MEDICAL TERMINOLOGIES

Unit of learning code: MED/CU/HSS/CC/05/5/A

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Apply Medical Terminology

1.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit specifies the competencies required to apply Medical Terminology in communicating
medical language, and in interacting and sharing information with medical professionals. It
involves demonstrating understanding of medical terms, abbreviations and transcription,
interpreting medical acronyms and abbreviation, interpreting medical terms associated with
doctor’s notes, investigations results, diagnosis and medication, interpreting medical terms
associated with human body systems and their disorders and meeting communication needs of
clients and professionals
Upon completion of this unit, the trainee will be able to prepare to demonstrate understanding of
medical terminology and communicate effectively with medical professionals.

Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Demonstrate understanding of medical acronyms and abbreviation
2. Interpret medical acronyms and abbreviation
3. Interpret medical terms associated with human body systems and their disorders
4. Meet communication needs of clients

1.2: Information sheet

1.2.1: Demonstrate understanding of medical acronyms and abbreviation
Introduction to learning outcome
This unit trainees will train on Medical acronyms, Medical abbreviations, Medical terms and
Terms associated with drugs
Performance standards
1. Medical acronyms are identified as per standard practice
2. Medical abbreviations are identified as per the standard practice
3. Medical terms are identified based on standard practice
4. Terms associated with drugs are identified

Definition of key terms

Combining form-A word root in combination with a vowel used to link the root with a suffix.
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Prefix-A word part added before a root to modify its meaning
Root-The fundamental unit of a word
Suffix-A word part added to the end of a root to modify its meaning

Content/methodology/illustrations
Medical terminology is a special vocabulary used by health care professionals for effective and
accurate communication. Because it is based mainly on Greek and Latin words, medical
terminology is consistent and uniform throughout the world. It is also efficient; although some
of the terms are long, they often reduce an entire phrase to a single word. The one word
gastroduodenostomy, for example, stands for “a communication between the stomach and the
first part of the small intestine” The medical vocabulary is vast, and learning it may seem like
learning the entire vocabulary of a foreign language. Moreover, like the jargon that arises in all
changing fields, it is always expanding. Think of the terms that have been added to our
vocabulary with the development of computers, such as software, megabyte, search engine, e-
mail, and chat room. The task seems overwhelming, but there are methods that can aid in
learning and remembering words and can even help in making informed guesses regarding the
meanings of unfamiliar words. Most medical terms can be divided into component parts—roots,
prefixes, and suffixes—that maintain the same meaning whenever they appear. By learning
these meanings, you can analyze and remember many words.

WORD PARTS
The fundamental unit of each medical word is the root. This establishes the basic meaning of the
word and is the part to which modifying prefixes and suffixes are added. A suffix is a short word
part or series of parts added at the end of a root to modify its meaning. In this learning guide,
suffixes are indicated by a dash before the suffix, such as -itis. A prefix is a short word part
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added before a root to modify its meaning. In this learning guide, prefixes are indicated by a
dash after the prefix, such as pre-.
Words are formed from roots, prefixes, and suffixes.

PREFIX ROOT SUFFIX

WORDS
Combining Forms
When a suffix beginning with a consonant is added to a root, a vowel (usually an o) is inserted
between the root and the suffix to aid in pronunciation.
Thus, when the suffix -logy, meaning “study of,” is added to the root neur, meaning “nerve or
nervous system,” a combining vowel is added:
Neur + o + logy = neurology (study of the nervous system)
Roots shown with a combining vowel are called combining forms.
The root neur is combined with the suffix -itis, meaning “inflammation of,” in this way:
Neur + itis = neuritis (inflammation of a nerve)

Suffixes Beginning with Rh

When a suffix beginning with rh is added to a root, the r is doubled: hem/o (blood) + -rhage
(bursting forth) = hemorrhage (a bursting forth of blood) men/o (menses) + -rhea (flow,
discharge) = menorrhea (menstrual flow)
A SUFFIX

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A suffix is a word ending that modifies a root. A suffix may indicate that the word is a noun or
an adjective and often determines how the definition of the word will begin. For example, using

TABLE 4 Suffixes That Mean “Condition Of ”

SUF EXAM DEFINITION OF
FIX PLE EXAMPLE
ph
-ia – –
obi persistent and
FO-be-a
- alcoholis impaired control of
m
i – alcohol use
AL-ko -
-sis* acidosis acid condition of body fluids
as-i-
–
- DO - sustained muscle
y sis contraction
tetany
*The ending -sis may appear with a combining vowel, as -osis, -iasis, -esis, or -asis. The first two of these denote
an abnormal condition.

the root myel/o, meaning “bone marrow,” the adjective ending -oid forms the word myeloid,
which means “like or pertaining to bone marrow.” The ending -oma produces myeloma, which
is a tumor of the bone marrow. Adding another root, gen, which represents genesis or origin,
and the adjective ending -ous forms the word myelogenous, meaning, and “originating in bone
marrow.” The suffixes given in this chapter are general ones that are used throughout medical
terminology. Additional suffixes will be presented in later chapters, as they pertain to disease
states, medical treatment, or specific body systems.

TABLE 5 Suffixes for Medical Specialties

SUFFI MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF EXAMPLE

X physici
-ian specialist in a field of an fi- practitioner of medicine (from
study ZISH- root
un physi/o, meaning “nature”)
-iatrics medical specialty geriatri study and treatment of the aged
cs (from
jer-e–-AT- root ger/i, meaning “old age”)
-iatry medical specialty riks study and treatment of the foot
podiatry (from
– root pod/o, meaning “foot”)
po– a-
-ics medical specialty study and treatment of the

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 tre– skeleton and
-DI - joints (from root ped/o,
orthopedics meaning
– “child,” and prefix ortho,
or-tho– meaning
-PE - “straight”)
-ist specialist in a field of diks specialist in the study and
study treatment of
the heart (from root cardi/o,
cardiologist meaning
kar-de–-OL- “heart”)
-logy study of o–-jist Study of function in a living
organism
physiology (from root physi/o, meaning
“nature”)
fiz-e–-OL-
o–-je–

Adjective Suffixes

The suffixes below are all adjective endings that mean, “Pertaining to” or
“resembling”. There are no rules for which ending to use for a given noun.
Familiarity comes with practice. When necessary, tips on proper usage are
given in the text.
SUFFIX EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF EXAMPLE
-ac cardiac Pertaining to the heart
-al skeletal pertaining to the skeleton
-ar muscular pertaining to muscles
-ary dietary Pertaining to the diet
-form muciform like or resembling mucus

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-ic* metric pertaining to a meter (unit of
measurement)
-ical (ic + al) anatomical pertaining to anatomy
-ile febrile pertaining to fever
-oid toxoid resembling toxin (poison)
-ory respiratory Pertaining to respiration

A prefix
A prefix is a short word part added before a word or word root to modify its meaning. For
example, the word lateral means “side.” Adding the prefix uni-, meaning “one,” forms
unilateral, which means, “affecting or involving one side.” Adding the prefix contra-, meaning
“against or opposite,” forms contralateral, which refers to an opposite side. The term equilateral
means, “having equal sides.” Prefixes in this book will be followed by a hyphen to show that
other parts will be added to the prefix to form a word. This chapter introduces most of the
prefixes used in medical terminology. Although the list is long, almost all of the prefixes you
will need to work through this book are presented here. There is just one short additional chart
of prefixes related to position in Chapter 5 on body structure. The meanings of many of these
prefixes will be familiar to you from words that are already in your vocabulary. The words in
the charts are given as examples of usage. Almost all of them will reappear in later chapters. If
you forget a prefix as you work, you may refer to this chapter or to the alphabetical lists of word
parts and meanings in the glossary.
Prefixes for colors
Cyan/o - Blue
Erythr/o- Red
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Leuk/o- White/Colorless
Melan/o-Black/Dark
Xanth/o-Yellow
Prim/i- first
Mon/o- one
Uni-one
Hemi-half /one side
Semi-half/partial
Bi-two/twice
Di- two/twice
Dipl/o-Double
Tri-three
Quadr/i-four
Tetra-four
Multi-many
Poly- many/ much

