry with wide operating, storage
and temperature range.

Tips for Maintenance of Lead-Acid Batteries

 Charge in well ventilated area
 Don't store batteries in state of low charge
 Avoid "flattening" the battery
 Ensure battery plates are covered
 Do not over-fill
 Avoid charging at high temperatures
 Do not allow the battery to freeze

Important criteria while choosing battery backup

Among several kinds of lead acid batteries, some models are usually designed or chosen specially
for Telecom market to ensure maximum performance according to the load capacity. Here are some
important criteria while choosing battery:
 Special design comply with telecom 19''/ 23'' cabinet for space limitation
 Deep cycle ability and high cycle life
 Wide operating temperature range as well as high temperature sustainability
 Maintenance free battery for trouble free operation in remote site
 Negligible gassing
 Spill proof and leak proof
 Scalable
 Operation in any suitable position
 Compatible with off-grid energy storage system

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9.7 -48V and +24V Telecom Power System
-48V / +24V Power System
In the telecom system, the direct power supplies include:
 -48V/+24V rectification power supply
 UPS (uninterrupted power supply)
 Inverter power supply
Standby power supplies include:
 Valve regulated lead acid battery
 Diesel generator

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Significance of -48V Power Supply System
 The original telephone systems of the Bell Telephone company were powered from a -48VDC
infrastructure out of their central office locations.
 The reason for selecting that voltage has need that the voltage was enough to supply enough
power to telephone equipment through several kilometers of telephone copper cable, low enough
not to cause major electrical hazards and suitable for battery backup system.
 -48VDC is still the standard in communications facilities serving up both wired and wireless
services.
 -48VDC allows telecom operators to use 12-volt lead-acid batteries wired in series to act as a
backup power source in the event of a power failure.
Operation of Telecom Power Supply System
 The central office (CO) and wireless switches are run by a combination of AC powered rectifiers
and batteries.
 The batteries are rated at 48 volts DC and the rectifiers supply 52 volts DC.
 The rectifiers keep the batteries charged and power the CO equipment while the electric company
power flows.
 If the power fails, the batteries, which are "floating,” seamlessly take over the load.
 The communications equipment doesn't notice the difference, and everything keeps operating.
 When the power comes back, the rectifiers take over again and continue operating.
 In some ways, the entire facility is a large uninterruptible power supply.
Solar Telecom Power Supply System

 Negative 48VDC (-48V), or positive grounded, is selected for use because it is superior to positive
voltage.
 It prevents electrochemical reactions from destroying buried copper cables and rendering them
useless if they happen to get wet.
 Negative voltage also protects against sulfation on battery terminals.
 To connect negative voltage from a battery, we simply tie the positive terminal of the battery to
ground and the negative terminal of the battery to whatever part needs negative voltage.
 The battery string is comprised of 24 series-connected battery cells to make 48V. The battery
plants are normally designed to support the telecom load to a final battery voltage of 1.75~1.8V
per cell.

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 Section 3: Exercises
Exercise 1: Draw connection diagram of Surge Protection Device.

Exercise 2: Draw diagram of Integrated Earthing System.

Exercise 3: Draw connection diagram of various cases of Battery Bank with DG, PV and Grid Supply.

Exercise 4: Participate in group discussion on following topics:

a) Types of SPDs
b) Concept of Earthing
c) Integrated Earthing System
d) Types of Earthing and Earthing Procedures
e) Methods of Earthing
f) Comparison of LI-ion and Lead-Acid Batteries
g) -48V and +24V Telecom Power System

Section 4: Assessment Questionnaire

1. What is Transient overvoltage?

2. A ______ is a transient wave of current, voltage or power in an electric circuit.
3. What is Inductive and Capacitive Coupling?
4. What are the effects of Power Surge?
5. __________diverts surge currents and limit over-voltages, survive and repeatedly protect
personnel, buildings and equipment.
6. Surge protective devices are installed either in parallel to the equipment, between the active
conductors themselves or between the active conductors and the protective conductor.
(True/Fasle)
7. What is Surge Arrester?
8. A surge arrester usually contains a ________ terminal as well as a ______ terminal.
9. A surge arrester is connected in ______ with the equipment that needs to be protected.
10. What is Surge Protector?
11. What is Earthing?
12. What are advantages of Earthing?
13. What are three types of Integrated Earthing System?
14. A conductor buried in earth for the purpose of electrical earthing is known as:
15. What is unit of Earth Resistance?
16. The earth continuity conductor’s resistance must be very High. (True/False)
17. The cross-sectional area of the earth wire must be less than ____of the cross-sectional area of
the thickest wire used in the electrical wiring installation.
18. The earth electrode is always put in the vertical position. (True/False)
19. What are the methods of Earthing?
20. _______ is performed using GI pipe embedded vertically in ground to work as earth electrode
but the depth depend upon the soil conditions.
21. Two types of powders are used in chemical earthing. One is _______and the other is________.

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22. Earthing with carbon powder is used in a normal place while earthing with bentonite powder is
used in a dry place. (True/False)
23. What are the materials used in Chemical Earthing?
24. What are benefits of Chemical Earthing?
25. What are the two types of batteries used in telecom sector?
26. Battery Capacity is measured in:
27. What are advantages of Lead-acid Batteries?
28. Why -48V DC power supply is used in telecom?
29. To connect negative voltage from a battery, we simply tie the _____terminal of the battery to
______and the negative terminal of the battery to whatever part needs negative voltage.

-----------End of the Module----------

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 MODULE 10
QUALITY OF SERVICE (QoS)
Section 1: Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you will be able to:
 Define the term ‘Service Level Agreement’
 Draw SLA Life Cycle
 Explain Types and Components of SLA
 Describe SLA Performance Metrics
 Explain 80-20 Rule (Pareto Principle)
 Define Quality of Service (QoS)
 Measure QoS
 Tell the Risk of Losing QoS Clients
 Improve QoS in data and Fiber network

Section 2: Relevant Knowledge

10.1 Service Level Agreement (SLA)

SLA
A telecom SLA (service level agreement) defines a set of specific services tuned to the needs of a
given customer, along with quality parameters that can be technical (for example, measured service
availability) or organizational (such as reaction time or notification time).
 SLA stands for service-level agreement and is a document that defines the level of service
expected during an exchange between a receiver of service and a service provider.
 An SLA in telecom services can also define rate reductions and discounts that are applied when a
service provider fails to meet the desired service parameters or the terms of an agreement.
 An SLA is a commitment between a service provider and a client.
 Particular aspects of the service:
o Quality
o Availability
o Responsibilities
 SLA Monitoring allows telecom operators to define and monitor services and related SLAs, using
an SLA management process to increase customer satisfaction and minimize losses resulting from
SLA complaints.
SLA Vs SLC
 A service-level agreement (SLA) is a contract between a service provider and its customers that
document what services the provider will furnish and defines the service standards the provider is
obligated to meet.
 A service-level commitment (SLC) is a broader and more generalized form of an SLA.
The two differ because an SLA is bidirectional and involves two teams. In contrast, an SLC is a single-
directional obligation that establishes what a team can guarantee its customers at any given time.

