Fundamentals of

Surveying
Engr. Jayson Z. Ferolin
Taping and Pacing
Measurement of Distance
In plane surveying, determining the accurate distance between
two points is fundamental. This measurement typically refers to the
horizontal distance, even when points are at different elevations. If
measured along an inclined line, the distance is later reduced to its
horizontal equivalent.

Several methods are used to measure distances, and the choice

depends on factors like the purpose, required precision, and cost.
Common methods in surveying include pacing, taping, tachymetric,
graphical, mathematical, mechanical, photogrammetric, and electronic
distance measurement. Sometimes, a combination of methods may be
applied for better results.
Distance by Pacing
• Pacing involves counting the
number of steps to measure
distance.
• A "pace" is the length of a step,
either measured from heel to heel
or toe to toe.
• Surveyors may also count
"strides," which equal two paces.
• Pacing is practical for many
surveying tasks, providing a quick
way to check other measurements
and estimate approximate
distances where high precision
isn't needed.
Distance by Pacing
• Pacing is useful for small-scale
mapping, reconnaissance
surveys, and various fields like
geology, forestry, engineering,
and agriculture.
• A skilled pacer can achieve
relative precision of about 1/200,
with potential accuracy within 1%
of a correctly measured distance.
Errors are usually less than 3%
unless there is a counting
mistake.
Pacing How-To
• To pace accurately, a surveyor first determines their "pace factor,"
or average step length. This is done by walking a known distance on
level ground several times, counting the paces, and dividing the
distance by the average number of steps. The pace factor,
expressed in meters per pace, helps calculate unknown distances
by multiplying the number of paces by the pace factor.
• Walking naturally and straight is crucial for accurate pacing. Factors
such as speed, terrain, clothing, fatigue, and slope can affect the
length of a pace. Uphill pacing results in more steps than downhill,
as the pace length shortens with increased difficulty.
• For long distances, a mechanical counter like a pedometer or
passometer can help keep track of paces. These devices register
steps either manually or automatically as the pacer walks.
(insert video here)
Distance by Taping
• Taping is a common method for
measuring or laying out horizontal
distances using a calibrated tape.
• The tape is stretched between two
points, and the distance is read
directly from the tape.
• This method is widely used in
construction projects such as
buildings, dams, bridges, and
canals, as well as in non-
engineering tasks.
Distance by Taping
• The accuracy of taping depends on the technique used and the care
taken during measurement, with precision ranging from 1:1000 to
1:25,000 or better.
• Historically, surveyors used calibrated ropes and cords for
measurements. Steel tapes became common in the early 20th
century, replacing chains previously used for measuring distances.
• The term "chaining" originates from the use of Gunter’s chain, a tool
introduced in the 1600s, and remains associated with modern tape
measurements. Surveyors involved in taping were once called
"chainmen."
(insert video here)
Measuring Tapes
1. Steel Tape
• also known as surveyor’s or engineer’s tape
• made of a ribbon of steel 0.5 to 1.0 cm in width
• weights 0.8 to 1.5 kg per 30 meters
• for most conventional measurements in surveying and engineering
work
2. Metallic Tape
• also called woven tapes
• made of water-proof linen fabric with woven small brass, copper, or
bronze wires to increase its strength and reduce stretching
• for measuring short distances
3. Non-metallic Tape
• woven from synthetic materials with strong dimensional stability
• coated with a plastic material to reduce effects of moisture,
humidity, and abrasion
4. Invar Tape
• made of an alloy of nickel (35%) and steel (65%)
• very low coefficient of thermal expansion (1/30 to 1/60 that of a steel
tape)
• “invariable” → less affected by temperature changes than steel tape
• used for precise measurements
• 10 times as expensive as ordinary steel tapes
5. Lovar Tape
- properties and costs between conventional
steel tapes and invar tapes
6. Fiberglass Tape
- woven with fiberglass in a longitudinal and
transverse pattern
- does not shrink or stretch with changes in
temperature and humidity
- best used in vicinity of electrical equipment
7. Wires
- used before thin flat steel tapes were produced
- still used in hydrographic survey
8. Builder’s Tape
- have smaller cross sections and lighter than
steel tape
- used in building construction