Negative Prefixes
a-, an-not/without
Anti-against
Contra-Against/opposite
De-down/without
Dis-absence

Prefixes for Direction

Ab- Away from
Ad- Toward; near
Dia- Through
Per- Through
Trans- Through

Prefixes for Degree

Hyper- Over, excess, abnormally high, increased
Hypo- Under; below
Oligo- Few, scanty
Pan- All
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 Super- above, excess

Self-assessment questions

Multiple choice: Select the best answer and write the letter of your choice to the left of
each number.
1. The -ist in the word neurologist is a:
a. prefix
b. root
c. suffix
d. combining form
2. Endo- in endoscopic is a:
a. root
b. suffix
c. combining form
d. prefix
3. MRI stands for magnetic resonance imaging. This term represents a(n):
a. acronym
b. prefix
c. suffix
d. abbreviation
4. Diplopia, the condition of having double vision, has the suffix:
a. lopia
b. opia
c. ia
d. plopia
5. The adjective septic is formed from the noun:
a. sepsis
b. septosis
c. septemia
d. septery
6. Add a prefix to form the negative of each of the following words:
a. coordinated
b. adequate
c. infect
d. permeable (capable of being penetrated)
e. congestant
f. compatible

Case study
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Mr. XYZ a 39-year-old archaeologist and university professor, returned from a 6-month
expedition in the rain forest of South America suffering from a combination of physical
symptoms and conditions that would not subside on their own. He was fatigued, yet unable to
sleep through the night. He also had a mild fever, night sweats, occasional dizziness, double
vision, and mild crampy abdominal pain accompanied by intermittent diarrhea. In addition, he
had a non-healing wound on his ankle from an insect bite. He made an appointment with his
family doctor, an internist.
On examination, XYZ was febrile (feverish) with a temperature of 39°C. His heart and lungs
were nor- mal, with a slightly elevated heart rate. His abdomen was tender to palpation (touch),
and his bowel sounds were active and gurgling to auscultation (listening with a stethoscope).
His skin was dry and warm. He had symmetrical areas of edema (swelling) around both knees
and tenderness over both patellae (kneecaps). The ulceration on his left lateral ankle had a ring
of necrosis (tissue death) surrounding an area of granulation tissue. There was a small amount
of purulent (pus-containing) drainage.
XYZ’s doctor ordered a series of hematology lab studies and stool cultures for ova and
parasites. The doctor suspected a viral disease, possibly carried by mosquitoes, indigenous to
tropical rain forests. He also suspected a form of dysentery typically caused by protozoa. E.G.
was also possibly anemic, dehydrated, and septic (infected). The doctor was confident that after
definitive diagnosis and treatment, E.G. would gain relief from his insomnia, diplopia (double
vision), and dizziness.
Write the suffix that means “condition of” in each of the following words:
1. necrosis
2. dysentery
3. insomnia
Write the adjective ending of each of the following words:
4. febrile
5. symmetrical --------
6. anemic
Write the singular form of each of the following words:
7. patellae
8. ova
9. protozoa
Write a word from the case study that means each of the following:
10. The word virus used as an adjective
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 11. The noun form of the adjective necrotic
12. Expert in the field of archeology
13. Expert in the field of internal medicine
14. The noun abdomen used as an adjective

Terms associated with drugs

A Drug is a substance that alters body function. Traditionally, drugs have been derived
from natural plant, animal, and mineral sources. Today, pharmaceutical companies
manufacture most synthetically. A few, such as certain hormones and enzymes, have been
produced by genetic engineering.
Many drugs, described as over-the-counter (OTC) drugs, are available without
prescription. Others require a health care provider’s prescription for use. Responsibility
for the safety and efficacy of all drugs sold in the United States lies with the Federal Food
and Drug Administration (FDA), which must approve all drugs before they are sold.

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Most drugs have potential adverse effects or side effects that must be evaluated before being
prescribed. In addition, there may be contraindications, or reasons not to use a particular
drug for a specific individual based on that person’s medical conditions, current
medications, sensitivity, or family history. In addition, while a patient is under treatment,
it is important to be alert for signs of adverse effects such as digestive upset, changes in the
blood, or signs of allergy, such as hives or skin rashes. Anaphylaxis is an immediate and
severe allergic reaction that may be caused by a drug. It can lead to life-threatening
respiratory distress and circulatory collapse. Because drugs given in combination may
interact, the prescriber must know of any drugs the patient is taking before prescribing
another. In some cases, a combination may result in synergy or potentiation, meaning that
the drugs together have a greater effect than either of the drugs acting alone. In other cases,
one drug may act as an antagonist of another, interfering with its action. Drugs may also
react adversely with certain foods or substances used socially, such as alcohol and tobacco.
Drugs that act on the central nervous system may lead to a psychological or physical
substance dependence, in which a person has a chronic or compulsive need for a drug
regardless of its bad effects. With repeated use, a person may develop a drug tolerance,
whereby a constant dose has less effect and the dose must be increased to produce the
original response. Cessation of the drug then leads to symptoms of substance
withdrawal, a state that results from reduction or removal of a drug. Certain symptoms
are associated with withdrawal from specific drugs.
Drug name
Drugs may be cited by either their generic or their trade names. The generic name is
usually a simple version of the chemical name for the drug and is not capitalized. The
trade name (brand name, proprietary name) is a registered trademark of the manufacturer
and is written with an initial capital letter. The same drug may be marketed by different
companies under different trade names.
TABLE 8-a Word Parts Pertaining to Drugs

WORD MEANIN EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF EXAMPLE

PART G
SUFFIXES
-lytic dissolving, anxio_lyt_ic agent that reduces anxiety
reducing, ang-zi -o-LIT-ik
Loosening
-mimetic mimicking sympatho_mimetic mimicking the effects of the
, sympathetic
Simulating sim-pa-tho-mi- nervous system
MET-ik
-tropic acting on ino_tropic acting on the force of muscle
contraction
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 in-o-TROP-ik (in/o means “fiber”)
PREFIXES
anti- Against antidote_ substance that counteracts a poison
AN-ti-dot

TABLE 8-b Word Parts Pertaining to Drugs, continued

WORD MEANIN EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF EXAMPLE

PART G contracepti
contra- Against ve kon- preventing conception
tra-SEP-
counter- opposite, flowing in an opposite direction
tiv
Against
countercurr
ROOTS
ent
alg/o, Pain Painful
kown-ter-KUR-
algi/o,
ent
algesi/o
chem/o Chemical treatment with drugs
alge_sic
hypn/o Sleep al-JE-sik an altered state with increased
ch_em_other responsiveness
to suggestion
apy _ ke-
narc/o Stupor drug that induces stupor
mo-THER-a-
pharmac/o Drug pe the science of preparing and
dispensing drugs,
hypno_
or the place where these activities
sis hip-
occur
NO-sis
pyr/o, Fever counteracting fever
narcoti
pyret/o
c nar-
tox/o, toxic/o poison, KOT-ik Poisonous
toxin pharma
vas/o Vessel cy_ pertaining to change in vessel
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FAR- diameter
ma-se
antipyr_etic
an-ti-pi -RET-ik
toxic
TOK-sik
vaso_mot_or
vas-o-MO-tor
ABBREVIATIONS

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 Abbreviations for Drugs and Drug Formulations
APAP Acetaminophen
ASA Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin)
cap Capsule
elix Elixir
FDA Food and Drug Administration
INH Isoniazid (antitubercular drug)
MED(s) Medicine(s), medication(s)
NCCAM National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine
NSAID(s) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug(s)
ODS Office of Dietary Supplements
OTC Over-the-counter
PDR Physicians’ Desk Reference
Rx Prescription
supp Suppository
susp Suspension
tab Tablet
tinct Tincture
USP United States Pharmacopeia
ung Ointment