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Importance of SLA
 Service providers need SLAs to help them manage customer expectations and define the severity
levels and circumstances under which they are not liable for outages or performance issues.
 Customers can also benefit from SLAs because the contract describes the performance
characteristics of the service which can be compared with other vendors' SLAs and sets forth the
means for redressing service issues.
 The SLA is typically one of two foundational agreements that service providers have with their
customers.
 Many service providers establish a master service agreement to establish the general terms and
conditions in which they will work with customers.

Types of SLA
There are three basic types of SLAs:
Customer
 A customer service-level agreement is between a service provider and its external customers. It is
sometimes called an external service agreement.
 The customer and service provider come to a negotiated agreement on the services that will be
provided.

Internal
 An internal SLA is between an organization and its internal customer -- this could be another
organization, department or site.

Multilevel service-level agreements

 A multilevel SLA will divide the agreement into various levels that are specific to a series of
customers using the service.
 For example, a software as a service (SaaS) provider might offer basic services and support to all
customers using a product, but they could also offer different price ranges when buying the product
that dictates different service levels. These different levels of service will be layered into the
multilevel SLA.

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Components of SLA
 Agreement overview: This first section sets forth the basics of the agreement, including the
parties involved, the start date and a general introduction of the services provided.
 Description of services: The SLA needs detailed descriptions of every service offered, under all
possible circumstances, with the turnaround times included. Service definitions should include how
the services are delivered, whether maintenance service is offered, what the hours of operation
are, where dependencies exist, an outline of the processes and a list of all technology and
applications used.
 Exclusions: Specific services that are not offered should also be clearly defined to avoid confusion
and eliminate room for assumptions from other parties.
 Service performance: Performance measurement metrics and performance levels are defined.
The client and service provider should agree on a list of all the metrics they will use to measure
the service levels of the provider.
 Redressing: Compensation or payment should be defined if a provider cannot properly fulfill their
SLA.
 Stakeholders: Clearly defines the parties involved in the agreement and establishes their
responsibilities.
 Security: All security measures that will be taken by the service provider are defined. Typically,
this includes the drafting and consensus on antipoaching, IT security and nondisclosure
agreements.
 Risk management and disaster recovery: Risk management processes and a disaster recovery
plan are established and clearly communicated.
 Service tracking and reporting: This section defines the reporting structure, tracking intervals
and stakeholders involved in the agreement.
 Periodic review and change processes: The SLA and all established key performance indicators
(KPIs) should be regularly reviewed. This process is defined as well as the appropriate process for
making changes.
 Termination process: The SLA should define the circumstances under which the agreement can
be terminated or will expire. The notice period from either side should also be established.
 Signatures: Finally, all stakeholders and authorized participants from both parties must sign the
document to show their approval of every detail and process.

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SLA Life Cycle

Telecom / Data Center SLA

Telecom/Data center SLA will include:

 An uptime guarantee that indicates the percentage of time the system is available:
Nothing less than a 99.99% uptime should be considered acceptable for modern, enterprise-level
data centers.
 A definition of proper environmental conditions:
This should include oversight and maintenance practices as well as heating and cooling standards.
 The promise of technical support:
Customers must be confident that data center staff will respond quickly and effectively to any problem,
and they will be available at any time to address it.

 Detailed security precautions that will keep the customer's assets secure:
This could include cybersecurity measures that protect against cyberattacks, as well as physical
security measures that restrict data center access to authorized personnel. Physical security features
could include two-factor authentication, gated entries, cameras and biometric authentication.

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SLA Performance Metrics
 Availability and uptime percentage:
The amount of time services are running and accessible to the customer. Uptime is generally tracked
and reported per calendar month or billing cycle.

 Specific performance benchmarks:

Actual performance will be periodically compared to these benchmarks.

 Service provider response time:

The time it takes the service provider to respond to a customer's issue or request. A larger service
provider may operate a service desk to respond to customer inquiries.

 Resolution time:
The time it takes for an issue to be resolved once logged by the service provider.

 Abandonment rate:
The percentage of queued calls customers abandon while waiting for answers.

 Business results:
Using KPIs to determine how service providers' contributions affect the performance of the business.

 Error rate:
The percentage of errors in a service, such as coding errors and missed deadlines.

 First-call resolution:
The percentage of incoming customer calls that are resolved without the need for a callback from the
help desk.

 Mean time to recovery:

The time it takes to recover after a service outage.

 Security:
The number of undisclosed vulnerabilities, for example. If an incident occurs, service providers should
demonstrate that they've taken preventive measures.

 Time service factor:

The percentage of queued calls customer service representatives answer within a given time frame.

 Turnaround time:
The time it takes for a service provider to resolve a specific issue once it has been received.

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SLAs and Indemnification Clauses
 An indemnification is a contractual obligation made by one party, the indemnitor, to redress the
damages, losses and liabilities experienced by another party, the indemnitee, or by a third party.
 Within an SLA, an indemnification clause will require the service provider to acknowledge that the
customer is not responsible for any costs incurred through violations of contract warranties.
 The indemnification clause will also require the service provider to pay the customer for any
litigation costs from third parties that resulted from the contract breach. To limit the scope of
indemnifications, a service provider can:
o Consultant an attorney
o Limit the number of indemnitees
o Establish monetary caps for the clause
o Create time limits
o Define the point at which the responsibility of indemnification starts
Penalties
The SLA penalties are disciplinary measures that exist to ensure the terms of the contract are
maintained. These penalties differ from contract to contract. They are as follows:
 Service availability:
Includes factors such as network uptime, data center resources and database availability. Penalties
should be added as deterrents against service downtime, which could negatively affect the business.
 Service quality:
Involves performance guarantee, the number of errors allowed in a product or service, process gaps
and other issues that pertain to quality.
In addition to service credits, there could be:
 Financial penalties:
Requiring the vendor to reimburse the customer the amount of damages agreed upon in the contract.
 License extension or support:
Requires the vendor to extend the term of the license or offer the customer additional support without
charge. This could include development and maintenance.
10.2 80-20 Rule
Pareto Principle
 The Pareto principle, also known as the 80/20 rule, is a theory maintaining that 80 percent of the
output from a given situation or system is determined by 20 percent of the input.
 For many outcomes, roughly 80% of consequences come from 20% of causes.
 The 80-20 rule prioritizes the 20% of factors that will produce the best results.
 A principle of the 80-20 rule is to identify an entity's best assets and use them efficiently to create
maximum value.
 This rule is a precept, not a hard-and-fast mathematical law.
 People sometimes mistakenly conclude that if 20% of factors should get priority, then the other
80% can be ignored.

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80-20 Rule of Users and Payments
 80% of revenue comes from 20% of your customers.
 80% of your sales comes from 20% of your products.
 80% of your support tickets come from 20% of your customers.

