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Cross-Cultural Psychology
Chapter 1

Introduction to Cross-Cultural Psychology

Increase in scientific interest in cross-cultural psychology of the last decades is

firmly rooted in societal developments in many Western countries: globalization and
migration (leading to an increase of cross-cultural encounters)
 Where does culture come from?
Culture can be defined as “a set of behaviors, beliefs and attitudes shared by
particular members of a locality is called culture’.
It guides our behavior and tells us how to behave in a society and environment.
Culture is ‘the human-made part of the environment’ (Herskovitz, 1955)
Culture is like a computer program that controls behavior (Hofstede, 1980)
Culture is the software of the mind (Hofstede, 1991).
Humans have certain needs. How we fulfil these needs depend upon the culture.
Our motives may change with time. We have to adapt according to the situation to
survive and fulfil our need. We adjust our behavior according to the context and how
we understand other cultures. We differentiate between cultures by observation and
comparison with our own culture.
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Human Nature and Culture

Universal
Social
Motives
Universal
Biological

adaptation
Needs and Culture
Functions

Context

 Traditional culture

The term used to describe cultures based largely on beliefs, rules, and principles
established. It is inherited and comes from the ancestors. We learn from our elders
and do the same. Social roles are mostly prescribed to individuals in this type of
culture.

• Predominantly exist in the past

• Confined in local or regional boundaries
• Restricting
• Mostly intolerant to social innovations
 Non-Traditional Culture

This term is used to describe cultures that are based largely on modern beliefs,
rules, symbols, and principles. Roles are achieved by the individuals and then they are
continued.

• Relatively open to other cultures

• Absorbing and dynamic science-based and technology-driven
• Relatively tolerant to social innovations
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 Culture

A set of attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a group of people and usually
communicated from one generation to the next.

 Ethnicity

A cultural heritage shared by a category of people who also share a common

ancestral origin and language.

 Nation

A large group of people who constitute a legitimate, independent state, and share
a common geographical origin, history, and frequently language.

 Race

A large group of distinguished by certain similar and genetically transmitted

physical characteristics.

 What is cross-cultural psychology?

"Cross-cultural research in psychology is the explicit, systematic comparison of

psychological variables under different cultural conditions in order to specify the
antecedents and processes that mediate the emergence of behavior differences"
(Eckensberger, 1972, p.100).

"Cross-cultural psychology is concerned with the systematic study of behavior and

experience as it occurs in different cultures, is influenced by culture, or results in
changes in existing cultures" (Triandis, 1980, p.1).
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“Cross-cultural psychology is the study of similarities and differences in individual

psychological functioning in various cultural and ethno-cultural groups of the
relationships between psychological variables and socio-cultural, ecological and
biological variables and of ongoing changes in these variables” (Berry et al., 2012).

Sometimes living in a different culture also affects us. People adapt in different
cultures to survive. We modify our behavior in cultures to match or go with the
development of the changing and evolving world.

 Basic features of Cross-Cultural Psychology (CCP)

Cross-cultural psychology includes such branches as:

1. Cultural psychology
2. Indigenous psychology
1. CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY
 Cultural psychology seeks to discover meaningful links between a culture and
the psychology of individuals living in this culture.
 The main focus of cultural psychology is to study whether, when, and how
individuals growing up in a particular culture tend to internalize that culture’s
qualities (Cole, 1996).
 Cultural psychology supports the idea that mental processes are the products of
an interaction between culture and the individual.
Cultural psychology does not consider nativity. It does not consider whether a
person is native or migrated.