Abbreviations for Dosages and Directions

A Before (Latin, ante) b_ id Twice a day (Latin, bis in

a Of each (Greek, ana) die)
ac Before meals (Latin, ante c With (Latin, cum)
cibum) cc Cubic centimeter
ad lib As desired (Latin, ad libitum) D/C, dc Discontinue
aq Water (Latin, aqua) ds Double strength
gt(t) Drop(s) (Latin, gutta)

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 hs At bedtime (Latin, hora pc After meals (Latin, post
somni) cibum)
IM Intramuscular(ly) po By mouth (Latin, per os)
IU International unit pp Postprandial (after a meal)
qid Four times a day (Latin, quater prn As needed (Latin, pro re
in die) nata)
qod Every other day (Latin, quaque qam Every morning
[other] (Latin, quaque ante
s Without (Latin, sine) meridiem)
SA Sustained action qd Every day (Latin, quaque
SC, SQ, Subcutaneous(ly) die)
IV Intravenous(ly) qh Every hour (Latin, quaque
mcg Micrograms hora)
mg Milligrams q h Every hours
SR Sustained release
LA Long-acting
ss Half (Latin, semis)
NS Normal saline
tid Three times per day
p After, post
U Unit(s)
X Times

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 ROUTE DESCRIPTION
absorption drug taken into the circulation through the digestive
tract or by transfer across another membrane
Inhalation administration though the respiratory system, as by
breathing in an aerosol or nebulizer spray
Instillation liquid is dropped or poured slowly into a body cavity
or on the surface of the body, such as into the ear or
onto the conjunctiva of the eye
oral OR-al given by mouth; per os (po)
rectal REK-tal administered by rectal suppository or enema
sublingual (SL) administered under the tongue
topical applied to the surface of the skin
transdermal trans-DER- absorbed through the skin, as from a patch placed on
mal the surface of the skin
injection administered by a needle and syringe (Fig. 8-3);
described as parenteral ( pa-REN-ter-al) routes of
administration
epidural injected into the space between the meninges
(membranes around the spinal cord) and the spine
intradermal (ID) in-tra- injected into the skin
DER-mal
intramuscular_(IM) injected into a muscle
Intravenous injected into a vein
spinal (intrathecal) injected through the meninges into the spinal fluid
Subcutaneous (SC) injected beneath the skin; hypodermic drug taken
into the circulation through the digestive tract or by
transfer across another membrane
Common routes used in drug administration

Figure 1 Instillation of eye drops into

the lower conjunctival sac. (Reprinted
with permission from Taylor C, Lillis
C, LeMone P. Fundamentals of
Nursing: The Art and Science of
Nursing Care. 4th Ed.
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins, 2001.)

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PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
DISPLAY 8-4 Drug Preparations
FORM

DESCRIPTION LIQUID
aerosol suppository (supp)
AR-o-sol
aqueo_us
solution A-
kwe-us
e_lixir
(elix)
e-LIK-
sar
e_muls
ion
e-MUL-shun
lo_tion
LO-shun
suspension
(susp) sus-
PEN-shun
tincture
(tinct)
TINK-chur
SEMISOLI
D
cre_am
krem
ointment
(ung)
OYNT-
ment
SOLID
capsul_e (cap)
KAP-sul
lozenge
LOZ-enj
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s e inhaled substance dissolved in
o water
l a clear, pleasantly flavored and sweetened hydroalcoholic liquid
u intended for oral use a mixture in which one liquid is dispersed
t but not dissolved in another liquid
i solution prepared for topical use
o
n fine particles dispersed in a liquid; must be shaken
before use substance dissolved in an alcoholic
d solution
i
s a semisolid emulsion used topically
p
e drug in a base that keeps it in contact with the skin
r
s
e material in a gelatin container that dissolves easily in the stomach
d
a pleasant-tasting medicated tablet or disk to be dissolved in the
a mouth, such as a cough drop
s substance mixed and molded with a base that melts easily when
inserted into a body opening
a a solid dosage form containing a drug in a pure state or mixed
with a nonactive ingredi- ent and prepared by compression or
m molding; also called a pill
i
s
t

t
o

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1. A drug that is administered topically is:
a. swallowed
b. injected
c. applied to the skin
d. placed under the tongue
e. inserted with a catheter
2. Drug administration by injection is described as:
a. partial
b. instilled
c. encapsulated
d. a bolus
e. parenteral
3. Define each of the following abbreviations:
a) Rx
b) IM
c) USP
d) ad lib
e) Mg
f) NSAIDs
g) FDA
Case Study: Asthma
E.N., a 20-year-old asthmatic woman, visited the preadmission testing unit one week before her cos- metic
surgery to meet with the nurse and anesthesiologist. Her current meds included several bronchodilators,
which she takes by mouth and by inhalation, and a tranquilizer that she takes when needed for nervousness.
She sometimes receives inhalation treatments with Mucomyst, a mucolytic agent. On E.N.’s preoperative
note, the nurse wrote:
Theo-Dur 1 cap tid.
Flovent inhaler 1 spray (50 mcg) each nostril bid. Ativan (lorazepam) 1 mg po bid.
Albuterol—metered dose inhaler 2 puffs (180 mcg) prn q4-6h for bronchospasm and before exercise.
E.N. stated that she has difficulty with her asthma when she is anxious and when she exercises. She also
admitted to occasional use of marijuana and ecstasy, a hallucinogen and mood-altering illegal recre- ational
drug. The anesthesiologist wrote an order for lorazepam 4 mg IV 1 hour preop. The plastic sur- geon
recommended several herbal products to complement her surgery and her recovery. He ordered a high-
potency vitamin 3 tabs with breakfast and dinner to support tissue health and healing. He also prescribed
Bromelain, an enzyme from pineapple, to decrease inflammation, 1 po qid 3 days before surgery and
postoperatively for 2 weeks. Arnica Montana was prescribed to decrease discomfort, swelling, and bruising;
3 tabs sublingual tid the evening after surgery and for the following 10 days.

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CASE STUDY QUESTIONS
Multiple choice: Select the best answer and write the letter of your choice to the left of each number.
1. P.L.’s nitroglycerine is ordered: prn SL. This means:
a. as needed, under the tongue
b. at bedtime, under the tongue
c. as needed, on the skin
d. by mouth, on the skin
e. by mouth, under the skin
2. P.L. took several OTC preparations. OTC means:
a. on the cutaneous
b. off the cuff
c. over the counter
d. do not need a prescription
e. c and d
3. P.L.’s herbal sleeping potion was mixed into tea and taken at bedtime. The dissolved mix- ture is
called a(n) and is taken at .
a. elixir and QAM
b. emulsion and bid
c. suspension and hs
d. aqueous solution and hs
e. aqueous solution and QAM
4. During P.L.’s resuscitation, epinephrine was given in an IV bolus. This means it was administered:
a. intrathecally in a continuous drip
b. parenterally in a topical solution
c. intravenously in a continuous drip
d. intravenously in a rapid concentrated dose
e. intrathecally in a rapid concentrated dose
5. P.L. had a secondary diagnosis of polypharmacy. This means that she:
a. used more than one drug store
b. had polyps
c. used more prescription than OTC drugs
d. had a toxic dose
e. used many different drugs
6. A.E. takes several drugs to prevent or act against his inflammatory response. These agents are called

a. contrainflammatory
b. counterinflammatory
c. anti-inflammatory
d. corticosteroids
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 e. NSAIDs
7. A.E. presented with several untoward results or risks from the corticosteroid therapy. These sequelae
are called:
a. contraindications
b. side effects
c. antagonistic effects
d. exacerbations
e. synergy states
8. A.E. takes four 250-mg capsules of Pentasa po bid. How many capsules does he take in one day?
a. 2,000
b. 1,000
c. 4
d. 8
e. 12
9. A.E. must avoid NSAIDs; therefore, these drugs are in inflammatory bowel disease.
a. contraindicated
b. indicated
c. complementary
d. synergistic
e. prescriptive
10. E.N. used a mucolytic drug when needed. This drug’s action is to:
a. increase secretions
b. decrease spasm
c. calm anxiety
d. decrease mucus secretions
e. simulate mucus
11. E.N.’s Flovent inhaler is indicated as 1 spray of 50 mcg in each nostril bid. How many micrograms
(mcg) does she get in 1 day?
a. 100 mcg
b. 200 mcg
c. 250 mcg
d. 500 mcg
e. 5,000 mcg
12. The Ativan that E.N. takes for nervousness is a(n)
a. anxiolytic
b. potentiating
c. antiemetic
d. analgesic
e. Bronchodilator drug.
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13. The anesthesiologist ordered lorazepam (Ativan) to be given IV preop to decrease anxiety and to
smooth E.N.’s anesthesia induction. The complementary way that lorazepam and anesthesia work
together is called:
a. antagonistic
b. complementary medicine
c. parasympathomimetic
d. tolerance
e. synergy
14. Arnica Montana was prescribed 3 tabs SL tid. How many tabs would E.N. take in 1 day?
a. 6
b. 9
c. 12
d. 21
e. 33
15. Flovent is administered as an inhalant. The form in which the drug is prepared is called a(n) .
a. emulsion
b. elixir
c. aerosol
d. suspension
e. unguent