80-20 Rule of Equipment Maintenance

 The 80/20 rule is the ideal ratio for effective equipment management.
 It is used in two ways:
o Your maintenance personnel spend at least 80% of their time on preventative, proactive
maintenance and 20% or less of their time in unplanned repairs.
o No more than 20% of your equipment uses more than 80% of your maintenance time or
budget. (Imagine your car, for example. While the body, interior and trunk, electrical,
and cooling systems – the 80% — usually require very little maintenance or repair, the
transmission and other moving parts – the 20% — require regular maintenance).

By using an efficient CMMS (Computerized Maintenance Management System) that ensures

equipment is optimized using the 80/20 rule, maintenance team can simply and easily schedule
their time, energy and resources working on keeping your equipment in good repair, while greatly
reducing unplanned stoppages on your production line.

What 20% of support issues drive 80% of your ticket volume?

 If you work on Helpdesk, you may find that 80% of your tickets are from general inquiries or simple
customer updates. Or you may find that 80% of your tickets are related to a few key aspects of
your product. Identifying these trends will help inform what actions you need to take to reduce ticket
volume.
 This means that 20% of your efforts to lower ticket volume are going to drive the majority of the
change.
 Instead of trying to tackle a wide range of opportunities, you should strategically focus your efforts
on a few key areas.
 To reduce volume for common support tickets like account updates and questions, try introducing
self-service options or improving your knowledge base.
 If you’re seeing a large volume of follow-up questions on existing tickets, focusing on improving
communication and setting clear expectations can reduce the need for customers to ask those
follow-up questions.

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10.3 Importance and Improvement of Quality of Service (QoS)
What is Quality of Service (QoS)

“Quality is Everyone’s Responsibility and We Never Have to Stop Getting Better”

Quality is the standard of something as measured against other things of a similar kind. It is the degree
of excellence of doing something

⌂ Doing things First Time Right (FTR) successfully

⌂ Delivering what is promised

 Quality of service (QoS) is a qualitative measurement of the

overall performance of services like telephony, computer
networks, and cloud computing.
 QoS may also refer to the set of technologies and strategies that organizations deploy, aimed at
optimizing network traffic in order to improve the user experience of their apps.
 Quality of service (QoS) attempts to measure, maintain, improve, and guarantee in transmission
performance.
 QoS is the use of mechanisms or technologies that work on a network to control traffic and ensure
the performance of critical applications with limited network capacity.
 Common services for which it is required include internet protocol television (IPTV), online gaming,
streaming media, videoconferencing, video on demand (VOD), and Voice over IP (VoIP).
 The key goal is to enable networks and organizations to prioritize traffic, which includes offering
dedicated bandwidth, controlled jitter, and lower latency.
 The technologies used to ensure this are vital to enhancing the performance of business
applications, wide-area networks (WANs), and service provider networks.

Categories of Services
The ITU has defined four different categories of services. Each with it's own quality of service
associated to it:
Conversational
 Temporal relation preserved
 Weak and rigorous delays
 Services: Telephony, videotelephony, real time video games

Streaming
 Temporal relation preserved
 Services: Multimedia services
Interactive
 Demand of response
 Data integrity preserved
 Services: Internet (web browsing)
Background
 No restraints on delays
 Data integrity preserved
 Services: E-mail

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Measurement of Quality of Service (QoS)
Quality of Service (QoS) monitors four key measurements:

Bandwidth or throughput:
Bandwidth is the measure of the theoretical
amount of data that can be sent, whereas
throughput is the actual amount of data sent
and received.
Latency or delay:
Latency measures the overall time it takes
for data or a request to be sent and received.
Jitter or variance in latency:
This is the average of the variance of delays
between data packets in a transmission.
Error rate:
Signifies the degree of errors in a
transmission, this is closely associated with packet loss.
To improve the network service quality, ensure the bandwidth of transmission links, and reduce
packet transmission delay, jitter, and packet loss rate.
Risk of Losing QoS Clients
The network operates without quality-of-service technology could negatively impacts the business
operations:
 Provide no guarantee services to customers.
 No creditability and less reliability.
 No guarantee profits.
 Lost to competitors compare to the same services offered in the market.
 Deliver Less or no customer satisfactions.
 Longer outages and downtime (as it takes time to figure out the problem, fixing the problem and
get the network backup).
 More time dwelling into answering phone calls, explaining to the customers.
 More complaints from the customer, the key state holder, the shared business.
 Reputation loss
 Poor sustainability
The network operates with quality-of-service technology could positively added tremendous benefits
and values to business operations:
 Provide guarantee services to customers.
 Increase the company’s reputation, creditability and increase reliability.
 Guarantee profits.
 Offer reliable and better services to competitors compare to the same services offered in the
market.
 Increase customer satisfactions.
 Attract more business development with different partners (if you network is operating flawlessly
with no issues, there is chance that other people would like to do business with your company).
 Better reputation, better images to the company, as results increasing in company’s values.
 Less or no human intervention, QoS will make smart decision based on different class of traffics.

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How to Improve QoS?
There are several techniques that businesses can use to guarantee the high performance:

Prioritization of delay-sensitive traffic via routers and switches:

 Prioritization enables traffic to be classified and receive different priorities depending on its type
and destination.
 This is particularly useful in a situation of high congestion, as packets with higher priority can be
sent ahead of other traffic.

Resource reservation:
 The Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) is a transport layer protocol that reserves resources
across a network and can be used to deliver specific levels of QoS for application data streams.
 Resource reservation enables businesses to divide network resources by traffic of different types
and origins, define limits, and guarantee bandwidth.

Queuing:
 Queues are high-performance memory buffers in routers and switches, in which packets passing
through are held in dedicated memory areas.
 When a packet is assigned higher priority, it is moved to a dedicated queue that pushes data at a
faster rate, which reduces the chances of it being dropped.
 For example, businesses can assign a policy to give voice traffic priority over the majority of
network bandwidth. The routing or switching device will then move this traffic’s packets and frames
to the front of the queue and immediately transmit them.

How to Improve QoS?

Traffic marking:
 When applications that require priority over other bandwidth on a network have been identified, the
traffic needs to be marked.
 This is possible through processes like Class of Service (CoS), which marks a data stream in the
Layer 2 frame header, and Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP), which marks a data stream
in the Layer 3 packet header.

 Ensure that maximum bandwidth limits at the source interface and security policy are not set too
low to prevent excessive packet discard.
 Consider the ratio at which packets are distributed between available queues and which queues
are used by which services. This can affect latency levels, queue distribution, and packet
assignment.
 Only place bandwidth guarantees on specific services. This will avoid the possibility of all traffic
using the same queue in high-volume situations.
 Configure prioritization for all traffic through either type of service-based priority or security policy
priority, not both. This will simplify analysis and troubleshooting.
 Try to minimize the complexity of QoS configuration to ensure high performance.
 To get accurate testing results, use the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and do not oversubscribe
bandwidth throughput.

