Course outline
Module: social interactions, conflict and development
Course code: Pads 2113
* Over view of social interaction
* Over view of conflict
* Over view of development
* Symbolic interactionism
* Ethnomethodology
* Dramaturgy
* Impression management
a. The two way street
b. Front stage & Back stage
c. Focused interaction
d. Unfocussed interaction
* Civil Inattention
* Element of social interaction
(1) status set
a. Archive status
b. Ascribe status
c. Master status
(2) Roles
a. Roles set
b. Role conflict
c. Role strain
d. Role exit
* Communication
(1) verbal communication
(2) non-verbal communication
* Group set
(1) social aggregate
(2) social category
* Types of group
* (1) primary & secondary group
* (2) Ingroup & outgroup
*Group size
(1) Dyad
(2) Triad
* References group
* Ties in group
(1) expressive ties
(2) instrumental ties
*Social distance
*Social networking
(1) direct networking
(2) indirect networking
Social interaction is the process of reciprocal influence exercised by individuals over
one another during social encounters. Usually it refers to face-to-face encounters in
which people are physically present with one another for a specified duration.
Social Interaction
Language without social interaction would make it a curiosity; studied by experts,
spoken by no one. Humans interact with each other hundreds of times a day.
types of social interactions
interaction to work, everyone involved needs to understand the 'code' (the words, the
wave, or the wardrobe). In fact, not knowing the code (or codes) is what makes you a
cultural 'outsider' (a French person in Vietnam would be lost linguistically and
culturally. The road signs, the customs, the language would be unknown or
unfamiliar). The study of communication and the types of social interactions is an
important topic in sociolinguisti1 - Not being able to communicate in a particular
language can make things quite con
Social interaction definition
Before we delve into the intricacies of social interaction, let's first cover the social
interaction meaning:
Social Interaction refers to the way individuals behave when they meet or spend time
together, and involves verbal or non-verbal communication.
Basically, if you've ever spoken to or spent time with anyone, ever, you will have
engaged in social interaction!
Types of social interaction
There are five key types of social interaction: exchange, cooperation, competition,
conflict, and accommodation.
1 Exchange
The most basic form of social interaction, exchange, is when individuals interact with
one another to receive a reward of some sort.
It is assumed that most people perform social behaviours because they can benefit
from them in some way. We work for the reward of payment. We are friends with
people who we feel we can benefit from, whether emotionally, financially, or
physically.
Most people will not surround themselves with people who they cannot benefit from
in some way.
2 Cooperation
Cooperation is when individuals work together to achieve a common goal. When
individuals have overlapping desires, they are likely to cooperate with one
another. Any behaviour exhibited between a group of people can be considered a form
of cooperation.
A world without cooperation would be a pretty empty one! Human beings need to
cooperate in order to create. Before cooperation is even possible, communication
must occur.
Imagine trying to start a new festival in your town without the cooperation of anyone
in that town. How could you secure funding, provide food, or even sort out
performances? Creation without cooperation would be an incredibly hard feat.
3 Competition
Competition is when individuals or groups rival one another in order to win a
reward. This reward may be control over resources, or even respect from your peers.
Biology points to competition as a natural human characteristic. The need to compete
has been passed down from our ancestors, who competed for physical resources such
as land, food, water, mates etc, and non-physical resources such as respect and
admiration.
Nowadays, human beings compete against each other in a number of ways.
Study tip: Think of all the ways human beings compete. Think of large-scale
competitions like the World Cup and the Olympics, down to small-scale competitions
such as school talent shows.
4 Conflict
Conflict is when there is a clash between the personal interests of groups or
individuals. When groups or individuals fail to cooperate with one another in social
interaction and their desires do not overlap, conflict occurs.
On a larger scale, conflict can result from the struggle for control of
resources. Conflict is an entirely common and natural part of human existence, as the
wants and needs of two individuals can never align perfectly.
Conflict can occur for other reasons, too. If in a social interaction, one party feels
offended by the words or actions of another, conflict can arise.
Study tip: Think of some of the biggest conflicts in human history. What started those
conflicts? Who were the parties involved? Did conflict arise because of a struggle
over resources or for other reasons?
