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PART – A:

1. Classify Transport Layer Solutions

Transport layer solutions for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) can be classified into:

1. Congestion Control Mechanisms: These aim to manage network congestion effectively.

Priority-based mechanisms: Assign priority levels to packets to manage congestion.

Rate-based control: Adjust data transmission rates dynamically.

2. Reliable Transport Protocols: Focus on ensuring data delivery reliability.

End-to-end reliability: Ensures the data is received by the sink node without errors.

Hop-by-hop reliability: Ensures reliability across individual communication hops.

3. Energy-efficient Protocols: Designed to minimize energy consumption.

Loss recovery mechanisms: Retransmit only the lost packets to save energy.

Adaptive rate control: Reduce transmission rates during high energy usage.

2. List the Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks

Wireless Sensor Networks are widely used in various domains, including:

1. Environmental Monitoring:

Tracking weather changes, soil moisture, or pollution levels.

Monitoring wildlife and forest ecosystems.

2. Healthcare:

Remote health monitoring using wearable sensors.

Assisting elderly care with automated alerts.

3. Industrial Automation:

Machine health monitoring and predictive maintenance.

Enhancing productivity and safety in manufacturing.

4. Military Applications:

Surveillance in hostile environments.

Intrusion detection and battlefield monitoring.

5. Smart Cities:

Managing street lighting and waste systems.

Monitoring traffic patterns and parking spaces.

3. Write an Algorithm to Find the Breach Path Using Voronoi Diagram for a WSN

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 Algorithm BreachPathVoronoi(WSN_Nodes):
1. Input: Sensor positions and sensing radius.
2. Generate the Voronoi diagram based on sensor positions.
3. Identify edges in the Voronoi diagram that are outside the sensing r
ange.
4. Compute the shortest path between source and destination along these
edges.
5. Output: The identified breach path.

4. Illustrate the Triangulation in WSN

Triangulation in WSN is a method used for determining the position of a node by measuring the
angles or distances from three or more known points.
Steps:

1. Select three anchor nodes with known positions.

2. Measure the distance between the unknown node and each anchor.

3. Form a triangle and compute the intersection points to locate the unknown node.

5. What is Hybrid TDMA/FDMA in WSN?

Hybrid TDMA/FDMA combines Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Frequency Division
Multiple Access (FDMA) to enhance efficiency in WSNs:

TDMA: Divides time into slots for individual node communication.

FDMA: Allocates different frequencies for simultaneous transmissions.

Hybrid Approach: Nodes operate in specific time slots on assigned frequencies, reducing
interference and improving energy usage.

6. Outline the Resynchronization of WSN

Resynchronization in WSN ensures time alignment across nodes to maintain data consistency.

Steps include:

1. Clock Drift Compensation: Adjusts for deviations in node clocks.

2. Message Exchanges: Nodes share time-stamped messages to align clocks.

3. Periodic Updates: Synchronization messages are sent at regular intervals.

4. Energy-efficient Protocols: Minimize synchronization overhead to conserve energy.

7. List the Characteristics of an Ideal Routing Protocol for Adhoc Wireless

Networks
1. Energy Efficiency: Conserves node energy to prolong network lifespan.

2. Scalability: Performs well regardless of network size.

3. Robustness: Adapts to node failures or dynamic topologies.

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 4. Low Overhead: Minimizes communication and computation costs.

5. Loop-free Paths: Ensures routing paths do not form loops.

8. Classify Different Multi-Lateration Techniques in Sensor Network

Localization
1. Range-based Techniques: Use distance or angle measurements.

Time of Arrival (ToA): Measures signal travel time.

Angle of Arrival (AoA): Determines the direction of incoming signals.

2. Range-free Techniques: Rely on connectivity or neighbor information.

DV-Hop: Estimates distances using hop counts.

APIT (Approximate Point in Triangle): Uses anchor nodes for position approximation.

9. What is Wireless Sensor Networks?

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are distributed networks of spatially dispersed sensor nodes
that monitor and collect data from their environment, such as temperature, humidity, motion, and
pressure.

Structure: Composed of nodes, base stations, and gateways.

Features:

1. Self-organizing capabilities.

2. Energy efficiency and low power consumption.

3. Scalability for large deployments.

10. What are MAC Protocols for WSN?

Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols for WSN are designed to optimize communication while
conserving energy.

1. Contention-based Protocols: Nodes compete for channel access.

Example: CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).

2. Schedule-based Protocols: Assign specific time slots for communication.

Example: TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access).

3. Hybrid Protocols: Combine contention and schedule-based approaches.

Example: S-MAC (Sensor MAC).