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Ways to improve QoS in Fiber Networking:
 Upkeep of the Fiber Connections
 Upkeep of Equipment (Mux, Transponders, Switches etc.)
 Adherence of scheduled Preventive Maintenance
 Regular Power System checks
 Strict Alarm Monitoring
 Quick resolution of fiber cuts and Outage Errors (Aggressive Fault Handing)
 Timely and True Reporting of faults and errors in network
 Timely Reporting of Equipment Failure
 Proper Co-ordination with team

Section 3: Exercises
Exercise 1: Draw SLA Life Cycle.

Exercise 2: Participate in group discussion on following topics:

a) Importance, Types and Components of SLA
b) SLA Performance Metrics
c) 80-20 Rule (Pareto Principle)
d) Measurement of QoS
e) How to improve QoS

Section 4: Assessment Questionnaire

1. What is SLA?
2. An SLA is a commitment between a _____ and a _____.
3. What are the types of SLA?
4. Enlist SLA performance metrics.
5. An ___________ is a contractual obligation made by one party, the indemnitor, to redress the
damages, losses and liabilities experienced by another party, the indemnitee, or by a third
party.
6. What is Pareto Principle?
7. What is 80-20 rule for for effective equipment management?
8. What is Quality of Service (QoS)?
9. Name four measurements of QoS.
10. How to improve QoS?

-----------End of the Module----------

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 MODULE 11
PHOTONICS SWITCHING AND OTN
Section 1: Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you will be able to:
 Explain the concept of Higher-Order Density (FWM) of DWDM Deployments
 Describe the technique of Out-of-Band network restoration by DCN
 Comprehend DWDM Alarms and Indicators
 Monitor the DWDM system performance
 Features of HP OpenView and Network Node Manager –i (NNMi)
 Define the term Right Of Way (RoW)
 Explain the technique of Micro-trenching and Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD)
 Splice the Fiber with adhering to Safety
 Perform Preventive, Corrective and Planned Event Maintenance

Section 2: Relevant Knowledge

11.1 Higher-Order Density of DWDM Deployments
Four Wave Mixing (FWM)
Four-wave mixing (FWM) is an intermodulation phenomenon in non-linear optics, whereby
interactions between two or three wavelengths produce two or one new wavelengths. It can cause
cross-talk between different wavelength channels, and/or an imbalance of channel powers.

FWM is the interaction of two or more wavelengths (channels) which results in sidebands (or ghost
channels) and is caused by non-linear effects.

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 When two input signals located at W1 and W2 traverse fiber of length (L), it will produce outputs
at four frequencies located at W1, W2, 2W1-W2 and 2W2-W1. The sidebands can coincide with
other channels resulting in distortion.

 FWM can be expressed as follows:

FWM ~ { Power4 / (Dispersion2 x Effective Area2 x Channel Spacing4) }

Generation of fourth wave when three channels are provided as input to the nonlinear fiber device
or component. As shown, it produces fourth component equal to w1+w2-w3
Four Wave Mixing (FWM)
Effects of Four-wave Mixing
Four Wave Mixing is one of the most troublesome issues in optical domain. It produces unwanted
spurious components which cause following problems:
 Produces interference between wanted optical signals.
 Produces additional noise which degrades the performance of the optical system.
 Some power will be lost from wanted wavelengths to the unwanted ones.
 As mentioned in above equation, if number of channels increases then mixing products at the
output increases rapidly.
Photonics of FWM

 The effect on DWDM channels can be similar to noise if a number of channels are used.
 Nonlinear effects are important even at moderate powers and bit rates, at higher bit rates such as
10 Gb/s and above and/or at higher transmitted powers, it is important to consider the effect of
nonlinearities.
 Nonlinear effect happens because of interaction of light waves with phonons (molecular vibrations)
in the silica medium of optical fiber, other nonlinear effects are caused by the dependence of
refractive index on the intensity of the optical power (applied electric field).
 On the other hand, four-wave mixing may be employed in a WDM telecom system for wavelength
channel translation. Here, an input signal together with continuous-wave pump light at some other
wavelength is injected into a piece of fiber (possibly a highly nonlinear fiber), which leads to the
generation of an output signal at another optical frequency – the input optical frequency mirrored
at the pump frequency.

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FWM is dependent on:

 The four-wave mixing effect is independent of the bit rate.

 In systems using dispersion shifted fiber (DS) becomes a critical problem.
 Different wavelengths with the same propagation speed or group velocity, traveling at a constant
phase over a long period of time, increase the effect of FWM.
 The effects of FWM are greatest near the zero dispersion point of the fiber

Solution for Four Wave Mixing

Four-wave mixing is a severe problem in WDM systems using dispersion-shifted fiber but does not
usually pose major problem in systems using standard fiber.

 Unequal channel spacing

The positions of the channels can be chosen carefully so that the beat terms do not overlap with the
data channels inside the receiver bandwidth. Thus, one way to suppress FWM in DWDM is avoiding
an equidistant channel spacing. Decreasing the channel spacing increases the four-wave mixing
effect.

 Using higher wavelengths beyond 1560nm with DSF

Even with DSF, a significant amount of chromatic dispersion is present in this range, which reduces
the effect of four-wave mixing.

 Reducing transmitter power and the amplifier spacing

 Wavelengths can be demultiplexed and multiplexed in the middle of the transmission path
 A certain amount of chromatic dispersion (CD) leads to different group velocities resulting in a
reduction of FWM.
 By using modulation technique such as DPSK, QAM, QPSK etc., Duobinary modulation scheme
and hybrid modulation scheme.

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11.2 Out-of-band Network Restoration by DCN
Overview of DCN
 The data communication network (DCN) refers to the network on which network elements (NEs)
exchange Operation, Administration and Maintenance (OAM) information with the network
management system (NMS).
 It is used for communication between equipment such as network elements and management
stations.
 A DCN can be:
o External DCN: This DCN is between the NMS and an access point.
o Internal DCN: This DCN allows NEs to exchange OAM information within it.

 Gateway network elements (GNEs) are connected to the NMS using protocols, for example, the
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). GNEs are able to forward data at the network or
application layer. An NMS directly communicates with a GNE and uses the GNE to deliver
management information to non-GNEs.

Why DCN is Required?

Constructing a large network requires significant human and material resources, causing high capital
expenditure (CAPEX) and operational expenditure (OPEX). If a new NE is deployed but the NMS
cannot detect the NE, the network administrator cannot manage or control the NE. Plug-and-play can
be used so that the NMS can automatically detect new NEs and remotely commission the NEs to
reduce CAPEX and OPEX.
 The DCN technique offers a mechanism to implement plug-and-play.
 After an NE is installed and started, an IP address (NEIP address) mapped to the NEID of the NE
is automatically generated.
 Each NE adds its NEID and NEIP address to a link state advertisement (LSA). Then, Open
Shortest Path First (OSPF) advertises all Type-10 LSAs to construct a core routing table that
contains mappings between NEIP addresses and NEIDs on each NE.
 After detecting a new NE, the GNE reports the NE to the NMS. The NMS accesses the NE using
the IP address of the GNE and ID of the NE.
 To commission NEs, the NMS can use the GNE to remotely manage the NEs on the network.