2. INDIGENOUS PSYCHOLOGY
 Main idea - it is not possible to fully understand the psychology of the people in
a particular ethnic group without a complete understanding of the social,
historic, political, ideological, and religious premises that have shaped people
of this group.
 Kim and Berry (1993) define indigenous psychologies as the scientific study of
human behavior, or the mind, that is designed for a people, is native and not
transported from other regions.
Indigenous psychology is only designed for native people. It also examines that
how native people are affected by their culture.
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 Relationships between Culture and Behavior

There are three perspectives in culture and behavior.
 Absolutism

There is no cultural variation in psychological phenomena. Culture is not

important in the explanation of development of human behavior in absolutism.
Comparisons are made easily without regards to the cultural factors. We can do
comparisons by using good and bad.

 Relativism

Culture is related with the thought patterns, psychological phenomena and

changes in behavior. All the psychological phenomena are so embedded in cultural
context that behavior in each culture must be examined in its own terms. We cannot
do comparisons in relativism.

 Universalism

Some basic psychological processes are common to all human populations. We can
use these commonalities to check for any differences. We can do comparisons by using
commonalities.
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Example of Universalism: Language

1. All human beings have the processes and capacities to develop language and
communication. They can acquire more than one language.
2. Cultures influence which language(s) an individual will acquire.
 Harry C. Triandis:
Definition: "The systematic study of ways in which people's thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors are influenced by the culture they live in."
Explanation: Triandis highlights the systematic nature of the study,
emphasizing the need for structured and organized approaches to understanding
the impact of culture on various psychological aspects. The focus is on thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors, underscoring the broad scope of cross-cultural psychology.
 John W. Berry:
Definition: "The study of relationships between psychological variables and
sociocultural, ecological, and biological variables as these occur and are
understood in more than one culture."
Explanation: Berry's definition emphasizes the interdisciplinary nature of
cross-cultural psychology. It involves examining the connections between
psychological phenomena and a range of external factors, including sociocultural,
ecological, and biological variables. The inclusion of multiple cultures highlights
the comparative aspect of the field. Through expanding research methodologies
to recognize cultural variance in behavior, language and meaning, it seeks to
extend, develop and transform psychology.
 Central themes, such as affect, cognition, conceptions of the self, and issues such
as psychopathology, anxiety, and depression, are all re-examined in cross-cultural
psychology in an attempt to examine the universality of these concepts.
 Cross-cultural psychology is differentiated from Cultural Psychology. The latter is
the branch of psychology that holds that human behavior is determined by unique
individual cultures that can be compared with each other only to a very limited
extent. In contrast, Cross-Cultural psychology includes a search for possible
universals in behavior and mental processes.
 Various definitions of the field are given in Berry, Poortinga, Segall, and Dasen
(1992), including: "the scientific study of human behavior and its transmission,
taking into account the ways in which behaviors are shaped and influenced by
social and cultural forces"
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 "The empirical study of members of various cultural groups who have had
different experiences that lead to predictable and significant differences in
behaviors".
 These authors define [culture] as
"The shared way of life of a group of people."

 Two Possible Approaches of Cross Cultural Psychology

 These terms derive from linguistics where phonemics and phonetics are
distinguished.
 Etics are culturally-general.
 Emics are local and culturally-specific phenomena.

 Etic Approach

Etic means similarities of cultures. It emphasizes similarities of cultures. Is also

emphasizes commonalities and universal principles across cultures.

It focuses on the identification of cross-cultural similarities.

Characteristics: Researchers using the etic approach aim to study universal aspects
of human behavior by focusing on concepts and phenomena that are presumed to be
applicable across different cultures. It involves using standardized measures and
comparing behaviors, traits, or cognitive processes across cultures to identify common
patterns

 Emic Approach

It emphasizes differences between cultures (Smith & Bond, 1982). Etic means
differences between cultures.

Emphasis: The emic approach emphasizes understanding and describing behavior

within the specific cultural context, highlighting cultural uniqueness and variability.

Characteristics: Focuses on cultural specificity, acknowledging that behaviors,

beliefs, and phenomena may have unique meanings within a particular cultural
setting.
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 It often involves the use of culturally sensitive and context-specific research

methodologies and measures.
 It aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the cultural meanings and
variations in behavior within a specific cultural group.

