PHYSICS SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Classification of Metals:

On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity (σ) or resistivity the
solids are broadly classified as:

Metals:

They possess very low resistivity (or high conductivity).

Semiconductors:

They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators.

Insulators:

They have high resistivity (or low conductivity).

Classification of Metals on the Basis of Energy Bands:

When the atoms come together to form a solid they are so close to each other that the fields of
electrons of outer orbits from neighboring atoms overlap. This makes the nature of electron
motion in a solid very different from that in an isolated atom. Inside the solid, each electron has
a unique position, and no two electrons have same pattern of surrounding charges.
PHYSICS SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Metals:

In metals, conduction band and valence band are overlapped to each other. The electrons from
the valence band can easily move into the conduction band. Normally, the conduction band is
empty but when it overlaps on the valence band, electrons can move freely into it, and it
conducts electric current through it.

Semiconductors:
Semiconductors are the core fundamental materials which are used in solid-state electronic
devices such as transistors, diodes etc. The material’s atomic structure decides whether the
material will turn out to be a metal, semiconductor, or insulator. Semiconductors could also be
elements such as Ge, Si or compounds such as CdS or GaAs.
PHYSICS SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Insulators:

In semiconductors, a small and finite energy band gap exists. Because of the small energy band
gap some electrons from valence band, at room temperature, acquire enough energy to cross
the energy gap and enter the conduction band. These electrons are very few and can move in
the conduction band. Hence, the resistance of semiconductors is not as high as that of the
insulators.

Intrinsic Semiconductor:

The pure semiconductors in which the electrical conductivity is totally governed by the electrons
excited from the valence band to the conduction band and in which no impurity atoms are
added to increase their conductivity are called intrinsic semiconductors and their conductivity is
called intrinsic conductivity. Electrical conduction in pure semiconductors occurs by means of
electron-hole pairs. In an intrinsic semiconductor,

ne = n h = n i

where ne = the free electron density in conduction band, nh = the hole density in valence band,
and ni = the intrinsic carrier concentration.

Extrinsic Semiconductors:

A Semiconductor doped with suitable impurity atoms so as to increase its conductivity is called
an extrinsic semiconductor.

Types of Semiconductor:

Extrinsic semiconductors are basically of two types:

n-type semiconductors:

The pentavalent impurity atoms are called donors because they donate electrons to the host
crystal and the semiconductor doped with donors is called n-type semiconductor. In n-type
semiconductors, electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are the minority charge
carriers. Thus, ne ≫ nh
PHYSICS SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

p-type semiconductors:

The trivalent impurity atoms are called acceptors because they create holes which can accept
electrons from the nearby bonds. A semiconductor doped with acceptor type

impurities is called a p-type semiconductor. In p-type semiconductor, holes are the majority
carriers and electrons are the minority charge carriers Thus,

Diode:
Diodes are being for the purpose of AC voltage rectification which means restricting the voltage
to follow one direction only using a capacitor or a filter, a dc voltage can be achieved.

The types of diodes are:

Zener Diode: This is used in places where voltage regulation is needed.

P-N junction diode: It is used in photonic or optoelectronic devices and the entity is the photon.
Examples are solar cells, light-emitting diodes etc.

Holes:

The vacancy or absence of electron in the bond of a covalently bonded crystal is called a hole. A
hole serves as a positive charge carrier.

p-n Junction Formation:

In the n-region of a p-n junction, the concentration of free electrons is higher than that of holes,
whereas in the p-region, the concentration of holes is much higher than that of free electrons.
Therefore, when a p-n junction is formed, some electrons from the n-region will diffuse into the
p-region. Since the hole is nothing but the vacancy of an electron, an electron diffusing from the
n- to the p-region simply fills this vacancy, i.e., it completes the covalent bond. This process is
called electron-hole recombination.

Semiconductor Diode:

A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for
the application of an external voltage. The symbol for the simplest electronic device, namely the
p-n junction is shown as. The direction of the thick arrow is from the p to the n-region. The p-
side is called the anode and the n-side is known as the cathode.
PHYSICS SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Forward Biasing of a pn-junction:

If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the p-side and the negative terminal to the n-
side, then the pn-junction is said to be forward biased. Both electrons and holes move towards
the junction. A current, called forward current, flows across the junction. Thus, a pn-junction
offers a low resistance when it is forward biased.