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Benefits

 The NMS is able to manage NEs using service channels provided by the managed NEs. No
additional devices are required, reducing CAPEX and OPEX.

Network Restoration by DCN

 When network is down and traffic is not flowing, in such a scenario, an alternate path is required
to reach the network nodes. Here we need a secure remote emergency network access path to
manage and troubleshoot the device when network traffic is down.
 Management using independent dedicated channels is called OOB. OOB provides accessibility
when an alternate path is needed to access the network nodes.
 A protection and restoration mechanism are essential to provide reliable traffic transmission
in networks.
 A communication network including a
master switch and one or more local
switches is provided with a loop-back
test device for in line loop-back testing.
 The local switches convey
communication traffic between one
another using one or more channels of
a transmission medium and
configuration information using an out-
of-band channel of the transmission
medium that is separate from the
channels used to convey the
communication traffic.
 The master switch includes an application that generates configuration information including loop-
back connection information for configuring the out-of-band channel using at least one loop-back
test device, transmits the generated configuration information to the loop-back test device using
the out-of-band channel of the transmission medium, and conducts loop-back testing using the
out-of-band channel.

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Link Restoration
 In the event of a failure, the end nodes of the failed link participate in a distributed algorithm to
dynamically discover a new route around the link, for each active wavelength that traverses the
link.
 When a new route is discovered around the failed link for a wavelength channel, the end nodes of
the failed link reconfigure their OXCs (Optical Interconnects) to reroute that channel onto the new
route.
 Connection is dropped in case no new route and associated wavelength can be discovered for a
broken connection.

Path Restoration
 The source and the destination nodes of each connection independently discover a backup route
on an end-to-end basis and such a backup path can be on a different wavelength channel.
 When a new route and wavelength channel is discovered for a connection, network elements such
as OXCs are reconfigured appropriately, and the connection switches to the new path.
 Connection is dropped in case there is no new route.

Sub-Path Restoration
 When a link fails, the upstream node of the failed link detects the failure and discovers a backup
route from itself to the corresponding destination node for each disrupted connection.
 Upon successful discovery of resources for the new backup route, intermediate OXCs are
reconfigured appropriately and the connection switches to the new path.
 If sufficient resources are not available connection is dropped.

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11.3 DWDM Alarms and Indicators
The DWDM system uses standard alarm entities to identify what is causing trouble. All alarms stem
from hardware, software, environment, or operator-originated problems whether or not they affect
service. Current alarms for the network, CTC session, node, or card are listed in the Alarms tab.

Alarm Severity
 Critical (CR) alarm generally indicates severe, Service-Affecting trouble that needs immediate
correction.
 Major (MJ) alarm is a serious alarm, but the trouble has less impact on the network.
 Minor (MN) alarms do not affect service.

For example, the automatic protection switching (APS) byte failure (APSB) alarm indicates that line
terminating equipment (LTE) detects a byte failure on the signal that could prevent traffic from properly
executing a traffic switch.
 Not Alarmed (NA) conditions are information indicators, such as for free-run synchronization state
(FRNGSYNC) or a forced-switch to primary (FRCSWTOPRI) timing event. They could or could not
require troubleshooting, as indicated in the entries.
 Not Reported (NR) conditions occur as a secondary result of another event.
For example, the alarm indication signal (AIS), with severity NR, is inserted by a downstream node
when an LOS (CR or MJ) alarm occurs upstream. These conditions do not in themselves require
troubleshooting, but are to be expected in the presence of primary alarms.

Service Effect
Service-Affecting (SA) alarms those that interrupt service could be Critical (CR), Major (MJ), or Minor
(MN) severity alarms.
 Service-Affecting (SA) alarms indicate service is affected.
 Non-Service-Affecting (NSA) alarms always have a Minor (MN) default severity.

State
The Alarms or History tab State (ST) column indicate the disposition of the alarm or condition as
follows:
 A raised (R) event is one that is active.
 A cleared (C) event is one that is no longer active.
 A transient (T) event is one that is automatically raised and cleared in CTC during system changes
such as user login, logout, loss of connection to node/shelf view, etc. Transient events do not
require user action.

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CISCO ONS 15200 Alarms
Alarm Definition

A RX Power Indicates that the power input on side A of the ONS 15200 network is outside
(Protected only) the acceptable range
B RX Power Indicates that the power input on side B of the ONS 15200 network is outside
(Protected only) the acceptable range

B RX Power Indicates that the power input on the ONS 15200 network is outside the
(unprotected only) acceptable range

Peltier Current Indicates that the Peltier current of the selected CLIP module is outside the
acceptable range

Laserbias Indicates that the value of the current used to control laser modulation is not
within the specified range

LOC Indicates that the working/protection or working channel is lost

FDI Alarm Indicates whether a switching action to the protection path has taken place
(Forward Defect Indication)

Laser Temp Indicates that the temperature of the laser transmitting to the ONS 15200
network is outside the acceptable range
Client RX Power Indicates that the power input from the client equipment is outside the
acceptable range

Client Laserbias Indicates that the value of the current used to control laser modulation is not
within the specified range

CISCO ONS 15200 Alarms

Alarm Definition

BOARD Board Indicates that the temperature on the surface of the CLIP module circuit
Temp board is outside the acceptable range

BOARD Power Indicates that the PS-1or the PS-2 input is outside the acceptable range
Alarm

QPPA Indicates a proprietary protocol error on the A-side of the network

(Protected only)

QPPB Indicates a proprietary protocol error on the B-side of the network

(Protected only)

QPP Indicates a proprietary protocol error

(Unprotected only)

CAN Indicates an error on the CAN bus

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CISCO ONS 15200 Alarm Status Parameter Definitions
Alarm Definition

highalarm A CLIP module recorded an event in which an upper alarm threshold was crossed

lowalarm A CLIP module recorded an event in which a lower alarm threshold was crossed

highwarning A CLIP module recorded an event in which an upper warning threshold was crossed
lowwarning A CLIP module recorded an event in which a lower warning threshold was crossed
CISCO ONS 15200 Alarm Status Colour Definitions
Alarm Definition

Red Critical or major alarm—The condition reported by the alarm affects traffic.

Yellow Minor alarm or warning—The condition reported by the alarm could affect the quality
of service, but does not threaten the continuity of service.