There are various factors on which cultures have been compared are discussed by
Berry et al., including:

1. Child Rearing

Berry et al. refer to evidence that a number of different dimensions have been found
in cross-cultural comparisons of child-rearing practices, including differences on the
dimensions of obedience training, nurturance training (the degree to which a sibling
will care for other siblings or for older people), achievement training, responsibility
training, self-reliance and autonomy.

2. Differences in Personality Variables Such as Locus of Control

Williams and Best (1990) have looked at different societies in terms of prevailing
gender stereotypes, gender linked self-perceptions and gender roles. They both find
universal similarities as well as differences between and within more than 30 nations.
The rise of cross-cultural psychology reflects a more general process of globalization
in the social sciences that seeks to purify specific areas of research have western biases.
In this way, cross-cultural psychology together with international psychology aims to
make psychology less ethnocentric in character. Cross-cultural psychology is now
taught at numerous universities located around the world, both as a specific content
area as well as a methodological approach designed to broaden the field of psychology.
Before study cross cultural psychology we should know what culture is.

 What Do Cross-Cultural Psychologists Do, and Why?

Cross-cultural psychologists study the ways in which cultural factors influence

human behavior, cognition, and emotion. Their work involves examining the
similarities and differences in psychological processes across various cultures. Here's
an overview of what cross-cultural psychologists do and why their work is important:
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1. Study Cultural Differences and Similarities

Cross-cultural psychologists investigate how different cultures shape individuals'

beliefs, values, attitudes, and behaviors.

They explore commonalities and variations in psychological processes across

diverse cultural contexts.

2. Examine Cultural Influences on Behavior:

They analyze how cultural factors impact interpersonal relationships,

communication styles, and social norms.

This includes studying cultural variations in areas such as parenting practices,

education, work, and socialization.

Which factors modify and change behavior and how this behavior affects the
personality of a person.

3. Understand Diversity and Inclusion:

Cross-cultural psychologists contribute to the understanding of diversity and

inclusion by examining how cultural differences affect perceptions and interactions
among individuals from various backgrounds.

4. Assess Cultural Competence:

They develop and assess interventions to enhance cultural competence in various

fields, such as education, healthcare, and business, to promote effective
communication and cooperation across cultures.

5. Conduct Comparative Research:

Cross-cultural psychologists conduct comparative research to identify universal

psychological principles as well as culture-specific phenomena.

They use a variety of research methods, including surveys, experiments, and

observational studies, to gather data from different cultural groups.

They conduct comparative researches between cultures to look for the similarities
and differences between cultures. It helps to improve one culture or society.
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Chapter 2

Methodology of Cross-Cultural Research

Psychologists need reliable data, or facts that can be independently verified and
consistent data that is understood objectively, in order to fully comprehend the
diversity of human behavior. We rely on reliable theories in order to gain reliable
results. We can test again and again to get the same results and increase the reliability.

 Goals of Cross-Cultural Research

Imagine, a researcher wants to find out what psychological factors influence the
relative stability of arranged marriages.

1. Describe

First, the researcher wants to describe some major differences between arranged
and non-arranged marriage. Suppose one of the most important differences is so-
called conflict avoiding behavior of both spouses in the arranged-marriage family: they
seldom escalate tensions and try to resolve every minor problem in their relationship
before the problem grows unsolvable.

2. Explain

Then, when some differences between ethnic groups are found, the researcher tries
to explain whether these factors affect marital stability. If they do, then why and how
does this influence take place? After an explanation is offered, the psychologist tries to
disseminate the received data and their interpretations. The psychologist may attend
a conference, share the data with colleagues and students, or publish an article in a
scholarly journal.