PART – B:

1. Describe the Software Components of Single Node Architecture in WSN

The software components of a single node in a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) are crucial for the
operation and efficiency of the node. These components are designed to interact with both the
hardware and the network, ensuring that the node can collect, process, and transmit data.

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 1. Sensor Drivers: These control the physical sensors (e.g., temperature, humidity, motion) and
enable the node to acquire data from the environment. The sensor driver handles sensor
initialization, calibration, and data reading.

2. Operating System (OS): The OS provides the runtime environment for the software. For WSNs,
lightweight operating systems like TinyOS or Contiki are commonly used, as they are designed
to support low-power, low-memory devices. The OS manages processes, memory, and device
communications.

3. Communication Stack: This stack manages the communication protocol for the node. It
includes:

MAC (Medium Access Control): Manages access to the communication channel, avoiding
collisions and optimizing power consumption.

Network Layer: Handles routing, data forwarding, and node discovery in the network.

Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transmission and congestion control.

4. Data Processing/Management Layer: This component handles data collection, aggregation,

filtering, and processing. It may include algorithms for data compression or error correction,
ensuring efficient data transmission.

5. Power Management Software: Since WSN nodes are typically battery-powered, efficient power
management is essential. This software controls the node’s power consumption by managing
when the node is active or in sleep mode, optimizing energy usage.

6. Application Layer: This is the layer where the actual application logic resides. It is responsible
for higher-level tasks such as event detection, task scheduling, and data reporting. The
application layer interacts with the hardware and communication software to provide specific
functionalities like environmental monitoring or security.

These software components work together to ensure the efficient and reliable operation of each
node in a WSN, supporting data collection, transmission, and energy conservation.

2. Explain the Clustered Network Architecture of WSN

Clustered network architecture in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) is a popular strategy for
improving network scalability, energy efficiency, and performance. In this architecture, sensor
nodes are organized into clusters, with each cluster having a designated leader known as the
Cluster Head (CH). The architecture typically consists of the following components:

1. Cluster Heads (CHs): These nodes are responsible for aggregating data from the nodes within
their cluster and forwarding it to the base station or sink node. CHs often perform additional
duties like data compression, signal processing, and scheduling of transmissions to minimize
energy consumption.

2. Member Nodes: These are the sensor nodes that belong to a particular cluster. They monitor
the environment and send their data to the Cluster Head. Member nodes have lower power and
processing requirements compared to the CH.

3. Base Station: The base station or sink node serves as the central point for data collection and
processing. It receives the data from CHs and sends it to external systems or takes necessary
actions based on the collected information.

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 4. Cluster Formation: Nodes are dynamically grouped into clusters based on proximity or other
criteria such as signal strength. The clustering process helps in minimizing communication
overhead and enhances network scalability.

5. Advantages:

Energy Efficiency: Since CHs aggregate data from multiple nodes, only the CH needs to
transmit the aggregated data to the base station, reducing energy consumption across the
network.

Scalability: Clustering allows the network to scale efficiently as new nodes can be added to
existing clusters.

Improved Communication: By organizing nodes into clusters, the distance between

member nodes and the base station is reduced, which minimizes energy consumption and
communication delay.

6. Challenges:

Cluster Head Selection: Choosing the optimal Cluster Head is critical. If a CH fails, it can
disrupt communication within the cluster.

Load Balancing: Uneven distribution of energy and load among clusters can lead to some
nodes exhausting their energy quicker than others.

Clustered network architectures are widely used in WSNs for applications like environmental
monitoring, military surveillance, and smart cities.

3. Describe the Energy-Efficient Designs in WSN

Energy efficiency is one of the key challenges in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) due to the
limited power supply of sensor nodes. Various energy-efficient design strategies are employed to
extend the network’s lifespan:

1. Low Power Hardware: The hardware design of sensor nodes is optimized to reduce energy
consumption. This includes selecting low-power microcontrollers, efficient sensors, and low-
energy communication modules.

2. Duty Cycling: This involves putting nodes into low-power sleep modes when they are not
transmitting or receiving data. Duty cycling ensures that the node’s radio, which consumes
most of the energy, remains off most of the time, conserving energy.

3. Data Aggregation: In a WSN, nodes may collect similar data from their surroundings. Instead of
transmitting raw data to the base station, nodes can aggregate or summarize the data to reduce
the amount of information transmitted. This minimizes the communication overhead, which is
energy-intensive.

4. Routing Protocols: Energy-efficient routing protocols aim to minimize energy consumption by

reducing the number of hops in data transmission. Protocols like LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive
Clustering Hierarchy) use clustering to optimize energy use, while others such as AODV (Ad
hoc On-demand Distance Vector) are designed for low power consumption in dynamic
environments.