9. Phosphor-Bronze Tape
- rust-proof tape to use in the vicinity of salt water

10. Nylon-coated Steel Tape

- coated with permanently bonded
nonconducting nylon
- resistant to corrosion and immune to rust
Taping Accessories
1. Range Pole
- also known as flags or lining rods
- used as temporary signals to indicate the location of points
or direction of lines, and to mark alignment.
- usual length: 2.0 or 3.0 meters
- marked with alternate red and white sections 30 cm or 50
cm long
2. Tape Clamping Handles
- applies tension with a quick grip on any part of a steel tape
without causing damage to the tape or hands of the
tapeman
3. Chaining Pins
- also known as surveyor’s arrows or taping pins
- stuck in the ground to mark the ends of a measured tape
lengths or partial tape lengths
- made of heavy wire (30 cm long) and painted with alternate
red and white bands
- sets of 11 pins carried on a steel ring are standard
Taping Accessories
4. Tension Handle
- also known as a spring scale
- used at one end of a tape for ensuring the application
of the correct amount of pull on the tape during
measurement
- used in precision taping
5. Tape Thermometer
- used to determine the temperature of the air and the
approximate temperature of the tape during
measurement
- about 10 to 15 cm long and is graduated from
- 30 to 50°C in 2 or 5 degree divisions
6. Plumb Bob
- used for projecting the tape ends to the ground when
the tape must be suspended above the measured line
- weights 0.25 kg and attached to 1.5 m long string or
cord which is free of knots
Taping Accessories
7. Wooden Stake or Hub
- made of 5 cm x 5 cm x 30 cm wood to mark
points, corners, or stations in the ground
8. Leather Thongs
- attached to a ring located near the zero-meter
mark of the tape to provide a comfortable grip
on the tape when measuring
9. Hand Level and Clinometer
- a 15 cm long device which consists of a metal
sighting tube with a level bubble
- used to keep the tape ends at equal elevations
when measuring over rugged terrain, in
approximately determining difference in
elevation of points, and in other field operation
where it is required to produce a level sight
Taping Accessories
10. Tape Repair Kit
- allows emergency repairs to be made on
damaged or broken tapes
11. Crayons
- marking crayons used in surveying are
usually lumber crayons
- about 10 cm long and hexagonal in cross
section (usually in blue, yellow, and red color)
- used for marking points, corners, or stations
by indicating cross marks on paved roads,
sidewalks or walls

Taping Accessories
The Procedure of Taping
• The measurement begins with the head surveyor
carrying the zero end of the tape forward until the rear
surveyor signals to stop.
• The rear surveyor keeps the head surveyor on line by
sighting a range pole or target, and may use a
theodolite for precise alignment.
• The rear surveyor holds the tape at the mark, and the
head surveyor ensures the tape is straight, applies
tension, and marks the ground.
• Both surveyors repeat the measurement for accuracy,
making corrections if necessary.

Procedure of Taping
• On sloped ground, a plumb bob is used, with the tape held at
waist height or lower to minimize error.
• Care is taken not to cover tape graduations with the thumb
during plumbing, and both surveyors align their plumb bobs
over the marks.
• Plumbing and marking require precision; to steady the plumb
bob, it is periodically touched to the ground without resting on it
to prevent errors.

Procedure of Taping
Breaking the Tape
Sometimes a hill is too steep for surveyors to measure all at once using a long
tape. When this happens, they measure shorter parts of the hill, holding the
tape straight. After they measure each part, they add the shorter
measurements to get the total distance. This is called "breaking tape."
There are two ways to do this:
1.The first surveyor walks forward with the tape and stops where they can hold
it straight with the second surveyor. If they are going downhill, they hold the
tape at shoulder height. Using a tool called a plumb bob, they mark the
ground at a certain point, like 80 feet or 25 meters. Then the second surveyor
moves up to that mark, and they keep doing this until they measure the full
length.
2.In the second method, the first surveyor moves forward until their shoulders
are level with the second surveyor's knees or feet. They mark the zero point
on the ground, and the second surveyor calls out the measurement. This is
repeated until the whole distance is measured.
Breaking the Tape
Corrections
Slope Taping
Taped measurements may be made directly along the slopes when the
ground is of uniform inclination and fairly smooth.

𝒅 = 𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 𝒅= 𝒔𝟐 − 𝒉 𝟐
Example:
A measurement is made along a line that is inclined by a vertical angle of 15°25´ as
measured using a hand level and clinometer. The slope measurement is 756.52m.
What is the corresponding horizontal distance?
Example:
A measurement is made along a line that is inclined by a vertical angle of 15°25´ as
measured using a hand level and clinometer. The slope measurement is 756.52m.
What is the corresponding horizontal distance?

s = 756.52 m

α = 15°25´

d = s cos α = 756.25 cos (15°25´)