11.4 DWDM System Performance Monitoring

Optical Monitoring
 The objectives of optical monitoring are to detect anomalies, defects, degradations and faults
affecting the quality of the optical layer.
 The management of existing SDH networks relies on monitoring digital parameters such as:
o Bit Error Ratio (BER)
o Errored Second Ratio (ESR)
o Severely Errored Second Ratio (SESR)
 These are measured at the electrical layer (at 3R regenerators).
 An optimum solution for an optical transport network combine:
o Proper network design to limit noise sources, dispersion and intermodulation effects.
o Suitable alarms for the active optical components within the network for fault detection and
isolation.
o The use of appropriate optical monitoring throughout the network to monitor the most critical
optical parameters.
 Individually these three actions cannot guarantee a suitable optical quality but, when combined,
they provide a suitable solution for the management of optical transport networks.
Optical Monitoring Parameters
 An appropriate level of optical monitoring gives some visibility inside optical networks ensuring that
channel paths are properly configured and optical parameters are appropriate for reliable service
delivery.
 The collection of optical monitoring data in a Network Operations Centre (NOC) makes the
management of complex DWDM networks easier.
 The list of the optical parameters that can be measured using current technology in optical
transmission systems is given below:
o Channel power
o Total power
o Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio (OSNR) when no significant noise shaping is present
o Channel wavelength
o Q-factor

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Optical Performance Monitoring
 Optical performance monitoring is used for managing high capacity DWDM optical
transmission and switching systems in Next Generation Networks (NGN).
 It plays a critical role in long-haul transmission system operations.
 Optical performance monitoring has shown competitive advantages to simplify system design,
optimize system performance, shorten system installation, and lower operations cost.
 OPM involves assessing the quality of data channel by measuring its optical characteristics without
directly looking at the transmitted sequence of bits.
 In optical communications, typical roles for optical performance monitoring include:
o Ensuring correct switching in reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexers
o Setting levels for dynamic equalization of the gain of optical amplifiers
o Providing system alarms and error warning for lost or out of specification optical channels.

 The optical component used for this purpose in DWDM networks is known as optical performance
monitor (OPM) or optical channel monitor (OCM), which measures channel power, wavelength,
and optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) for each channel.
Key Performance Parameters of DWDM System
Receiver Sensitivity
 Detector and diagnostic equipment should be able to detect very low signal levels.
 The system components should add very little noise to the system. Otherwise, full characterization
of the system performance may not be possible.
Optical Rejection
 Optical rejection is also called the dynamic range.
 It is essential that the system design and the diagnostic tools used with it are able to sense small
signals in the presence of large signals in adjacent channels. Strength differences might be as
much as 35dB.
Resolvable Bandwidth
 Test equipment must be able to resolve the signals from closely spaced wavelength bands.
 For some modern DWDM system, this means being able to resolve 12.5 GHz channel spacings,
and these days much smaller than the 12.5 GHz.
Wavelength Accuracy
 We must be assured that all components in the DWDM system as well as test equipment, are
calibrated accurately.
 Without such calibration, the likelihood of Channel-to-Channel conflict is dramatically increased.

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11.5 HP Open View and Network Node Manager
Introduction to HP OpenView
 HP OpenView software provided large-scale system and network management of an
organization's IT infrastructure.
 An HP customer's IT professionals can use HP OpenView Software to manage applications,
device availability, network conditions and status, system performance, service and program
maintenance, and storage resources.

In 2007, HP OpenView was rebranded as HP BTO (Business Technology Optimization)

Software when it became part of the HP Software Division

HP Network Node Manager

 The Network Node Manager-i (NNMi system) is a network management system that discovers
network devices and provides a map of the network's topology.
 Network Node Manager-i (NNMi) delivers powerful capabilities enabling NOCs to manage modern
networks.
 NNMi Smart Plug-ins expand NNMi into specialized environments, helping your team reduce time
to resolve issues.
 NNMi is a core component of Network Operations Management.

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Network Monitoring
 Increase staff productivity and efficiency by consolidating and correlating fault and performance
data.
 Reduce the need for separate diagnostic and network monitoring tools.

Scalability- Flexible deployment

 Get unparalleled scalability and flexible deployment architecture in this distributed and federated
solution.

Network Topology
 Rapidly determine and monitor device inventory connectivity and ensure highly accurate network
topology.

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11.6 Right of Way
Right of Way (RoW)
 RoW is to be obtained from central/ state/ local authorities as per the route approved after the
survey
 Roadside ROWs are the land on either side of the road, including the shoulder and the vegetation
beyond.
 Sometimes the edge of the property line of the ROW is marked with a fence or visible with a tree
line.
 Utilities also often have associated ROW areas, including transmission lines and gas pipelines.

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Right of Way (RoW) Authorities
 State Highways
 National Highway Authorities
 Forest Department
 Railway Department
 PWD Roads & Buildings Department
 Municipal Corporations
 Panchayat
 Irrigation Department
 Cantonments etc.
RoW Process

RoW Permission
RoW permission can include the following:
 Route length of fiber to be laid (section)
 Offset: Distance permitted for lying the fiber from center of the road
 Permitted depth of laying the fiber
 Details of utilities
 RoW duration
 RoW charges
 Security deposit charges

RoW Constraints
 Revised route length / Change of route after RoW applications
 Different RoW charges and taxes imposed by different states
 ROW received length different then applied / paid
 Unidentical documentation for different departments
 Incorrect information received from RoW authority regarding existing utilities
 Changes in regulations during RoW process
 Delay in refund of security deposits

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11.7 Micro-Trenching
 Microtrenching is the process of installing HDPE ducts within the edges of
the roads to place fiber optic cables.
 A quick, low-impact deployment method, fiber optic cabling is inserted into
a small slot-cut trench without damaging or disrupting existing infrastructure
and traffic.
 It uses diamond tipped saw blades, which allow efficient cuts through
asphalt and concrete.

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11.8 Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD)
Horizontal Direction Drilling

This is a trenchless method providing limited disturbance, fast & economical installation of duct
 Applicable for drilling of < 250m stretch.
 Preferred for Road / River / Culvert /Railway crossing.

Drilling
 Appropriate Entry and Exit Pits are to be made.
 During drilling operation, continuous monitoring and plotting of the pilot drill shall be recorded.
 The tracking system is used for determining Alignment, Depth and Position of pilot.

Pilot Locating System

The tracking system shall provide information on:

 Alignment
 Depth
 Position

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HDD Process

Two stages of HDD:

 Pilot drilling (Tracking system is used to determine Alignment, Depth and Position of pilot)
 Reaming and pulling back the duct

HDD Components

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HDD Fluids

 Drilling fluid is a mixture of water and specialized

additives used in the drilling process
 Drilling fluid cools the drill head and transmitter
 Bentonite is added to drilling fluid to seal the drilled
bore from water ingress downwards and at the
sides of the bore

HDD: Do’s & Don’t

 Entry/Exit pit should have proper depth & size.

 Lime powder marking should be done for drilling in straight line.
 Debris/bushes must be cleared.
 Duct de-coiling should be done using duct de-coiler only.

HDD: General Safety

11.9 Fiber Splicing

Introduction to Splicing
Splicing is the act of joining two optical fibers end-to-end.

Need of Splicing
 Fiber optic cable that is available is not sufficiently long for the required run.
 Optical fibers may be connected to each other by connectors or by splicing to form a continuous
optical media.
 The OFC drums are of approx. 2/4 kms in length, hence optical fiber need to be joint at approx.
every 2/4 kms.

Types of Splicing
 Fusion Splicing (Permanent)
 Mechanical Splicing (Temporary)

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Fusion Splicing
 This splice is made by fusing or melting the two ends of fiber together.
 It uses an electric arc to weld two optical fibers using specialized equipment.