3. Predict

The practical value of the received data may be high if they not only explain, but
also predict the factors that determine successful marital relationships identified by
the research. For example, the psychologist could suggest that conflict-avoiding
behavior is effective primarily in arranged-marital relationships, but not in other types
of marriages in which conflict-resolution behavior is more efficient than conflict-
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avoiding activities. If this is the case, practitioners could use these research data to
help other people to better understand and manage—that is, effectively control—their
family relationships.

4. Control

After all this, we use a valid theory to control all these problems. Some people may
use conflict resolution and some people may use conflict avoiding behavior.

 Types of Research Methodology in Cross-cultural Psychology

By and large, research methodology in cross-cultural psychology can be divided

into two categories: quantitative and qualitative.

1. Quantitative research in Cross-Cultural Psychology

Quantitative research in cross-cultural psychology involves using numerical data

to systematically investigate and compare psychological phenomena across different
cultures. This approach allows researchers to identify patterns, relationships, and
generalizable findings that contribute to the scientific understanding of cultural
influences on human behavior. It gives quantitative data. The results are then
calculated on the basis of this numerical data.

2. Qualitative Approach in Cross-Cultural Psychology

 Qualitative research is conducted primarily in the natural setting, where the
research participants carry out their daily activities in a non-research atmosphere.
 Psychologists try to detect and describe some illicit or unspoken aspects of culture,
hidden rules, and contexts that are often difficult to measure by standard
quantitative procedures (Marsella, 1998).
 It is obvious that the use of these methods can bring the element of subjectivity to
cross-cultural research, which can produce both positive and negative outcomes.
 In what other instances might you use qualitative over quantitative research?
You may try qualitative procedures when dealing with phenomena that are difficult
to measure (such as dreams, pictures, drawings, songs); subjects or topics for
which standardized measures are not suited or not available (subjects who are
illiterate or unable to use answer scales; see Tutty et al., 1996); and variables that
are not completely conceptualized or operationally defined (in many cultures,
sexual harassment, or mental illness).
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 One form of qualitative research is psycho-biographical research, or an in-depth

analysis of particular individuals—usually outstanding persons, celebrities, and
leaders—representing different countries or cultures. Most of the time, specialists
try to collect empirical evidence in order to compose a personal profile of the
individuals under study. To collect such evidence, diaries, speeches, letters,
memoirs, interviews, and witnesses’ accounts are examined. Psycho-biographical
research provides a detailed picture of how behavior is formed and transformed
under certain cultural conditions.
3. Observation in Cross-Cultural Psychology

If you are recording people’s behavior in their natural environments with little or
no personal intervention, this procedure is called naturalistic observation. A scientific,
cross-cultural observation should use identifiable and measurable variables.

Observation in cross-cultural psychology involves systematically watching and

recording behaviors, interactions, and other relevant phenomena within different
cultural contexts. This observational approach helps researchers gain insights into the
cultural variations of psychological processes and behaviors. Here are key
considerations and methods when employing observation in cross-cultural
psychology:

i. Cultural Sensitivity:

Researchers must be culturally sensitive and aware of potential biases when

observing behavior across cultures. Understanding cultural norms, values, and
communication styles is crucial to accurately interpret observed behaviors.

ii. Participant Observation:

Immersing oneself in the culture and actively participating in daily activities allows
researchers to gain a deeper understanding of behaviors within their cultural context.
This method is often used when studying cultures with distinct practices or rituals.
The participants are not informed that they are being observed.

iii. Naturalistic Observation:

Researchers observe individuals or groups in their natural settings without

intervention. This method allows for the study of behaviors as they naturally occur.
For example, observing parent-child interactions in different cultural settings like
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homes or public spaces. The participants are not informed that they are being
observed.

iv. Structured Observation:

In this approach, researchers define specific behaviors or events of interest and

systematically observe and record them. Structured observation is useful for
comparing specific behaviors across cultures. For instance, observing social greetings
or nonverbal communication cues. The participants are aware of the fact that they are
being observed.