5. Power-aware MAC Protocols: Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols like S-MAC, T-MAC,
and X-MAC focus on minimizing idle listening times and reducing collisions, which helps

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 conserve energy. These protocols allow nodes to sleep during periods of inactivity and wake
up only when communication is necessary.

6. Energy Harvesting: Some WSNs incorporate energy harvesting techniques such as solar or
vibration energy to recharge the sensor nodes, thus improving their longevity without requiring
frequent battery replacement.

7. Topology Control: This involves optimizing the sensor node placement and network topology to
minimize energy consumption. For instance, power control in transmission helps minimize
unnecessary energy use by adjusting transmission power based on the distance to neighboring
nodes.

Energy-efficient designs are essential for the long-term operation of WSNs, particularly in remote
or inaccessible areas.

4. Explain the Quality of Service in WSN

Quality of Service (QoS) in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) refers to the network’s ability to
provide a certain level of service to applications, ensuring that performance requirements like
latency, throughput, and reliability are met. QoS is critical in real-time and mission-critical
applications, such as healthcare monitoring or military surveillance.

1. Latency: Latency refers to the time taken for a packet of data to travel from the source to the
destination. Low latency is required in applications such as environmental monitoring where
timely data is crucial.

2. Throughput: This is the rate at which data is successfully delivered over the network. High
throughput is essential for applications that require large amounts of data to be transmitted
quickly, such as video surveillance or traffic monitoring.

3. Reliability: This ensures that data is reliably delivered to the destination node without loss.
Reliable communication is necessary for critical applications such as medical sensor networks
where data loss can have serious consequences.

4. Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR): This is a key metric for QoS that measures the percentage of
packets successfully delivered to the sink node. A high PDR is essential for ensuring the
reliability of the network.

5. Energy Efficiency: QoS is not only about transmission speed and reliability but also about the
energy consumption of the network. Ensuring QoS while maintaining low energy consumption is
a significant challenge in WSNs.

6. Fairness: In a multi-user environment, fairness ensures that no node monopolizes the network
resources, and all nodes get a fair opportunity to transmit their data.

QoS can be achieved through adaptive algorithms, efficient routing protocols, and traffic
management techniques, balancing various QoS parameters according to the needs of the
application.

5. Differentiate Between Adhoc TCP and TCP BUS

Adhoc TCP and TCP BUS are two different transport protocols, each optimized for specific network
environments:

1. Adhoc TCP:

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 Use Case: Primarily used in mobile Ad hoc networks (MANETs), where the network
topology is dynamic and nodes are mobile.

Routing: Relies on dynamic routing protocols such as AODV or DSR to adapt to changing
network topologies.

Challenges: Adhoc TCP faces challenges like frequent route changes, high delay, and
packet loss due to node mobility.

Solution: TCP variants for Adhoc networks (like TCP-ELFN, TCP-AD) introduce
modifications to handle packet loss and delay issues in such dynamic networks.

2. TCP BUS:

Use Case: Used in a more static network environment, like a bus or vehicle network, where
nodes (vehicles) communicate within a fixed communication range and topology.

Routing: TCP BUS uses a fixed routing scheme based on the bus’s motion and can be
adapted to the relative movement of nodes.

Challenges: The main challenge for TCP BUS is maintaining connectivity when the vehicle
moves out of range or encounters network congestion.

Solution: TCP BUS often incorporates buffer management and predictive techniques to
ensure data delivery when connectivity is temporarily lost.

The primary difference between the two protocols lies in the network topology and mobility
considerations. Adhoc TCP is designed for more flexible and dynamic environments, while TCP
BUS is tailored for networks with more predictable movements and routes.

6. Explain the Issues in Designing WSN Routing Protocols

Designing routing protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) presents several challenges due
to the unique characteristics of these networks. Some of the key issues include:

1. Energy Consumption: Sensor nodes in WSNs have limited battery power, and energy efficiency
is critical. Routing protocols must minimize energy consumption during data transmission, node
idle times, and sleep modes.

2. Scalability: WSNs may consist of hundreds or thousands of nodes, and routing protocols must
be scalable to handle large networks without degrading performance.

3. Fault Tolerance: Nodes in WSNs are prone to failure due to battery depletion or physical
damage. Routing protocols must be robust and able to reroute traffic around failed nodes to
ensure network reliability.

4. Network Topology Changes: In mobile WSNs, the topology changes dynamically, which
requires routing protocols to adapt in real-time to the changing network structure.

5. Data Reliability: Ensuring data integrity and reliability is essential, especially in mission-critical
applications. Protocols must handle packet losses, retransmissions, and error correction.