= 729.30m
(equivalent horizontal length of the line measured along the slope)
Example:
A line XYZ is measured on the slope in two segments. The first segment XY
measures 824.45m and the second segment YZ measures 1244.38m. If the
difference in elevation between points X and Y is 4.25 m and that between Y and Z is
6.47 m, determine the horizontal length of the measured line.
Example:
A line XYZ is measured on the slope in two segments. The first segment XY
measures 824.45m and the second segment YZ measures 1244.38m. If the
difference in elevation between points X and Y is 4.25 m and that between Y and Z is
6.47 m, determine the horizontal length of the measured line.
Z
s2 = 824.45m
h2 = 6.47m
Y d2
s1 = 824.45m
h1 = 6.47m
d1
X

𝑑1 = 𝑠1 2 − ℎ1 2 = 824.45 2 − 4.25 2

= 824.44 𝑚 𝐷 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 = 824.44 + 1244.36

= 𝟐𝟎𝟔𝟖. 𝟖𝟎 𝒎
𝑑2 = 𝑠2 2 − ℎ2 2 = 1244.38 2 − 6.47 2

= 1244.36𝑚
Corrections in Taping
Taping operations could either be of the following: taping to determine an unknown
length (measuring), or taping for the purpose of laying out a required or specified
length.
Corrections to taping are applied by the use of the following rules:

1 – When a line is measured with a tape that is “too long”, the corrections are
applied to the observed length by adding.
2 – When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that is “too
long”, the corrections are subtracted from the known length
3 – When measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that is “too short”, the
corrections are applied opposite to those stated
Too Long Too Short
Measuring + -
Laying Out - +
Correction Due to Incorrect Tape Length
• Manufacturers do not usually guarantee their products to be exactly their correct
length (no standardization certificate)
• Tapes undergo imperfections, stretching, or wear
• Constant use tapes become worn, kinked, or improperly repaired

Positive = tape too long

𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓 = 𝑻𝑳 − 𝑵𝑳
Negative = tape too short

Corrected distances can be determined using:

Cl = total correction to be applied to the measured
𝑴𝑳 length or length to be laid out
𝑪𝒍 = 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓 CL = corrected length of the line to be measured or laid
𝑵𝑳
𝑪𝑳 = 𝑴𝑳 ± 𝑪𝒍 out
ML = measured length or length to be laid out
NL = nominal length of tape
Example:
The length of a line AB measured with a 50-m tape is 465.285m. When the tape is
compared with a standardized invar tape it is found to be 0.016m too long in almost
the same conditions of support, tension, and temperature that existed during
measurement. Determine the correct length of AB.
Example:
The length of a line AB measured with a 50-m tape is 465.285m. When the tape is
compared with a standardized invar tape it is found to be 0.016m too long in almost
the same conditions of support, tension, and temperature that existed during
measurement. Determine the correct length of AB.
Given:
NL = 50m (nominal or indicated length of tape used)
ML = 465.285m (measured length of line AB)
Corr = 0.016m (correction per tape length, with tape being too long)

𝐶𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 𝑀𝐿 465.285
= ; 𝐶𝑙 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 0.016
𝑀𝐿 𝑁𝐿 𝑁𝐿 50
= 0.149 𝑚 (total correction to be applied to measured length of line AB)

𝐶𝐿 = 𝑀𝐿 ± 𝐶𝑙 = 465.285 + 0.149
= 𝟒𝟔𝟓. 𝟒𝟑𝟒𝒎 (correct length of line AB)
Example:
A building 38m x 45m is to be laid out with a 50-m long metallic tape. If during
standardization the tape is found to be only 49.950m, determine the following:
a) Dimensions to be laid out, using this tape, in order that the building shall have the
desired dimensions.
b) Using the same tape what should the diagonals read?
Example:
A building 38m x 45m is to be laid out with a 50-m long metallic tape. If during
standardization the tape is found to be only 49.950m, determine the following:
a) Dimensions to be laid out, using this tape, in order that the building shall have the
desired dimensions.
b) Using the same tape what should the diagonals read?
Given:
NL = 50m (nominal length of tape used)
W = 38m (width of building to be laid out)
L = 45m (length of building to be laid out)
Example:
A building 38m x 45m is to be laid out with a 50-m long metallic tape. If during standardization the tape
is found to be only 49.950m, determine the following:
a) Dimensions to be laid out, using this tape, in order that the building shall have the desired
dimensions.
b) Using the same tape what should the diagonals read?
Correction Due to Slope
When distances are measured along the slope, the equivalent horizontal distance
may correspondingly be determined by applying an approximate slope correction.
s = measured slope distance between points A and B
h = difference in elevation between A and B
ℎ d = equivalent horizontal distance AC
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = (100%)
𝑑 Ch = slope correction of the difference between the
slope length and the horizontal distance, Ch = s - d
s
For gentle slope (<20%):
ℎ2
𝐶ℎ =
2𝑠