4. Survey Methods

Surveys are, perhaps, the most common technique of data collection in cross-
cultural psychology. In a typical survey, the researcher asks the subject to express an
opinion regarding a particular topic, issue, or issues. There could be open-ended and,
more commonly, multiple-choice questions. Open-ended questions give subjects some
freedom to express themselves, to explain many nuances of their thoughts and
feelings. However, such answers are difficult to interpret quantitatively.

There are direct and indirect surveys.

 In direct surveys, the interviewer maintains or can maintain a direct

communication with the respondent and is able to provide feedback, repeat a
question, or ask for additional information.
 In indirect surveys, the researcher’s personal impact is very small because there is
no direct communication between the respondent and the interviewer. The
questions are typically written and handed in, mailed, or sent electronically to the
respondents in their homes, classrooms, or work places.
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Chapter 3

Critical Thinking in Cross-Cultural Psychology

Critical thinking in cross-cultural psychology involves the careful analysis,

evaluation, and interpretation of information and research findings within the context
of cultural diversity.

It is an active and systematic cognitive strategy to examine, evaluate, and

understand events, solve problems, and make decisions on the basis of sound
reasoning and valid evidence.

 Metathinking

The act of thinking about thinking; engaging in a critical analysis and evaluation of
the thinking process. It is about present.

For example,

Thinking Process: You are faced with a complex problem at work that requires a
solution. Your initial approach is to break down the problem into smaller components
and address each part systematically.

Metathinking: After successfully solving the problem, you engage in Metathinking by

reflecting on your problem-solving strategy. You consider why you chose to break
down the problem, how you prioritized the components, and whether this strategy was
effective.

 Metathoughts

Literally, thoughts about thought, which involve principles of critical thinking are
called metathoughts. It is about past. These thoughts are associated with the past. For
example;

Initial Thought: You hold a belief that people from a certain cultural background are
generally reserved and less expressive.

Metathought: Engaging in metathought involves questioning the belief and reflecting

on the origin of this perception. You start to wonder if this belief is based on personal
experiences, cultural stereotypes, or media influences.
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 Antidotes

A remedy to prevent or counteract an adverse effect is called an antidote.

Example; Imagine a person, Sam, who strongly believes that all teenagers are
irresponsible. This belief is an example of confirmation bias, as Sam tends to notice
and remember instances that confirm this belief while ignoring responsible behavior
in teenagers.

 Counterexample

To counter this bias, Sam intentionally seeks out and focuses on examples of
responsible teenagers. Sam learns about teenagers who excel in academics,
contribute to their communities, or take on leadership roles. By actively seeking
counterexamples, Sam broadens their perspective and challenges the initial biased
belief.

In this scenario, counterexamples act as antidotes to confirmation bias, helping

Sam see a more balanced and accurate picture of teenagers rather than relying solely
on information that confirms preexisting beliefs.

 DIFFERENTIATING DICHOTOMOUS VARIABLES AND

CONTINUOUS VARIABLES: BLACK AND WHITE, OR SHADES OF
GRAY?

 Dichotomous Variables

Some phenomena in the world may be divided (or bifurcated) into two mutually
exclusive or contradictory categories. These types of phenomena are called
dichotomous variables. For example, when you flip a coin, it must turn up either heads
or tails—there is no middle ground. Here are some other examples:

 A light switch is either on or off.

 An individual was born Pakistan or he wasn’t.
 A person is either male or female (with some rare exceptions).
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 Continuous Variables

Some phenomena consist of a theoretically infinite number of points lying between

two polar opposites. These types of phenomena are called continuous variables. For
example, between the extremes of black and white there exists a middle ground
comprised of innumerable shades of gray.