Mechanical Splicing
 A mechanical splice is a small fiber connector that precisely aligns two bare fibers, securing them
mechanically.
 Used when splices need to be made quickly and easily.
 Insertion Loss is Approx. 0.5dB.

Single Fiber Splicing Process

 Stripping
 Cleaning
 Cleaving
 Splicing
 Protection

Before starting the splicing operation, place the protection sleeve in any one of the fiber to be spliced.

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Placement of Protection Sleeve in Single Fiber
Before starting the splicing operation, place the protection sleeve in any one of the fiber to be spliced

Fiber Stripping Tool

Stripping tool provides a quick, easy, and reliable way to cut and remove the buffer from an optical
fiber.

1. The First hole strips the 2~3mm jacket to expose 600~900µm buffer.
2. The Second hole strips the 600~900µm buffer to expose 250µm coating.
3. The Third hole strips the 250µm coating to expose 125µm cladding.

Stripping and Cleaning Fiber

 Strip the fiber using stripper to remove 250-micron coating to reach down to the 125-micron glass
fiber/clad.
 Clean the fiber with Isopropyl Alcohol moistened gauze or lint-free tissue thoroughly.

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Cleaving
 Cleaving is the process of cutting Optical Fiber perpendicular
using cleaver.
 It is intended to create a perfectly flat endface precisely for
splicing.

Fiber Cleaving Process

Step 1: Close the slider.

Step 2: Place the fiber into the groove and close the fiber holder. (For 40mm sleeve, end of stripped
fiber coating should be placed at 15mm marking on scale, whereas, for 60mm sleeve, end of stripped
fiber coating should be placed at 20mm marking on scale.)

Step 3: Press down the cutting lever.

Step 4: Release the pressure on the cutting lever. A spring force will bring it to its open position.

Step 5: Open the fiber holder and remove the fiber from the cleaver.

Cleaving Quality

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Single Fiber Fusion Splicing Machine
Fusion splicing machine is a device that generate electric arc to melt endface of optical fiber

Operation of Keys

Key Key Function

ON/OFF To turn ON/OFF the power

ARC Arc discharge manually

X/Y Change the X/Y images

HEAT To start the heating process by the tube heater

RESET To quit from any state except the heating process

SET To start/pause the splicing operation and move the cursor direction of arrow at menu
state

ESC To display the data at the “Ready”, “Pause”, “Finish” state. and to escape from any
menu.

Up/Down Brightness adjustment, wind protector automation and Cursor Movement

MENU Open Main menu and go to next page

ENT To open the menu at the “Ready” state. To select any parameter.

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Accessories
A standard package of splicing machine may contain following accessories:

Fusion Splicer USB cable

AC adaptor/battery Quick reference guide

charger

AC power cord Cooling Tray

Spare Electrodes Fiber Stripper

Fiber Cleaver Protection Sleeves

Battery Pack Car Battery Cable

Battery Charging Cord Carrying Case

Single Fiber Splicing Procedure
Loading the Fiber
 Open the wind-protector and fiber holder.
 Once the fiber ends are prepared, they are placed in V- groove of fusion splicer.
 Be careful not to contact the fiber tips to maintain fiber end-face quality.
 Place the fiber holders into guide-pins.
 Prepare and load left and right fibers into the splicer.
 Close the wind-protector.

Cleave and Endface Check

Press the “SET” key, splicer starts the splice procedure automatically.
 Fibers loaded in the splicer move forward toward each other.
 Cleave angle and end-face quality are checked.
 If Cleave angle is not ok or greater than set threshold or fiber
chipping is detected, the buzzer will sound an error message.

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Splice Loss
 After fiber inspection, the fibers are aligned core-to-core or cladding-to-cladding and then arc
discharge is performed to splice the fibers.
 Estimated splice loss is displayed upon completion of splicing.

 "OK" beeps to remove the splice from the machine.

 It is ensured to achieve individual splice loss less than 0.2 dB.

Loss in Fusion Splice

Factors that influence the loss in a Fusion Splice.

Evaluating Splices

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Removal of Spliced Fiber from Machine
Open wind protector and fiber holders to remove the splice carefully

Protection Sleeve
 Placing the Protective Sleeve gives physical protection
to the splice.
 Protection Sleeves are composed of an outer and inner
sleeve reinforced by an internal member made of
stainless steel or ceramics.
 Protection sleeves of 40mm and 60mm sizes are
generally used in field.
 Varieties of protection sleeves are available to
accommodate single and ribbon fiber.
 It is ensured that splice point is located at the center of
the protection sleeve.

Splice Protection
 Place the sleeve in heater unit (Tube heater lids automatically get closed).
 Press the ‘HEAT’ key to start sleeve heating.
 On completion of heating process, buzzer sounds and heater lid gets open automatically.

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Check Points : Fusion Splicer
 Alignment check - Verifies that fiber is correctly aligned
 End face check - Verifies that both fibers are cleaved to the tolerance required by splicer
 Electrode check - Automatic reminder to clean electrodes after a certain number of splices
 Arc check - Tests the current conditions to warn if arc current need to be adjusted
 Battery Warning - Warns of impending low battery to give user time to change batteries

Not every splicing machine performs all these checks

Fusion Splicer Cleaning Practices

 Clean Mirrors - Microscope lenses
 V-grooves
 Fiber holders
 Dust Check - Stuff Check - LED Check - Motor Check
 Optical adapter and head cleaning
 Battery reconditioning and replacement
 Dirty mirrors
 Cleaver cleaning

Cleaning V- Grooves
Clean and Check the V-grooves before Splicing

Cleaning of Lens
 Clean the Microscope Lens.
 Electrodes need not to be removed from the machine for cleaning microscope lens.

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Cleaning Fiber Cleaver
Cleaning the circular blade or clamp pads with cotton swab moistened with Iso-Propyl Alcohol (IPA)

Replacement of Electrodes
 The message prompting to replace the electrodes is displayed after turning on the power.
 Electrodes are replaced after approx. 3,000 arc discharges.
 Electrode can be removed and clean to get additional arcs. However, electrode replacement is
better practice.

Splicing Safety Practices

 Try to work in clean area.
 Wear Apron and Safety Gears.
 Perform splicing work on Black Safety Mat to easily identify fiber debris.
 Always keep dust caps on Connectors.
 Always use Isopropyl Alcohol to clean the fiber with Lint Free Tissues.
 Dispose the fiber ends at designated area.

Splicing Safety Practices

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11.10 Preventive, Corrective & Planned Maintenance
Introduction to Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance is activity, regularly performed on optical fiber network to lessen the
likelihood of link failing and damage/malfunction of network components.

It is performed to:
 Ensure that the network’s appearance and performance quality is maintained
 Lessens the probability of unexpected breakdowns
 Ensures smooth and reliable operations of optical network components

Goals
 Avoid Breakage
 Minimize Outage
 Ensure Reduced Power at the Receiver
 Reduce Maintenance Cost
 Ensure Reliability of Network

Activities
Surveillance:
To monitor the condition of NE. Surveillance has two functions: to inform of NE degradation before
trouble occurs, and to inform of NE abnormality when trouble occurs.