6. Security: WSNs are vulnerable to attacks, and routing protocols must ensure secure
communication to protect data integrity and prevent unauthorized access.

Designing efficient WSN routing protocols requires addressing these challenges while balancing
factors such as latency, throughput, and energy efficiency.

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 7. Elaborate the Data Relaying and Data Aggregation Strategies in WSN
Data relaying and aggregation are essential strategies in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) to
enhance network efficiency and conserve energy.

1. Data Relaying: This involves forwarding data from source nodes to the sink node or base
station through intermediate nodes. The relay process can be:

Single-hop Relaying: Where data is transmitted directly to the sink node in a single hop.

Multi-hop Relaying: Where data is relayed through several nodes before reaching the sink
node. This is more energy-efficient as it reduces the transmission distance per hop.

2. Data Aggregation: This technique is used to reduce the amount of data being transmitted by
combining the data from multiple sensor nodes into a single summary packet. Techniques for
data aggregation include:

In-network Aggregation: Performed by nodes as data is relayed through the network.

Aggregation can be done by applying simple operations like averaging, sum, or maximum of
the sensed data.

Application-specific Aggregation: Tailored aggregation techniques based on the

application requirements, for example, aggregating sensor readings based on specific
conditions or thresholds.

Both strategies help reduce communication overhead, thus conserving energy and improving the
network’s overall lifetime.

8. Describe the Properties of IEEE 802.15.4

IEEE 802.15.4 is a standard designed for low-rate wireless personal area networks (LR-WPANs),
commonly used in WSNs. Its key properties include:

1. Low Power Consumption: The standard is optimized for low-energy devices, making it suitable
for battery-powered sensor nodes.

2. Low Data Rate: Provides data rates of 20 kbps to 250 kbps, which is ideal for low-power, low-
bandwidth applications.

3. Short Range: Typically supports communication ranges of up to 10-100 meters, which is

suitable for local-area networks in sensor applications.

4. Simple Protocol: The protocol stack is relatively simple, comprising the physical layer (PHY)
and medium access control layer (MAC).

5. Reliable Communication: Provides mechanisms like acknowledgment and retransmission for

reliable communication.

6. Flexible Topology: Supports various network topologies such as point-to-point, star, and peer-
to-peer.

These properties make IEEE 802.15.4 ideal for WSNs, IoT devices, and other low-power networks.

9. Describe Synchronization in WSN

Synchronization in WSNs is essential for ensuring that sensor nodes operate in a coordinated
manner, especially for time-sensitive applications like event detection or data fusion. Key aspects
of synchronization include:

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 1. Clock Synchronization: Involves aligning the clocks of all sensor nodes to a common time
base. This is crucial for coordinating actions and synchronizing data collection.

2. Network Time Protocol (NTP): One method for achieving synchronization, where nodes use a
time server to set their clocks.

3. Global vs. Local Synchronization: In large networks, global synchronization across all nodes
might be difficult. In such cases, local synchronization between clusters or subsets of nodes is
used.

4. Challenges: Sensor nodes typically have low processing power, which makes achieving high-
precision synchronization difficult. Additionally, factors like message delays and network
congestion can cause drift in synchronization.

Effective synchronization reduces errors in data collection, enhances event detection, and ensures
coordinated operations across nodes.

10. Explain the Issues in Designing a Routing Protocol for Ad-hoc Wireless
Networks
Designing routing protocols for ad-hoc wireless networks (AWNs) is challenging due to the
network's dynamic nature and lack of infrastructure. Key issues include:

1. Dynamic Topology: Since nodes are mobile, the network topology changes frequently,
requiring routing protocols to constantly adapt to these changes.

2. Link Reliability: In ad-hoc networks, links are prone to frequent disruptions, causing packet
loss and delays. Designing protocols to handle these unreliable links is challenging.

3. Scalability: AWNs can scale to a large number of nodes, and routing protocols must handle
large networks without compromising efficiency or causing congestion.

4. Energy Efficiency: Like in WSNs, AWNs require energy-efficient routing due to the limited
battery life of mobile nodes. Protocols must minimize energy consumption while maintaining
performance.

5. Security: Ad-hoc networks are susceptible to various security threats such as eavesdropping,
spoofing, and denial of service (DoS) attacks. Routing protocols need to include security
mechanisms to protect data and prevent attacks.

6. Quality of Service (QoS): Many applications in AWNs, such as voice or video streaming, require
specific QoS requirements like low latency and high throughput. Meeting these requirements
while maintaining a flexible and efficient routing protocol is a significant challenge.

7. Routing Overhead: Frequent topology changes lead to high overhead in route discovery and
maintenance. Protocols must balance the need for route updates with the overhead they
introduce.

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