 Biasness

If you are referring to "bias" or "biased," it generally relates to a systematic

deviation from the truth, fairness, or accuracy in judgment, decision-making, or
measurement.

a. Assimilation bias

Assimilation bias, refers to a cognitive distortion where new information is

interpreted or modified to fit existing beliefs, schemas, or mental frameworks. It is a
phenomenon where individuals tend to interpret new information in a way that aligns
with their pre-existing attitudes or expectations, even if the information contradicts
those beliefs.

b. Availability bias

Availability bias refers to the tendency of individuals to rely on information that is

readily available or easily retrievable from memory when making judgments or
decisions, rather than seeking out all relevant information. This bias can lead to
inaccurate judgments because the information that is most available is not necessarily
the most representative or accurate.

Example of Availability Bias:

Consider a scenario where a person is afraid of shark attacks. If this person has
recently watched a documentary on shark attacks, read news articles about them, or
heard stories from friends who have had encounters, they may perceive the risk of a
shark attack as higher than other, statistically more likely, risks. This is because the
information about shark attacks is readily available in their memory.

c. Cognitive Bias
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Any systematic error that derives from limits that are inherent in people’s cognitive
abilities to process information.

One common cognitive bias is the Confirmation Bias

Example of Confirmation Bias:

Imagine a person, let's call him Alex, who strongly believes in a particular
political ideology. Alex regularly reads articles and watches news channels that align
with this ideology. When exposed to information that supports their beliefs, Alex tends
to accept it unquestioningly. However, when presented with information that
challenges these beliefs, Alex is more likely to dismiss or downplay it.

In this case:

Scenario: Alex encounters a news article that supports their political views, and
without critically evaluating the information, accepts it as accurate and shares it on
social media.

Confirmation Bias at Play: When Alex encounters information that aligns with their
existing beliefs, it reinforces those beliefs, leading to a stronger conviction in their
political ideology. Conversely, when faced with information that contradicts their
views, Alex may question its validity or simply ignore it.

d. Motivational Bias

Any systematic error that derives from people’s efforts to satisfy their own personal
needs, such as the desire for self-esteem, power, or prestige.

For example, imagine you really want a particular team to win a sports game. When
you watch the game, you might notice and remember the good things that your team
does, but overlook or forget the good things the other team does. Your desire for your
team to win motivates how you see and remember the game – that's a motivational
bias. It's like wearing glasses that make you see things in a way that matches what you
want or hope for.
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Chapter 4

Culture and Cognition: Sensation, Perception, and States of

Consciousness

 Sensation and Perception: Basic Principles

In cross-cultural psychology, sensation refers to how individuals from different

cultures perceive and interpret sensory stimuli from their environment. Cultural
factors such as language, social norms, and past experiences can influence sensation.
Sensation is the process by which receptor cells are stimulated and transmit their
information to higher brain centers. Here's an example illustrating sensation in cross-
cultural psychology:

Imagine a research study examining cultural differences in smell perception

among individuals from different regions of the world. Researchers aim to understand
how cultural factors influence the interpretation of scents.

Participants from Western countries (e.g., United States, United Kingdom) and
Eastern countries (e.g., Japan, China) are recruited for the study. They are presented
with a series of scents, including floral, herbal, and food-related smells.

Findings: Upon analyzing the data, researchers uncover interesting cultural

variations in smell perception:

1. Cultural Associations with Scents:

Participants from Western cultures may associate floral scents (e.g., roses,
lavender) with pleasantness and freshness due to cultural norms and preferences. In
contrast, participants from Eastern cultures may have different associations with the
same scents, influenced by cultural practices such as tea ceremonies and traditional
medicine.
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2. Differences in Familiarity and Exposure:

Participants from each cultural group may demonstrate varying levels of familiarity
and exposure to certain scents based on their cultural backgrounds. For example,
individuals from Eastern cultures may be more familiar with herbal scents used in
traditional medicine, while individuals from Western cultures may be more
accustomed to artificial fragrances in perfumes and household products.

3. Cultural Norms and Acceptability:

Cultural norms regarding personal hygiene and body odors may influence how
individuals perceive and react to certain scents. For instance, scents associated with
bodily functions (e.g., sweat, garlic) may be more socially acceptable or even desirable
in some cultures compared to others.