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 Disorders of the Veins
A breakdown in the valves of the veins in combination with a chronic dilatation of these vessels results in
varicose veins. These appear twisted and swollen under the skin, most commonly in the legs. Contributing
factors include heredity, obesity, prolonged standing, and pregnancy, which increases pressure in the pelvic
veins. This condition can impede blood flow and lead to edema, thrombosis, hemorrhage, or ulceration.
Treatment includes the wearing of elastic stockings and, in some cases, surgical removal of the
varicosities, after which collateral circulation is established. A varicose vein in the rectum or anal canal is
referred to as a hemorrhoid.
Phlebitis is any inflammation of the veins and may be caused by infection, injury, poor circulation, or dam-
age to valves in the veins. Such inflammation typically initiates formation of a blood clot, resulting in
thrombophlebitis. Any veins are subject to thrombophlebitis, but the more serious condition involves the
deep veins as opposed to the superficial veins, in the condition termed deep vein thrombosis (DVT). The
most common sites for DVT are the deep veins of the legs, causing serious reduction in venous drainage
from these areas.

Lymphatic Disorders
Changes in the lymphatic system often are related to infection and may consist of inflammation
and enlargement of the nodes, called lymphadenitis, or inflammation of the vessels, called
lymphangiitis. Obstruction of lymphatic vessels because of surgical excision or infection results
in tissue swelling, or lymphedema. Any neo- plastic disease involving lymphnodesis termed
lymphoma. These neoplastic disorders affect the white cells found in the lymphatic system.

TABLE 9-3 Roots for the Lymphatic System

ROOT MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF

EXAMPLE
lymph/o lymph, lymphatic Lymphoid resembling lymph or
system lymphatic tissue
LIM-foyd
lymphaden/ lymph node lymphadenectom surgical removal of a lymph
o node
_y _
lim-fad-e-NEK-
to-me
lymphangi/ lymphatic vessel lymphan_gio_ma tumor of lymphatic vessels
o
lim-fan-je-O-ma
splen/o spleen sple_nom_ egaly enlargement of the spleen

PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
 _
sple-no-MEG-
a-le
thym/o thymus gland athym_ ia _ absence of the thymus
gland
a-THI-me-a
tonsill/o tonsil tonsillar pertaining to a tonsil
TON-sil-ar

Blood circulates through the vessels, bringing oxygen and nourishment to all cells and carrying away waste
products. The total adult blood volume is about 5 liters (5.2 quarts). Whole blood can be di- vided into two main
components: the liquid portion, or plasma (55%), and formed elements, or blood cells (45%).
Blood Plasma
Plasma is about 90% water. The remaining 10% contains nutrients, electrolytes (dissolved salts), gases, albumin
(a protein), clotting factors, antibodies, wastes, enzymes, and hormones. A host of these sub- stances are tested
for in blood chemistry tests. The pH (relative acidity) of the plasma remains steady at about 7.4.
Blood Cells
The blood cells (Fig. 10-1) are erythrocytes, or red blood cells; leukocytes, or white blood cells; and platelets, also
called thrombocytes. All blood cells are produced in red bone marrow. Some white blood cells multiply in
lymphoid tissue as well.
Erythrocytes

PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
The major function of erythrocytes is to carry oxygen to cells. This oxygen is bound to an iron-containing
pigment within the cells called hemoglobin. Erythrocytes are small, disk-shaped cells with no nucleus. Their
concentration of about 5 million per L (cubic millimeter) of blood makes them by far the most nu- merous of
the blood cells. The hemoglobin that they carry averages 15 g per deciliter (100 mL) of blood. A red blood cell
gradually wears out and dies in about 120 days, so these cells must be constantly replaced. Production of red cells
in the bone marrow is regulated by the hormone erythropoietin (EPO), which is made in the kidneys.
Leukocytes
White blood cells all show prominent nuclei when stained. They total about 5,000 to 10,000 per L, but their
number may increase during infection. There are five different types of leukocytes, which are identified by the
size and appearance of the nucleus and by their staining properties. Granular leukocytes or granulocytes have
visible granules in the cytoplasm when stained; there are three types of granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils,
and basophils, named for the kind of stain they take up. Agranulocytes do not have visible gran- ules when
stained. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes and monocytes.
Characteristics of the different types of white cells
White blood cells protect against foreign substances. Some engulf foreign material by the process of phago-
cytosis; others function as part of the immune system. In diagnosis it is important to know not only the total
number of leukocytes but also the relative number of each type because these numbers can change in differ- ent
disease conditions. The most numerous white blood cells, neutrophils, are called polymorphs because of their
various-shaped nuclei. They are also referred to as segs, polys, or PMNs (polymorphonuclear leukocytes). A band
cell, also called a stab or staff cell, is an immature neutrophil with a solid curved nucleus (Fig. 10-2). Large
numbers of band cells in the blood indicate an active infection.

TABLE 10-1 Suffixes for Blood

SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF

EXAMPLE
-emia,* -hemia condition of blood pach_ye_mia_ thickness (pachy-) of the
blood
pak-e-E-me-
a
-penia decrease in, le uk ope_nia deficiency of leukocytes in
_ _
deficiency of the blood
_
lu-ko-PE-ne-
a
-poiesis formation, he_mo_poiesis production of blood cells
production
_
he-mo-poy-
E-sis
*A shortened form of the root hem
PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
plus the suffix -ia.
TABLE 10-2 Roots for Blood and Immunity

ROOT MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF

m_yelogen EXAMPLE
myel/o bone marrow ous mi -e- originating in bone
LOJ-e-nus marrow
hem/o, hemat/o blood hemorrhag profuse flow (-rhage) of
e HEM-or- blood
ij
erythr/o, red blood cell condition of increased
erythro_cyt
erythrocyt/o red
_osis_ blood cells
leuk/o, leukocyt/o white blood e-rith-ro-si-TO- production of white
cell sis blood cells
lymph/o, lymphocyte le_uko_poiesi_s immature lymphocyte
lymphocyt/o LU-ko-poy-E-sis
thromb/o lymph_obl pertaining to dissolving a
blood clot
ast LIM- blood
fo-blast clot
thrombocyt/o platelet, thrombo_l deficiency of platelets in
ytic the
thrombocyte throm-bo- blood
immun/o immunity, LIT-ik production of immunity
immune thrombo_cyt_op_
system
en_ia _ throm-
bo-si -to-PE-ne-
a
imm_uniza_tion
im-u-ni-ZA-shun
Upper Respiratory Passageways