θ For steep slopes (20% < s < 30%):

ℎ2 ℎ4
𝐶ℎ = +
2𝑠 8𝑠 3

For very steep slopes (>30%):

𝐶ℎ = 𝑠(1 − cos 𝜃)
For any classification: 𝑑 = 𝑠 − 𝐶ℎ
Example:
Slope distances AB and BC measures 330.49m and 660.97m, respectively. The
differences in elevation are 12.22m for points A and B, and 10.85m for points B and C.
Using the approximate slope correction formula for gentle slopes, determine the
horizontal length of line ABC. Assume that line AB has a rising slope and BC a falling
slope.
Example:
Slope distances AB and BC measures 330.49m and 660.97m, respectively. The
differences in elevation are 12.22m for points A and B, and 10.85m for points B and C.
Using the approximate slope correction formula for gentle slopes, determine the
horizontal length of line ABC. Assume that line AB has a rising slope and BC a falling
slope.
Slope distances AB and BC measures 330.49m and 660.97m, respectively. The differences in elevation
are 12.22m for points A and B, and 10.85m for points B and C. Using the approximate slope correction
formula for gentle slopes, determine the horizontal length of line ABC. Assume that line AB has a rising
slope and BC a falling slope.
Correction due to Temperature
The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as the temperature falls.
α = coefficient of linear expansion
For steel tape:
𝐶𝑡 = 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆 𝐿 α = 11.6 x 10-6 /°C
α = 6.45 x 10-6 /°F
(+) positive = T > Ts T = observed temperature at the time of measurement
(-) negative = T < Ts Ts = temperature at which the tape was standardized, often at 20°C/68 °F
L = length of the tape / length of line measured
Example:
A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116/ºC is known to be 50m
long at 20ºC. The tape was used to measure a line which was found to be 532.28
meters long when the temperature was 35ºC. Determine the following:
a) Temperature correction per tape length
b) Temperature correction for the measured line
c) Correct length of line
Example:
A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116/ºC is known to be 50m
long at 20ºC. The tape was used to measure a line which was found to be 532.28
meters long when the temperature was 35ºC. Determine the following:
a) Temperature correction per tape length
b) Temperature correction for the measured line
c) Correct length of line
Correction due to Tension
During calibration for standardization, a tape is subjected to a certain amount of
standard pull or tension on its ends.
If the pull is greater than that for which it was calibrated, the tape elongates and
becomes too long.
It will stretch less than its standard length when an insufficient pull is applied, thus
making it too short.
Cp = total elongation in tape length due to pull (m)
Pm = pull applied to the tape during measurement (kg)
Ps = standard pull for the tape or pull for which the tape is calibrated (kg)
𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑠 𝐿
𝐶𝑝 = L = measured length of line (m)
𝐴𝐸 A = cross-sectional area of the tape (sq.cm)
𝑊
𝐴=
𝐿𝛾
𝐿′ = 𝐿 ± 𝐶𝑝 steel unit weight = 7.866 x 10-3 kg/cm3
E = modulus of elasticity of the tape material (kg/cm2)
L’ = corrected length of the measured line (m)
Example:
A 30-m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard length under a pull of 5kg,
supported for full length. The tape was used in measuring a line 938.55m long on
smooth level ground under a steady pull of 10kg. Assuming E = 2.0 x 10 6 kg/cm2 and
the unit weight of steel to be 7.9 x 10 -3 kg/cm3, determine the following:
a) cross-sectional area of the tape
b) correction for increase in tension
c) correct length of the line measured
Example:
A 30-m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard length under a pull of 5kg, supported for full length.
The tape was used in measuring a line 938.55m long on smooth level ground under a steady pull of
10kg. Assuming E = 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2 and the unit weight of steel to be 7.9 x 10-3 kg/cm3, determine the
following:
a) cross-sectional area of the tape
b) correction for increase in tension
c) correct length of the line measured
Correction due to Sag
A tape attain its correct length when it is fully supported and subjected to the pull for
which it was standardized.
If the support is only at its ends or at the two points measured, it will sag even if the
standard pull is maintained because of its weight.
 𝜔2 𝐿3 𝑊 2𝐿
𝐶𝑠 = 𝐶𝑠 =
24𝑃2 24𝑃 2

Cs = correction due to sag / difference between the tape reading and the
horizontal distance between supports (m)
ω = weight of the tape per unit length (kg/m)
W = total weight of the tape between supports (kg)
L = interval between supports / unsupported length of tape (m)
P = tension or pull applied to the tape (kg)
Example:
A 30-m tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady pull of 8 kg.
If the tape weighs 0.91 kg, determine the sag correction and the correct
distance between the ends of the tape.
Example:
A 30-m tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady pull of 8 kg.
If the tape weighs 0.91 kg, determine the sag correction and the correct
distance between the ends of the tape.