Testing:
To measure characteristics of NE and to check whether the characteristics satisfy a required level or
not.

Control:
To restore NE to normal or to take action to maintain service quality.
 Generally, the type of maintenance involving such works as monitoring NE degradation, testing
and NE control before trouble occurs is considered to be preventive maintenance.
 From the standpoint of preventive maintenance, optical fiber cable maintenance is composed of
three activities such as:
o Periodic testing: To periodically detect fiber loss increase, fiber deterioration and water
penetration.
o Fiber degradation testing: To perform measurement on fiber loss increase, fiber strain
distribution and water location after receiving information from periodic testing.
o Network element control: To identify fiber, transfer and splice fiber synchronously.
 In preventive maintenance, all activities are performed using spare (inactive) fibers or working
(active) fibers that are multiplexed with the transmission signals without interfering with the
transmission signals.

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Actions
Damages Preventive Actions

Animal Damages Alternative jacket on the cable

(Rodents, birds, monkeys, Squirrel, etc.)
Proper Ducting/Tubing

Say 'NO' to exposed cable

Uniform pulling force on the cable

Human Damage
Using the right equipment effectively

Follow best installation practice

Environmental Damage Effective cable design
(Weather, rainwater, snow, ice, fire or lightning) Following the installation standards
Accidental Damage Proactive approach

Corrective Maintenance
 The type of maintenance involving such works as reception of an alarm or a trouble report, testing
and NE controlling after a fault has occurred is considered as post-fault (Corrective) maintenance.
 From the standpoint of corrective maintenance, optical fiber cable maintenance involves:
o Reception of a transmission system alarm or trouble report from a customer
o Fiber fault testing
o Cable repair/cable removal (that is, cable re-routing)
 In a trunk/long-distance plant, when the optical fiber cable is damaged or an optical fiber is broken,
action is taken immediately in response to an alarm from a transmission system or a customer
complaint.
 In this case, the possibility of optical fiber cable maintenance is:
o To re-route traffic to an alternate path
o To perform testing to find the fiber fault location
o To utilize a restoration cable kit to make a temporary path across the damaged portion of the
cable
The restoration cable is prepared in advance for rapid repair

Fiber Faults & their Origin

 Fiber faults may be classified into three types:
o Fiber failure
o Fiber loss increase
o Fiber connector abnormality
 Fiber failure may be caused by:
o Tensile strain and bending strain in a cable
o Bending strain and torsion strain in a cable closure
o Lateral stress in a crushed cable conduit
 Fiber loss increase may be caused by:
o Microbending loss increase due to fiber axial strain in a cable
o Fiber (macro) bending loss increase in a cable closure
o Hydrogen absorption loss increase in cable or a cable closure
 Fiber connector abnormality may be caused by: Tensile strain and a change in the fiber alignment.

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Fiber Faults Handling
The procedures for corrective maintenance in the trunk/long distance plant is as follows:
 Reception of transmission system alarm
 Re-routing
 Fault distinction between fiber line and transmission equipment
 Fiber fault testing
 Craft dispatch
 Cable repair
 Repair verification
 Return to normal operation
In a local distribution plant, after reception of a trouble report from a customer and testing for the
cable/fiber fault, repair is done by a restoration cable kit or transferring fiber. The procedures for post-
fault maintenance in the local distribution plant is as follows:
 Reception of trouble report from a customer
 Fault distinction between fiber line and transmission equipment
 Fiber fault testing
 Craft dispatch
 Cable repair
 Repair verification
 Return to normal operation
 When cable removal work is to be done, fiber transfer control to another fiber circuit, in a point-to-
point system, is necessary.
 Fiber transfer control has an advantage that it can transfer in parts of cables.
 In cable removal work, path transfer is done at both ends of all paths in the fiber cable, so the work
area for path transfer is much more widely expanded than that for fiber transfer. The process of
cable removal is as follows:
o Preparation of a newly installed fiber to be transferred to
o Transfer from the active fiber to a spare fiber
o Identification of the fiber to be transferred
o Cutting the fiber and splicing with newly installed fiber
o Testing of the spliced fiber
o Transfer from the spare fiber to the spliced fiber
MTTR Mean Time Taken to Repair
MTTR represents the average time required to repair a failed component or device
How to Reduce MTTR
 Know Your Network and Equipment
 Authenticated & Updated Records
 Appropriate Team Count
 Fault Localization Skills
 Fault Correction Skills
 Appropriate and Functioning Instruments
Planned Event Maintenance
 Network Restoration or Rectification or Upgradation Activity Performed at a Pre-decided
Scheduled is called Planned Event Activity.
 Planned event maintenance requires the entire team to participate and be aware of their
responsibilities

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 Section 3: Exercises
Exercise 1: Draw diagram of Path Restoration, Subpath Restoration, Link Restoration.
Exercise 2: Draw a flow diagram of RoW Process.
Exercise 3: Draw fiber splicing process.

Exercise 4: Analyse the below image and tell what do you infer?
Exercise 5: Participate in group discussion on following topics:
a) Four Wave Mixing
b) DWDM Alarms and Indicators
c) DWDM System Performance Monitoring
d) Right of Way
e) Micro-trenching and Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD)
f) Types of Fiber Splicing Techniques
g) Fiber Splicing Process
h) Optical Fiber Safety Guidelines
i) Comparison of Preventive, Corrective and Planned Event Maintenance

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 Section 4: Assessment Questionnaire
1. What is Four-wave mixing (FWM)?
2. What are the effects of FWM?
3. What is External and Internal DCN?
4. What are three types of restoration?
5. What are different Alarm Severities?
6. What are the optical parameters that are measured in optical transmission systems?
7. What are Key Performance Parameters of DWDM System?
8. What is the use of HP OpenView Software?
9. The _________ is a network management system that discovers network devices and provides
a map of the network's topology.
10. What is generally included in RoW permission?
11. What are RoW Constraints?
12. Micro-trenching uses______, which allow efficient cuts through asphalt and concrete.
13. What are the two stages of HDD?
14. What are the two types of splicing?
15. What is approximate loss of Mechanical Splice?
16. What is Singe Fiber Splicing Process?
17. In fiber stripper, Tthe Third hole strips the _____ coating to expose ____ cladding.
18. _______ is the process of cutting Optical Fiber perpendicularly.
19. Rotate the ______ periodically for maintaining good cleaving quality.
20. What are the sizes of protection sleeves used in splicing?
21. Electrodes of splicing machine cannot be replaced. (True/False)
22. What are fiber splicing safety practices?
23. What is Preventive Maintenance?
24. Why preventive maintenance is performed?
25. How preventive maintenance activities are classified?
26. What is corrective maintenance?
27. Fiber faults may be classified into three types as:
28. What is the procedure for corrective maintenance in the trunk/long distance plant?
29. What is MTTR and how to reduce it?
30. What is key to successful planned event maintenance?

-----------End of the Module----------

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