Air is carried to and from the lungs in a series of tubes in which no gas exchange
occurs. Refer to Figure 11-1 as you read the following description of the respiratory
tract. Air enters through the nose, where it is warmed, fil- tered, and moistened as it
passes over the hair-covered mucous membranes of the nasal cavity. Cilia, microscopic
hairlike projections from the cells that line the nose, sweep dirt and foreign material
PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
 toward the throat for elim- ination. Material that is eliminated from the respiratory tract
by coughing or clearing the throat is called sputum. In the bones of the skull and face
near the nose are air-filled cavities lined with mucous membranes that drain into the
nasal cavity. These chambers lighten the bones and provide resonance for speech
production. Each of these cavities is called a sinus, and they are named specifically
for the bones in which they are lo- cated, such as the sphenoid, ethmoid, and
maxillary sinuses. Together, because they are near the nose, these
cavities are referred to as the paranasal sinuses (see Fig. 11-1).
Receptors for the sense of smell are located within bony side projections of the nasal
cavity called turbinate bones or conchae.
Inhaled air passes into the throat, or pharynx, where it mixes with air that enters
through the mouth and also with food destined for the digestive tract. The pharynx and
associated structures are shown in Figure 12-2. The pharynx is divided into three
regions: (1) an upper portion, the nasopharynx, behind the nasal cavity;
(2) a middle portion, the oropharynx, behind the mouth; and (3) a lower portion, the
laryngeal pharynx, be- hind the larynx. The palatine tonsils are on either side of the
soft palate in the oropharynx; the pharyngeal tonsils, or adenoids, are in the
nasopharynx.

LowerRespiratoryPassagewaysandLungs

The pharynx conducts air into the trachea, a tube reinforced with C-shaped rings of cartilage to
prevent its collapse (you can feel these rings if you press your fingers gently against the front of
your throat). Cilia in the lining of the trachea move impurities up toward the throat, where they
can be eliminated by swallowing or by expectoration. At the top of the trachea is the larynx (Fig.
11-2). The larynx is shaped by nine cartilages, the most prominent of which is the thyroid cartilage
at the front that forms the “Adam’s apple.” The opening between the vocal cords is the glottis.
The small leaf-shaped cartilage at the top of the larynx is called the epiglottis. When one
swallows, the epiglottis covers the opening of the larynx and helps to prevent food from entering
the respiratory tract.
The larynx contains the vocal cords, folds of tissue that are important in speech production (Fig.
11-3). Vibrations produced by air passing over the vocal cords form the basis for voice production,
although portions of the throat and mouth are needed for proper articulation of speech.
The trachea is contained in a region known as the mediastinum, which consists of the space
between the lungs together with the organs contained in this space (see Fig. 11-1). In addition to
the trachea, the mediastinum contains the heart, esophagus, large vessels, and other tissues.
At its lower end, the trachea divides into a right and a left main stem bronchus that enter the
lungs. The right bronchus is shorter and wider; it divides into three secondary bronchi that
enter the three lobes of the right lung. The left bronchus divides into two branches that supply
PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
the two lobes of the left lung. Further di- visions produce an increasing number of smaller tubes
that supply air to smaller subdivisions of lung tissue. As the air passageways progress through
the lungs, the cartilage in the walls gradually disappears and is re- placed by smooth
(involuntary) muscle.
Word Parts Pertaining to Respiration

TABLE 11-1 Suffixes for Respiration

SU MEA EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF EXAMPLE
FFI NING orthopnea difficulty in breathing except in
X breathin or-THOP- an upright (-ortho) position
_
- level of ne-a decreased amount of oxygen in
ox oxygen h_ypoxia the tissues
_
-capnia* level of carbon hi-POK-se-a
dioxide h_ypercapni
- v a hi-per- difficulty in
_
pho
TABLE 11-3oi Roots for the Lungs and Breathing speaking
dis-FO-
KAP-ne-a
ne-a
ROOT MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF
phrenic EXAMPLE
phren/o diaphragm FREN-ik pertaining to the diaphragm

phrenic/o phrenic nerve phrenic_otri crushing of the phrenic

psy _ fren- nerve
pleur/o pleura i-ko-TRIP- fusion of the pleura
se
pulm/o, pulmon/o lungs within the lungs
ple_urodesis
pneumon/o lung plu-ROD-e- surgical removal of a lung
sis or lung
intrapulmona_ tissue (pneumectomy and
pul-
ry
monectomy also used)
pneum/o, air, gas; also presence of air in the heart
pneumat/o _ in-tra-PUL-
respiration, mo-ner-e
lung pn_eum_
spir/o breathing onecto_my instrument for measuring
_
breathing
nu-mo-NEK-
volumes
to-me

pn_euma_toca
rdia_ nu-ma-
PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
to-KAR-de-a
sp_irometer
spi-ROM-e-ter
Infections
Pneumonia is caused by several different microorganisms, most commonly bacteria and viruses.
Viral pneu- monia is more diffuse and is commonly caused by influenza virus, adenovirus and, in
young children, respi- ratory syncytial virus (RSV). Bacterial agents are most commonly
Streptococcus pneumoniae and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Bronchopneumonia (bronchial pneumonia)
begins in terminal bronchioles, which become clogged with exudate and form consolidated
(solidified) patches. Lobar pneumonia is an acute disease that involves one or more lobes of the
lung (Fig. 11-5). Pneumonia usually can be treated successfully in other- wise healthy people, but
in debilitated patients it is a leading cause of death. Immunocompromised patients, such as those
with AIDS, are often subject to a form of pneumonia called Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia
(PCP), which is caused by a protozoon.
The term pneumonia is also applied to inflammation of the lungs caused by noninfectious causes, such as
asthma, allergy, or inhalation of irritants. In these cases, however, the more general term
pneumonitis is often used.
The incidence of tuberculosis (TB) has increased in recent years, along with the increase of
AIDS and the ap- pearance of antibiotic resistance in the organism that causes the disease,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). (This organism, because of its staining properties, also is
referred to as AFB, meaning acid-fast bacillus.) The name tu- berculosis comes from the small
lesions, or tubercles, that appear with the infection. The symptoms of TB in- clude fever, weight
loss, weakness, cough and, as a result of damage to blood vessels in the lungs, hemoptysis, the
coughing up of sputum containing blood. Sputum analysis is used to isolate, stain, and
identify infectious organisms. Accumulation of exudate in the alveoli may result in
consolidation of lung tissue. The tuberculin test is used to test for tuberculosis infection. The
test material that is used, tuberculin, is made from byproducts of the tuberculosis organism. PPD
(purified protein derivative) is the form of tuberculin commonly used.
Influenza is a viral disease of the respiratory tract. Different strains of the influenza virus have
caused se- rious epidemics throughout history.

Emphysema
Emphysema is a chronic disease associated with overexpansion and destruction of the alveoli.
Common causes are exposure to cigarette smoke and other forms of pollution as well as chronic
infection. Emphysema is the main disorder included under the heading of chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) (also called COLD, chronic obstructive lung disease). Other
conditions included in this category are asthma, chronic bronchitis, and bronchiectasis.

Asthma
Attacks of asthma result from narrowing of the bronchial tubes. This constriction, along with
edema (swelling) of the bronchial linings and accumulation of mucus, results in wheezing, extreme
PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
dyspnea (diffi- culty in breathing), and cyanosis. Asthma is most common in children. Although its
causes are uncertain, a main factor is irritation caused by allergy. Heredity may also play a role.
Treatment of asthma includes re- moval of allergens, administration of bronchodilators to widen
the airways, and administration of steroids.

Pneumoconiosis
Chronic irritation and inflammation caused by inhalation of dust particles is termed
pneumoconiosis. This is an occupational hazard seen mainly in people involved in the mining
and stoneworking industries. Dif- ferent forms of pneumoconiosis are named for the specific
type of dust inhaled: silicosis (silica or quartz), anthracosis (coal dust), asbestosis (asbestos
fibers).
Although the term pneumoconiosis is limited to conditions caused by inhalation of inorganic dust,
lung irritation may also result from inhalation of organic dusts, such as textile or grain dusts.