L = 30 m (nominal length of tape)

P = 8 kg (pull applied on ends of tape)
W = 0.91 kg (total weight of tape)
Normal Tension
• By exerting a sufficiently greater amount of pull on the tape when it is suspended
and sagged, the tape will be stretch and a considerable decrease in the amount of
sag results.
• The applied pull which will lengthen the tape to equal the shortening caused by sag
is referred to as the normal tension.
• The elongation due to increased tension can be made equal to the shortening due
to sag by equating the correction due to tension to the correction due to sag.

𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑠 PN = normal tension or the pull which will eliminate the effect of sag (kg)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg)
0.204𝑊 𝐴𝐸 A = cross-sectional area of tape (cm2)
𝑃𝑁 = E = modulus of elasticity of tape material (kg/cm2)
𝑃𝑁 −𝑃𝑆 Ps = standard pull for the tape (kg)
Example:
A steel tape weighing 0.85 kg has a cross-sectional area of 0.05 cm2. The tape
measures exactly 30.00m when supported throughout its length under a standard pull
of 5.5 kg. If the modulus of elasticity is 2.10 x 106 kg/cm 2, determine the tension
required to make the tape equal to its nominal length when supported only at the end
points.
Example:
A steel tape weighing 0.85 kg has a cross-sectional area of 0.05 cm2. The tape
measures exactly 30.00m when supported throughout its length under a standard pull
of 5.5 kg. If the modulus of elasticity is 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2, determine the tension
required to make the tape equal to its nominal length when supported only at the end
points.
Surveys with Tape
Various problems solved just by the use of tape: erecting
perpendicular to a line, measuring angles, laying off angles,
determining obstructed distances, locating irregular
boundaries, and determining areas of different shapes.

1. Erecting Perpendicular To Line

- Baseline to compute an angle or a different line
Surveys with Tape
1. Erecting Perpendicular To Line
- Baseline to compute an angle or a different line

a. The 3:4:5 Method b. The 3:4:5 Method

Measuring Αngles with Tape
Some cases, a theodolite might not be available that the tape is instead
used.
Measuring Αngles with Tape
Some cases, a theodolite might not be available that the tape is instead
used.
For instance, if the two lines will not be of the same length:
Laying Off Angles with Tape
First Method:
1. Establish a line AB
2. Between AB, set a point P to where
you will erect the perpendicular line,
AP and measure
3. Setting the end point of the
perpendicular line as P’, get the length
of PP’ using PP’ = L (tan θ)
Laying Off Angles with Tape
Second Method:
1. Get the chord length d = 2Lsin(θ/2)
2. “m” is laid out, a desirable length from
P
3. The tape is swung through an arc and
traced to the ground
4. With “m” as center, an arc is made
with radius as the value of chord
length
5. The intersection of the arcs shall be
the other point at the chord
Determining Obstructed Distances
In some instances it may not be possible to directly measure distances
due to an obstruction. The required length may also be inaccessible or
difficult to measure.
Determining Obstructed Distances
In some instances it may not be possible to directly measure distances
due to an obstruction. The required length may also be inaccessible or
difficult to measure.
Determining Obstructed Distances
In some instances it may not be possible to directly measure distances
due to an obstruction. The required length may also be inaccessible or
difficult to measure.
Determining Obstructed Distances
In some instances it may not be possible to directly measure distances
due to an obstruction. The required length may also be inaccessible or
difficult to measure.
Determining Obstructed Distances
In some instances it may not be possible to directly measure distances
due to an obstruction. The required length may also be inaccessible or
difficult to measure.
Example
The angle between two intersecting fences is to be determined with a
tape. A point on each fence line is established 30.0m from the point of
intersection. If the distance between the established points is 12.20m,
what is the intersection angle?
Example
The angle between two intersecting fences is to be determined with a
tape. A point on each fence line is established 30.0m from the point of
intersection. If the distance between the established points is 12.20m,
what is the intersection angle?
Example
Lines NQ and PR are established perpendicular to line MNP, and
points Q and R are lined up with the distant point M. If NQ = 318.55m,
PR = 475.62m, and NP = 210.38m, determine the length of MN which
represents the width of the river.
Example
Lines NQ and PR are established perpendicular to line MNP, and
points Q and R are lined up with the distant point M. If NQ = 318.55m,
PR = 475.62m, and NP = 210.38m, determine the length of MN which
represents the width of the river.