 Absolute Threshold

The minimum amount of physical energy needed for the observer to notice a
stimulus is called an absolute threshold.

 Difference Threshold

The lowest level of stimulation required to sense that a change in the stimulation has
occurred is called a difference threshold. It is also called differential threshold.

 Perception

The process that organizes various sensations into meaningful patterns is called
perception.

 Perceptual Set

Perceptual expectations based on experience is called perceptual set. Perceptual

sets are:

1. Common in every culture

2. Relevant to experiences
3. Not related to other cultures

Example: Cultural Variations in Color Perception.

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Researchers conduct a study comparing color perception among participants

from Western and Eastern cultures. They aim to investigate how cultural differences
influence the interpretation of color stimuli.

Participants are presented with a series of color swatches representing a range

of hues. They are asked to identify and categorize the colors using standardized color
names.

Findings:

Upon analyzing the data, researchers observe distinct patterns of color perception
between Western and Eastern participants:

1. Cultural Differences in Color Naming

Western participants tend to categorize colors into basic color categories such as
red, blue, and green, reflecting the influence of the English language on color
perception. In contrast, Eastern participants may use more nuanced color categories
derived from their native language, such as "mizu" (light blue) and "kon" (dark blue)
in Japanese.

2. Cultural Associations with Color

Colors may carry different cultural associations and meanings. For example, while
the color white symbolizes purity and weddings in Western cultures, it may represent
mourning and funerals in Eastern cultures such as China and Japan.

3. Cultural Context and Perception

Cultural context can influence how colors are perceived and interpreted. For
instance, research suggests that individuals from agricultural societies may have a
heightened sensitivity to shades of green due to their reliance on vegetation for
survival.

 Sensory Adaptation

It is the tendency of the sensory system to respond less to stimuli that continue
without change. Sensory adaptation refers to the process through which our sensory
systems become less responsive to constant or repetitive stimuli over time. This
phenomenon allows us to focus on new or changing stimuli in our environment.
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Different cultures offer distinct sensory environments. For instance, urban

settings may expose individuals to loud noises and bright lights, while rural
environments may provide quieter and darker surroundings. Similarly, cultural
practices like cuisine, music, and rituals introduce unique sensory stimuli that shape
individuals' daily experiences.

Examples of Cultural Influences:

1. Dietary Habits:

Cultures with spicy cuisines may lead individuals to experience sensory

adaptation to pungent tastes, while cultures with diverse culinary traditions expose
individuals to a wide range of flavors and aromas.

2. Environmental Factors:

Cultural norms regarding personal space, social interactions, and noise levels
can influence individuals' sensory experiences. For instance, some cultures value
crowded and bustling environments, while others prefer quieter and more spacious
settings.

 How Culture Influences What We Perceive

Our experience with the environment shapes our perception by creating perceptual
expectations. These expectations, known as a perceptual set, make particular
interpretations likely to occur and increase both the speed and efficiency of the
perceptual process. Perceptual sets common in people of a particular culture—and
most relevant to their experience—are not necessarily developed in individuals from
other cultures. Following are the factors affecting thought perception in cultures:

1. Language and Communication Styles

Language is deeply intertwined with culture and influences how we perceive

and categorize sensory information. Different languages have unique vocabularies
and linguistic structures that shape how individuals describe and interpret sensory
experiences. For example, some cultures may have specific words to describe colors
or smells that do not exist in other languages, leading to differences in perception
and communication.

2. Cultural Practices and Rituals

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Cultural practices, rituals, and traditions introduce unique sensory stimuli that
shape our perceptual experiences. For example, religious ceremonies, festivals, and
rituals often involve specific sensory elements such as music, incense, and food
offerings. Participation in these cultural practices influences how individuals
perceive and interpret sensory information within their cultural context.