Disorders of the Pleura

Pleurisy, also called pleuritis, is an inflammation of the pleura, usually associated with infection.
Pain is the common symptom of pleurisy. Because this pain is intensified by breathing or
coughing, as the inflamed membranes move, breathing becomes rapid and shallow. Analgesics
and anti-inflammatory drugs are used to treat the symptoms of pleurisy.
As a result of injury, infection, or weakness in the pleural membrane, substances may accumulate
between the layers of the pleura. When air or gas collects in this space, the condition is termed
pneumothorax (Fig. 11-6). Compression may result in collapse of the lung, termed atelectasis.
In pleural effusion, other materials accumulate in the pleural space (Fig. 11-7). Depending on
the sub- stances involved, these are described as empyema (pus), also termed pyothorax;
hemothorax (blood); or hydrothorax (fluid). Causes of these conditions include injury,
infection, heart failure, and pulmonary em- bolism. Thoracentesis, needle puncture of the
chest to remove fluids (Fig. 11-8), or fusion of the pleural membranes (pleurodesis) may be
required.

Lung Cancer
Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in both men and women. The incidence of
this form of cancer has increased steadily over the past 50 years, especially in women. Cigarette
smoking is a major risk factor in this as well as other forms of cancer. The most common form of
lung cancer is squamous carcinoma, originating in the lining of the bronchi (bronchogenic). Lung
cancer usually cannot be detected early, and it metastasizes rapidly. The overall survival rate is
low.
Methods used to diagnose lung cancer include radiographic studies, computed tomography

PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
(CT) scans, and examination of sputum for cancer cells. A bronchoscope can be used to examine
the airways and to col- lect tissue samples for study. Surgical or needle biopsies may also be
taken.

Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS)

Respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn, also called hyaline membrane disease, occurs in
premature infants and is the most common cause of death in this group. It results from a lack of
surfactant in the lungs, which reduces compliance. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS),
also known as shock lung, may re- sult from trauma, allergic reactions, infection, and other causes.
It involves edema that can lead to respira- tory failure and death if untreated.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The function of the digestive system (Fig. 12-1) is to prepare food for intake by body cells.
Nutri- ents must be broken down by mechanical and chemical means into molecules that are small
enough to be absorbed into the circulation. Within cells, the nutrients are used for energy and
for rebuilding vital cell components. Digestion takes place in the digestive tract proper, also
called the alimen- tary canal or gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Also contributing to the digestive
process are several accessory organs that release secretions into the small intestine. Food is
moved through the digestive tract by peri- stalsis, wavelike contractions of the organ walls.
Peristalsis also moves undigested waste material out of the body.

PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
TABLE 12-1 Roots for the Mouth

ROOT MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF

EXAMPLE
or/o mouth perio_ral around the mouth

per-e-OR-al
stoma, mouth sto_matiti_s inflammation of the mouth
stomat/o
sto-ma-TI-tis
gnath/o jaw prognathous having a projecting jaw
PROG-na-thus
labi/o lip la_bio_d_ental pertaining to the lip and teeth
la-be-o-DEN- (dent/o)
tal
bucc/o cheek bucco_version turning toward the cheek

buk-ko-VER-
zhun
dent/o, dent/i tooth, teeth Dentifrice a substance used to clean the
teeth
DEN-ti-fris
odont/o tooth, teeth perio_d_ontist dentist who treats the tissues
around
per-e-o-DON- the teeth
tist
gingiv/o gum (gingiva) gingivectom_ y excision of gum tissue

_
jin-ji-VEK-to-
me
lingu/o tongue Sublingual under the tongue
sub-LING-
gwal
gloss/o tongue gloss_opharyng pertaining to the tongue and
pharynx
e_al
glos-o-fa-RIN-
ge-al
sial/o saliva, salivary s_ialogr_am radiograph of the salivary
gland, glands and
si-AL-o-gram
salivary duct PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT
ducts 18
palat/o palate palatorrhaphy_ suture of the palate

pal-at-OR-a-fe
TABLE 12-2 Roots for the Digestive Tract (Except the Mouth)

ROOT MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF EXAMPLE

esophag/o Esophagus esophag_ pertaining to the esophagus

gastr/o Stomach eal* e- partial paralysis of the stomach

sof-a-JE-
pylor/o Pylorus al narrowing of the pylorus

enter/o Intestine gastro_par infectious disease of the intestine

esis_
duoden/o Duodenum endoscopic examination of the
gas-tro-pa-RE- duodenum
sis
jejun/o Jejunum incision of the jejunum
p_yloros_tenosis
ile/o Ileum excision of the ileum
_
cec/o Cecum pi-lor-o-ste- downward displacement of the
NO-sis cecum
col/o, dysentery surgical puncture of the colon
Colon
colon/o _ DIS-en-
ter-e
sigmoid/o sigmoid an endoscope for examining the
duodenosc
colon sigmoid colon
opy
du-o-de-NOS-
ko-pe
jeju_notom
y_ _ je-ju-
NOT-o-me
ile_ectom_
y_
il-e-EK-to-me
c_ecoptosi_s
se-kop-TO-sis
co_lo_cente
sis_ ko-lo-
sen-TE-sis
sigmoidosco

PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
 _pe _ sig-
MOY-do-
skop

TABLE 12-2 Roots for the Digestive Tract, continued

ROOT EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF EXAMPLE

MEANING
rect/o rectum rectoc_ele_ hernia of the rectum

REK-to-sel
proct/o rectum proctop_exy surgical fixation of the rectum

_
PROK-to-
pek-se
an/o anus t_ran_sanal through the anus

a-no-REK-tal
*Note addition of e before
-al.

TABLE 12-3 Roots for the Accessory Organs

ROOT MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF

EXAMPLE
hepat/o liver hepatoc_yte_ a liver cell
HEP-a-to-sit
Bili bile bilia_ry _ pertaining to the bile or bile
ducts
BIL-e-ar-e
chol/e, bile, gall ch_ole_lith gallstone, biliary calculus
chol/o
KO-le-lith
cholecyst/o gallbladder ch_ol_ecystorrhap suture of the gallbladder

hy_
ko-le-sis-TOR-
a-fe
PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
cholangi/o bile duct ch_olangio_g_ra radiograph of the bile ducts
m
ko-LAN-je-o-
gram
choledoch/o common bile ch_oledochal pertaining to the common
duct bile duct
ko-LED-o-kal
pancreat/o pancreas pancre_atolysis dissolving of the pancreas

pan-kre-a-TOL-
i-sis

APPENDICITIS
Appendicitis results from infection of the appendix, often secondary to its obstruction. Surgery is necessary
to avoid rupture and peritonitis, infection of the peritoneal cavity.
DIVERTICULITIS
Diverticula are small pouches in the wall of the intestine, most commonly in the colon. If these pouches are
present in large number the condition is termed diverticulosis, which has been attributed to a diet low
in fiber. Collection of waste and bacteria in these sacs leads to diverticulitis, which is accompanied by pain
and sometimes bleeding. Diverticula can be seen by radiographic studies of the lower GI tract using barium
as a contrast medium, a so-called barium enema (Fig. 12-9). Although there is no cure, diverticulitis is
treated with diet, stool softeners, and drugs to reduce motility (antispasmodics).
DISORDERS

appendici_tis
a-pen-di-SI-tis
asc_ite_s
a-SI-tez

bilirub_in
bil-i-RU-bin
ch_ol_ecystit_is
ko-l e-sis-T I -tis
ch_ol_elithias_is
ko-l e -li-THI-a-sis
cirrh_osis
sir-RO-sis
PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
colic
KOL-ik
Cr_ohn disease
kron
d_iarrh_ea
di -a-RE-a
d_iverticuli_tis_
di -ver-tik-u-LI-tis
d_iverticulo_sis_
di -ver-tik-u-LO-sis
dysph_ag_ia
dis-FA-j e -a
emesis
EM-e-sis
fistul_a
FIS-tu-la

DISORDERS

appendici_tis
a-pen-di-SI-tis
asc_ite_s
a-SI-tez

bilirub_in
bil-i-RU-bin
ch_ol_ecystit_is
ko-l e-sis-T I -tis
ch_ol_elithias_is
ko-l e -li-THI-a-sis
cirrh_osis
sir-RO-sis

PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
colic
KOL-ik
Cr_ohn disease
kron
d_iarrh_ea
di -a-RE-a
d_iverticuli_tis_
di -ver-tik-u-LI-tis
d_iverticulo_sis_
di -ver-tik-u-LO-sis
dysph_ag_ia
dis-FA-j e -a
emesis
EM-e-sis
fistul_a
FIS-tu-la

PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
 Key Clinical Terms

Appendicitis- Inflammation of the appendix

Ascites- Accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity; a form of edema. May be
caused by heart disease, lymphatic or venous obstruction, cirrho- sis, or changes in
plasma composition.
Bilirubin- A pigment released in the breakdown of hemoglobin from red blood cells; mainly
excreted by the liver in bile
ch_ol_ecystit_is- Inflammation of the gallbladder
ch_ol_elithias_is- The condition of having stones in the gallbladder; also used to refer to
stones in the common bile duct
cirrh_osis- Chronic liver disease with degeneration of liver tissue
colic- Acute abdominal pain, such as biliary colic caused by gallstones in the bile ducts
Crohn disease- A chronic inflammatory disease of the gastrointestinal tract usually involving
the ileum
d_iarrh_ea- The frequent passage of watery bowel movements
d_iverticulo_sis- Inflammation of diverticula (small pouches) in the wall of the diges- tive
tract, especially in the colon

dysph_ag_ia- colon Difficulty in swallowing

emesis- Vomiting
fistula- An abnormal passageway between two organs or from an organ to the
body surface, such as between the rectum and anus (anorectal fistula)

PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
 T he urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, the urinary bladder, and a
urethra (Fig. 13-1). This system forms and eliminates urine, which contains
metabolic waste products. The kidneys, the organs of excretion, also regulate the
composition, volume, and acid–base balance (pH) of body flu-
ids. Thus they are of critical importance in maintaining the state of internal balance
known as homeostasis. In addition, they produce two substances that act on the
circulatory system. Erythropoietin (EPO) is a hor- mone that stimulates the
production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. Renin is an enzyme that func-
tions to raise blood pressure. It does so by activating a blood component called
angiotensin, which causes constriction of the blood vessels. The drugs known as
ACE inhibitors (angiotensin-converting enzyme in- hibitors) lower blood pressure
by interfering with the production of angiotensin.

PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
 Roots Pertaining to the UrinarySystem

LE 13-1 Roots for the Kidney

T MEANIN EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF EXAMPLE

G infraren_al
kidney in-fra-RE-nal below the kidney

/o kidney nephr_osis any noninflammatory disease

nef-RO-sis condition of the
juxtaglom_erula kidney
erul/o glomerulu near the glomerulus
r _ juks-ta-glo-
s
MER-u-lar
o renal p_yelop_lasty plastic repair of the renal pelvis
pelvis
_
calic- calyx dilatation of a renal calyx
pi -e-lo-PLAS-te
calicectasis
kal-i-SEK-ta-sis

LE 13-2 Roots for the Urinary Tract (Except the Kidney)

OT MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF EXAMPLE
urine, u_ro_sepsis generalized infection that originates in the
urinary
urinary tract u-ro-SEP-sis tract
o urine u_rinati_on discharge of urine
u-ri-NA-shun
r/o ureter u_re_terost_enosis narrowing of the ureter

_
u-re-ter-o-ste-
NO-sis
o urinary cystotom_y _ incision of the bladder
bladder

PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
 sis-TOT-o-me
/o urinary intravesical within the urinary bladder
bladder
in-tra-VES-i-kal
r/o urethra u_re_throscopy endoscopic examination of the urethra
_
_
u-re-THROS-ko-
pe

Clinical Aspects of the Urinary System

Infections
Organisms that infect the urinary tract generally enter through the urethra and ascend
toward the bladder. Although urinary tract infections (UTIs) do occur in males, they appear
more commonly in females. Infec- tion of the urinary bladder produces cystitis. The
infecting organisms are usually colon bacteria carried in feces, particularly Escherichia coli.
Cystitis is more common in females than in males because the female ure- thra is shorter than
the male urethra and the opening is closer to the anus. Poor toilet habits and urinary stasis
are contributing factors. In the hospital, UTIs may result from procedures involving the
urinary sys- tem, especially catheterization, in which a tube is inserted into the bladder to
withdraw urine (Fig. 13-5). Less frequently, UTIs originate in the blood and descend
through the urinary system.
An infection that involves the kidney and renal pelvis is termed pyelonephritis. As in cystitis,
signs of this condition include dysuria, painful or difficult urination, and the presence of
bacteria and pus in the urine, bacteriuria and pyuria, respectively.
Urethritis is inflammation of the urethra, generally associated with sexually
transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea and chlamydial infections (see Chapter 14).

PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
Glomerulonephritis
Although the name simply means inflammation of the kidney and glomeruli, glomerulonephritis is a
specific disorder that occurs after an immunologic reaction. It is usually a response to infection in another
system, com- monly a streptococcal infection of the respiratory tract or a skin infection. It may also
accompany autoimmune diseases such as lupus erythematosus. The symptoms are hypertension, edema,
and oliguria, the passage of small amounts of urine. This urine is highly concentrated. Because of damage
to kidney tissue, blood and pro- teins escape into the nephrons, causing hematuria, blood in the urine, and
proteinuria, protein in the urine. Blood cells may also form into small molds of the kidney tubule, called
casts, which can be found in the urine. Most patients recover fully from glomerulonephritis, but in some
cases, especially among the elderly, the disorder may lead to chronic renal failure (CRF) or end-stage
renal disease (ESRD). In such cases, urea and other nitrogen-containing compounds accumulate in the
blood, a condition termed uremia. These com- pounds affect the central nervous system, causing
irritability, loss of appetite, stupor, and other symptoms.
There is also electrolyte imbalance and acidosis.

Urinary System, With Blood Vessels

Write the name of each numbered part on the corresponding line of the answer sheet.

1
13

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2
8

9
3

1
2

11

1
0

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 T he function of the gonads (sex glands) in both males and females is to produce
the reproductive cells, the gametes, and to produce hormones. The gametes are
generated by meiosis, a process of cell di- vision that halves the chromosome
number from 46 to 23. When male and female gametes unite in
fertilization, the original chromosome number is restored. The sex hormones aid in the
manufacture of the gametes, function in pregnancy and lactation, and also produce the
secondary sex characteristics such as the typical size, shape, body hair, and voice that
we associate with the male and female genders.
The reproductive tract develops in close association with the urinary tract. In
females, the two systems be- come completely separate, whereas the male reproductive
and urinary tracts share a common passage, the ure- thra. Thus, the two systems are
referred to together as the genitourinary (GU) or urogenital (UG) tract, and
urologists are called on to treat disorders of the male reproductive system as well as of
the urinary system.

The Testes

The male germ cells, the spermatozoa (sperm cells), are produced in the paired
testes (singular, testis) that are suspended outside of the body in the scrotum (Fig.
14-1). Although the testes develop in the ab- dominal cavity, they normally descend
through the inguinal canal into the scrotum before birth or shortly

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 Peritoneal cavity

FIGURE 14-1. Male genitourinary system. The arrows indicate the course of sperm cells
through the duct system. (Reprinted with permission from Cohen BJ, Wood DL. Memmler’s
The Human Body in Health and Disease. 9th Ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins,
2000.)
Roots Pertaining to Male Reproduction

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The TABLE 14-1 Roots Pertaining to Male Reproduction Female

ROOT MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF

testicula EXAMPLE
test/o testis, testicle _r tes- pertaining to a testicle

orchi/o, orchid/o Testis TIK-u- absence of a testis

lar
semin Semen anorchis to introduce semen into a
m an- woman
sperm/i, semen, OR-kizm deficiency of spermatozoa
spermat/o spermatozoa insemina
te_ in-
epididym/o Epididymis inflammation of the
SEM-i- epididymis
nat
vas/o vas deferens; also suture of the vas deferens
oligos_permi
vessel
vesicul/o seminal vesicle a _ ol-i-go- radiographic study of the
SPER-me-a seminal
epididymitis Vesicles
prostat/o prostate _ instrument for measuring
ep-i-did-i- the
MI-tis Prostate
osche/o scrotum vasorrhap tumor of the scrotum
h_y vas-
OR-a-fe
vesicul_ograp
hy

_ ve-sik-u-
LOG-ra-fe
prostatomete
r pros-ta-
TOM-e-ter
osch_eo_ma
os-ke-O-ma
Reproductive System

The Ovaries
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The female gonads are the paired ovaries (singular, ovary) that are held by
ligaments in the pelvic cavity on either side of the uterus (Fig. 15-1). It is within the
ovaries that the female gametes, the eggs or ova (singu- lar, ovum), develop. Every
month several ova ripen, each within a cluster of cells called a graafian follicle. At
the time of ovulation, usually only one ovum is released from the ovary and the
remainder of the ripening ova degenerate. The follicle remains behind and continues to
function for about 2 weeks if there is no fertil- ization of the ovum and for about 2
months if the ovum is fertilized.