5 Accommodation
Accommodation is a sort of middle-ground between conflict and cooperation. You
could essentially think of accommodation as a compromise.
When two parties disagree (or have a conflict) and cannot come to an agreement, the
next best option is to compromise. This means that each party gives up something that
they are arguing for in order to be able to move forward. The result is that all parties
get something that they want, even if they don't get everything they want.
Accommodation can take the form of a truce or mediation where the involved parties
work towards a solution's
Fig. 2 - Sometimes a compromise can be the best way to move forward after an
argument.
Social interaction examples
In order to better understand the topic of social interaction, let's look at some quick
examples. Here are some examples of situations where social interaction might take
place:
Exchange:
An employer and employee have a meeting to discuss a promotion.
The employer lays out the terms of the new role as well as the additional
responsibilities the employee will have to take on. The employee asks about what
added benefits or pay rise they will receive. This is an example of an exchange (both
parties are seeking to gain something or benefit from the social interaction).
Cooperation
A group of students are put together for a group project where they have to give a
presentation to the rest of the class on a particular topic.
One of the students volunteers to design the slides, one says that they will do the
research, and another says that they will present the project. Each student contributes
towards a common goal and each plays to their own strengths. This is an example of
cooperation (all parties are contributing and working together to get a good grade).
Competition
There is a scavenger hunt at a birthday party.
Each child participating goes about trying to follow the clues in order to find the
prize. During the scavenger hunt, the children make jokes with one another, send each
other in the wrong direction, and generally try to ensure that no one else gets the prize
before them. This social interaction is an example of competition (all parties are
trying to outdo each other, or achieve something before the others).
Conflict
Two siblings are in a rush to get ready for school and don't want to miss the school
bus.
Neither of them showered the night before and they both race to the bathroom that
they share. They argue over who should shower first, each one advocating for
themselves. As time goes on, the argument gets more heated until neither sibling has
any time left to shower. This is an example of a conflict (both parties fail to cooperate
with the other, and an argument ensues as a result).
Accommodation
Two children both want the last slice of birthday cake in the fridge.
Neither will give it up to the other so their mother steps in to mediate. She tells them
that she will cut the slice in half so that each of them can have a piece. The children
agree to this arrangement and each enjoy half a slice of cake. This is an example of
accommodation (an argument is overcome through compromise
Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication is when individuals use social cues in order to understand
one another without the use of words.
Some tools a speaker might use to communicate in a non-verbal manner are:
Eye contact (using your eyes to point someone's attention to a particular place)
Hand gestures : (think peace sign, middle finger, even gang signs give social cues and
are perceived as offensive / non-offensive based on location)
Eyebrows: (they can indicate frustration, confusion, shock and other emotions)
Lips : (a smile, smirk, frown, etc. can convey certain feelings)
Hand gestures in non-verbal language are incredibly important, sign languages such
as BSL and ASL enable non-verbal communication. Hand gestures go beyond waving
to indicate 'hello' or 'goodbye', whole languages have been created around using hand
gestures to communicate nonverbally.
There are forms of non-verbal communication that can be interpreted through speech
too, such as:
Voice quality
Pace
Pitch
Volume
Rhythm
intonation
Non-verbal communication found in speech is known as paralanguage. All of these
forms of non-verbal communication can be used to reflect the hidden meaning behind
a speaker's words.
Speaker: Hey! Are you coming?
There are many ways this can be interpreted. Depending on how the six forms of non-
verbal paralanguage are used, this can be interpreted in any number of ways. Imagine
the speaker saying this with a pleasant tone in a cheerful, excited way.
Now, let's say the speaker shouts these words (volume), placing emphasis on 'you'
(intonation) and with a deep growl (pitch).
Speaker: Hey! Are you coming?!
What is being said might now appear to be scornful, as though the speaker is
disgusted that whoever they are addressing is coming with them.
The point is, that the way a speaker delivers their message can greatly shift its
interpretation, and can heavily shift/influence a social interaction.
Evaluation of social interaction
Language and social interaction go hand in hand. Social interaction is a crucial part of
perfecting our understanding of different languages.
Imagine you learn the entire French language, memorising every grammatical rule
and perfecting your understanding of the language. While you may feel like an expert,
you can never be truly fluent in French without interacting with native French
speakers.