3. Environmental Influences

Environmental factors, including geography, climate, and urbanization,

contribute to cultural differences in sensory experiences. For instance, individuals
living in urban environments may be exposed to constant noise, bright lights, and
crowded spaces, leading to sensory adaptations and preferences that differ from
those of individuals in rural or natural settings.
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Chapter 5
Cognition and Culture

 Our cognitions are culturally conditioned. Cognition is related and influenced by

culture and environment. A difference in culture and environment can cause
difference in cognition. East Asians (Japan, China, Taiwan, Korea etc.) and
Westerners exhibit differences in cognition (Zajonc, 1984). Westerners tend to
exhibit higher levels of fundamental attribution error than the Easterners.

 Fundamental Attribution Error

It is a cognitive bias. It is also known as correspondence bias or over-attribution

effect. It is the tendency for people to over-emphasize personality-based
explanations/evaluations for observed behaviors in others while under-emphasizing
situational explanations (Ross, 1977). We neglect the situational explanations and
judge a person on the basis of observed behavior.

There is controversial linguistic relativity hypothesis by Benjamin Whorf.

According to this hypothesis, the language one speaks has an influence on his/her
thoughts.

 Nisbett and Colleagues’ Theory

Nisbett and colleagues gave the theory of holistic and analytic reasoning.

 Holistic reasoning: It means a pattern of thoughts that usually focuses on

whole rather than parts.
 Analytical Reasoning: It means logical reasoning.

They also presented three cognitive. They are:

1. Holistic cognitive style

The people with holistic cognitive styles prefer to focus on the background of
the picture surrounding the central object, relationship between the units of the
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stimuli in question, and the relationship between the background and the central
object. In short, they see something as a whole rather than focusing on its parts.

2. Analytic cognitive style:

This cognitive style is based on logical thinking. The people with analytic
cognitive style may prefer to focus on the central object and avoid any complex
detail or surrounding objects.

3. Integrative cognitive style

It refers to a way of thinking characterized by the ability to combine diverse

perspectives, concepts, and information into a unified understanding. In short,
integrative cognitive style is a combination of holistic and analytical cognitive
styles. Individuals with an integrative cognitive style excel (are very good) at
obtaining information from various sources and disciplines. They can recognize
patterns and connections between seemingly unrelated elements, and generate
innovative solutions to complex problems.

 Example: Analyzing Artwork

Imagine a group of individuals with varying cognitive styles visiting an art
gallery to view a painting depicting a serene landscape with a prominent tree in the
center, surrounded by lush greenery and a distant mountain range.
1. Analytic Cognitive Style:
 Individuals with an analytic cognitive style may prefer to focus their attention
primarily on the central object, which in this case is the tree. They may analyze the
complex details of the tree, such as its shape, texture, and color variations, while
paying less attention to the surrounding elements.
 These individuals may be more interested in understanding the symbolism or
significance of the central object within the context of the painting, considering
factors such as the artist's intention, cultural influences, and historical background.
 Their analytical approach may involve dissecting the composition of the painting,
examining how the central object interacts with the surrounding elements and
contributes to the overall aesthetic appeal.
2. Holistic Cognitive Style:
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 In contrast, individuals with a holistic cognitive style may take a broader

perspective, perceiving the painting as a cohesive whole rather than focusing solely
on the central object.
 They may pay equal attention to the periphery and background elements,
appreciating the harmony and balance of the entire composition.
 These individuals may interpret the painting's meaning by considering the
interplay between various elements, such as the relationship between the central
object and its surroundings, the use of color and light, and the overall mood or
atmosphere conveyed.
3. Integrative Cognitive Style:
An individual with an integrative cognitive style might seek to synthesize both
central and peripheral elements of the painting. They would analyze the
relationship between the central figure and the surrounding environment,
exploring how background details enhance the viewer's understanding of the
painting's themes and motifs. Their analysis would aim to uncover the
interconnectedness of all elements within the artwork, revealing deeper layers of
meaning and interpretation.