The Oviducts, Uterus, and Vagina

After ovulation, the ovum travels into an oviduct (also called the uterine tube or
fallopian tube), one of the two tubes attached to the upper lateral portions of the
uterus (see Fig. 15-1). These tubes arch above the ovaries and have fingerlike
projections (fimbriae) that sweep the released ovum into the oviduct. If fertiliza- tion
occurs, it usually takes place in the oviduct.
The uterus is the organ that nourishes the developing offspring. It is pear-shaped,
with an upper rounded fundus, a triangular cavity, and a lower narrow cervix that
projects into the vagina. The innermost layer of the uterine wall, the endometrium,
has a rich blood supply. It receives the fertilized ovum and becomes part of the
placenta during pregnancy. The endometrium is shed during the menstrual period if
no fertilization occurs. The muscle layer of the uterine wall is the myometrium.

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 Oviduct (fallopian tube)
Ovary Peritoneal
cavity
Uterus Round ligament
Pubic symphysis

Clitoris Labium minus Labium majus

TABLE 15-2 Roots for the Oviducts, Uterus, and Vagina

ROOT MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF EXAMPLE

salping/o oviduct, tube salpingectom excision of an oviduct

uter/o uterus _y _ sal-pin- pertaining to the uterus

JEK-to-me
metr/o, metr/i uterus u_terine abnormal uterine bleeding

hyster/o uterus U-ter-in endoscopic examination of the

me_tro_rrha_ uterus
cervic/o cervix, neck gia_ me-tro- pertaining to the lining of the
RA-je-a cervix
vagin/o vagina hysteroscopy plastic repair of the vagina
_ _ his-ter-
colp/o vagina hernia of the vagina
OS-ko-pe
endo_cervical
en-do-SER-
vi-kal
vagino_plast
y _ vaj-i-no-
PLAS-te
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 colpoc_ele_
KOL-po-sel

TABLE 15-1 Roots for Female Reproduction and the Ovaries

ROOT MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF

gyn/o, woman g_ynecology EXAMPLE
_
gynec/o* gi-ne-KOL- study of diseases of
_
month, o-je
men/o, menstruation pre menstrua before a menstrual
_
mens l pre-MEN- period
_
stru-al
o ovum, cell that gives rise to an
o_o cyt_e
o egg cell _ ovum
O-o-sit
o ovu lati_on release of an ovum from the
ovum, _
v ov-u-LA- ovary
shun
ova ov o varian pertaining to an
_ _
ri/o ar o-VAR-e-an ovary

oophor/o ovary o oph orotom y incision of an

_ _ _ _ ovary
o-of-o-ROT-
__
*This root may also be pronounced with a soft g, as in o-me
jin-
e-KOL-o-je.

TABLE 15-3 Roots for the Female Accessory Structures

ROOT MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF

vulvar EXAMPLE
vulv/o vulva VUL-var pertaining to the
episio_tomy vulva
episi/o vulva incision of the vulva
_
perine/o perineum pertaining to the
perineum
_ e-piz-e-
clitor/o, clitoris OT-o-me excision of the clitoris

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 perinea_l
clitorid/o
per-i-NE-al
mamm/o breast, mammary plastic surgery of the
cl_itor_ecto
gland breast
my_
mast/o breast, mammary absence of the breasts
gland
_ kli-to-
REK-to-me
mamm_opla
sty _ mam-
o-PLAS-te
amastia _
a-MAS-te-a

Some words pertaining to disease are used as suffixes in compound words. As

previously noted, the term suffix is used in this book to mean any word part that
consistently appears at the end of words. This may be a simple suffix (such as -
y, -ia, -ic), a word, or a root–suffix combination (such as -megaly, -rhagia, -
PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 18
pathy).
The words toxic, toxin, and sclerosis are also used as suffixes in compound
words. The words carcinoma and sarcoma are used as suffixes to indicate
malignant tumors, as in adenocarcinoma and fibrosarcoma.

TABLE 6-4 Words for Disease Used as Suffixes

WORD MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF

vaso_dila_tio_n EXAMPLE
dilation*, expansion, widening of blood vessels
vas-o-di-LA-
widening (vas/o)
shun
dilatation*
bronchie_cta
ectasia, dilation chronic dilation of a
ectasis sis brong-ke- bronchus
EK-ta-sis (bronchi/o)
lymphed_em
edema accumulation of swelling of tissues as a
fluid, a result of
swelling (Fig. 6-6) lim-fe-DE-ma lymphatic blockage
lysis* separation, d_ialysis separation of substances by
loosening, di-AL-i-sis pas-
dissolving, sple_nom_ sage through a membrane
destruction
alacia_ _
malacia softening softening of the spleen
sple-no-ma- (splen/o)
LA-she-a

TABLE 6-4 Words for Disease Used as Suffixes, continued

WO MEA EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF
RD NING oste on ecrosis EXAMPLE
necr death _ _ death of bone tissue
_
pt dropping, os-te-o-ne- drooping of the eyelid
os KRO-sis
downward (blephar/o; Fig. 6-7)
blepharopto
sp displacement, spasm of a bronchus
as prolapse _sis blef-e- (bronch/o)
rop-TO-sis
st sudden suppression of
asi bronchosp
contraction, menstrual (men/o) flow
asm
ste narrowing, _ narrowing of an artery
nosi constriction BRONG-ko-
spazm
*May also refer to
treatment.

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 TABLE 6-4 Words for Disease Used as Suffixes, continued
WO MEA EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF
RD NING oste on ecrosis EXAMPLE
necr death _ _ death of bone tissue
_
pt dropping, os-te-o-ne- drooping of the eyelid
os KRO-sis
downward (blephar/o; Fig. 6-7)
blepharopto
sp displacement, spasm of a bronchus
as prolapse _sis blef-e- (bronch/o)
rop-TO-sis
st sudden suppression of
asi bronchosp
contraction, menstrual (men/o) flow
asm
ste narrowing, _ narrowing of an artery
nosi constriction BRONG-ko-
spazm
*May also refer to
treatment.

TABLE 6-5 Prefixes and Roots for Infectious Diseases

WORD MEANING EXAMPLE DEFINITION OF EXAMPLE

PART
PREFIXES staphyl_oco
staphyl/o grapelike ccus staf-i- a round bacterium that forms
cluster lo-KOK-us clusters
strept/o twisted chain strepto_baci a rod-shaped bacterium that
llus strep- forms chains
ROOTS to-ba-SIL-
bacill/i, Bacillus us bacilli in the urine (-uria)
bacill/o
bacillur_i
bacteri/o Bacterium agent that kills (-cide) bacteria
a _ bas-i-
myc/o fungus, mold LU-re-a any disease condition caused by
bactericid a fungus
vir/o Virus e_ bak- presence of viruses in the blood
TER-i- (-emia)
sid
m_ycos_i
s

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mi -
KO-sis
v_irem_
ia _ vi-
RE-me-
a

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