There are parts of every language that can only be understood by socializing with the
speakers of the language. A non-English speaker could learn everything about the
language, and still not understand slang, which arises through social interaction in
specific communities.
This is why when learning a language, watching films and videos of the speakers of
that language socially interacting, as well as direct communication with native
speakers, can be hugely beneficial.
Social Interaction Theory
Social Interaction Theory (SIT) is a theory that looks at how people behave and
interact when they're in groups. We all act different when we're in a social group than
when we're at home on our own. Different patterns emerge when we're around other
people as we react and respond to what the people around us do and say.
When we're around other people, we feel a certain degree of social pressure, or a
pressure to behave in a certain way in order to conform to the norms of that particular
social group. The degree of social pressure will vary depending on our relationships
with the people in each social group.
For example, when we're around close friends, we might not feel any social pressure
to behave a certain way, whereas if we are around a group of new people that we want
to get closer to, our behaviour and speech might be more impacted by this sense of
pressure.
Social Interaction - Key Takeaways
Social Interaction typically refers to the way individuals behave amongst one another,
and involves verbal or non-verbal communication between two or more people.
Social interaction is a crucial part of perfecting our understanding of different
languages.
The most common forms of social interaction
are: exchange, cooperation, competition, and conflict.
Some non-verbal forms of social communication are expressed through clothes,
hairstyles, shoes, smell etc.
Other non-verbal forms of social interaction include eye contact, hand gestures,
eyebrow movement, lip movement etc.
View of Conflict
Conflict is a disagreement or struggle between opposing forces or ideas. It can also
refer to a clash between people or appointments.
Causes
Differences in beliefs, values, or interests
Incompatible goals
Mismatched social structures
Resolution
Conflict can be resolved through communication and active listening. Some strategies
include:
Choosing a good time: Pick a time when both parties are available
Planning ahead: Consider how you want to approach the conversation
Being respectful: Avoid name-calling and blaming
Listening: Give the other person a chance to speak and show that you are listening
Focusing on facts: Try to avoid getting sidetracked by personal opinions
Being empathetic: Try to understand the other person's perspective
Refocusing on solutions: Try to work towards a resolution
Synonyms
battle, clash, combat, competition, rivalry, strife, struggle, and war.
view of Development
Development is the act of improving by expanding, enlarging, or refining. The
merging of two university departments might lead to the development of a new
curriculum.
Symbolic interactionism
Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that develops from practical
considerations and alludes to humans' particular use of shared language to create
common symbols and meanings, for use in both intra- and interpersonal
communication.[1]
It is particularly important in microsociology and social psychology. It is derived
from the American philosophy of pragmatism and particularly from the work of
George Herbert Mead, as a pragmatic method to interpret social interactions.[2][3]
According to Mead, symbolic interactionism is "The ongoing use of language and
gestures in anticipation of how the other will react; a conversation".[4] Symbolic
interactionism is "a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of
everyday interactions of individuals". In other words, it is a frame of reference to
better understand how individuals interact with one another to create symbolic worlds,
and in return, how these worlds shape individual behaviors.[5] It is a framework that
helps understand how society is preserved and created through repeated interactions
between individuals. The interpretation process that occurs between interactions helps
create and recreate meaning. It is the shared understanding and interpretations of
meaning that affect the interaction between individuals. Individuals act on the premise
of a shared understanding of meaning within their social context. Thus, interaction
and behavior are framed through the shared meaning that objects and concepts have
attached to them. Symbolic Interactionism refers to both verbal and nonverbal
communication. From this view, people live in both natural and symbolic
environments.
What is Ethnomethodology?
Ethnomethodology is best defined as a field of study that aims to understand how
people make sense of their own lived realities and practices, and how they navigate
these realities and practices. Another way to understand this term is to break down the
parts of the word:
"Ethno-" refers to a specific sociocultural group of people.
"-method-" refers to the practices of the aforementioned group.
"-ology" refers to the study of something.
It defies easy categorization, but may fit closest in the areas of phenomenological
methodologies and interpretivist orientations of sociology. This means that it does not
assume there is one true reality, but that different people interpret the world in a
variety of ways using, for instance, cultural norms.