Reverse Biasing of a pn-junction:

If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the n-side and negative terminal to the p-
side, then pn-junction is said to be reverse biased. The majority charge carriers move away from
the junction. The potential barrier offers high resistance during the reverse bias. However, due
to the minority charge carriers a small current, called reverse or leakage current flows in the
opposite direction. Thus, junction diode has almost a unidirectional flow of current.
PHYSICS SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Characteristics of Junction Diode:

With increasing forward bias, the current first increases non-linearly up to a certain forward-
biased voltage called knee voltage or cut-in voltage and beyond which the current varies non-
linearly.

Diode as Rectifier:
The process of converting alternating voltage/ current into direct voltage/ current is called
rectification. Diode is used as a rectifier for converting alternating current/ voltage into direct
current/ voltage.

There are two ways of using a diode as a rectifier i.e.

Half-wave Rectifier:

Let during the first half of AC input cycle, the end A of secondary S of transformer be at positive
potential and end B at the negative potential. In this situation, the diode is forward biased and a
current flow in the circuit. Consequently, an output voltage across load R L is obtained.

During the second half of AC input, the end A of secondary S of transformer is at negative
potential and diode D is in reverse bias. So, no current flows through load R L and there is no
PHYSICS SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

output voltage across RL.

In the next positive half-cycle of AC input, we again get the output and so on. Thus, we get
output voltage as shown in Fig. Here, the output voltage, though still varying in magnitude, is
restricted to only one direction, and is said to be rectified. Since, the rectified output of the
circuit is obtained only for half of the input AC wave, the device is called half-wave rectifier.

Full-wave rectifier:

During the first half cycle of the input voltage, the terminal A is positive with respect to O while B
is negative with respect to O. Diode first is forward bias and conducts while diode second is
reverse bias and does not conduct, the current flow through RL from D To O. During the second
half cycle, A is negative, and B is positive with respect to O, thus diode first is reverse bias and
diode second is forward biased. The current through RL is in the same direction as during the
first half cycle. The resulting output current is a continuous series.

As we are getting output in positive half as well as negative half of AC input cycle, the rectifier is
called a full wave rectifier. Obviously, this is a more efficient circuit for getting rectified voltage
or current than a half wave rectifier.

Zener diode:

The specially designed junction diodes which can operate in the reverse breakdown voltage
PHYSICS SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

region continuously without being damaged, are called Zener diodes.

Photodiode:

A junction diode made from photosensitive semiconductor is called a photodiode. In photodiode

one region is made so thin that incident light may reach the depletion region.

Light-Emitting Diode (LED):

Light-emitting diode is a heavily doped p-n junction encapsulated with a transparent cover so
that emitted light can come out. When the forward current of the diode is small the intensity of
light emitted is small. As the forward current increases, intensity of light increases and reaches a
maximum.

Solar cell:

In a solar cell, one region is made very thin so that most of the light incident on it reaches the
depletion region. In this diode when photons of visible light incident to depletion region,
electrons jump from valence band to conduction band producing electron-hole pairs.
PHYSICS SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Action of a transistor:

When the emitter-base junction of an n-p-n-transistor is forward biased, the electrons are
pushed towards the base. As the base region is very thin and lightly doped, most of the electrons
cross over to the reverse biased collector. Since few electrons and holes always recombine in the
base region, so the collector current Ic is always slightly less then emitter current IE.

Where IB is the base current.

Digital Electronics and Logic Gates:

There are three basic logic gates:

(i) OR gate (ii) AND gate, and (iii) NOT gate.

NOT Gate:

This is the most basic gate, with one input and one output. It produces an inverted version of the
input at its output i.e., it produces a ‘1’ output if the input is ‘0’ and vice versa. This is why it is
also known as an inverter.

AND gate:

An AND gate can have any number of inputs but only one output. It gives a high output (1) if
inputs A and B are both high (1), or else the output is low (0). It is described by the Boolean
expression.

A.B = Y

Which is read as ‘A and B equals Y.

Combination of Gates:

The NAND gate:

If the output Y' of AND gate is connected to the input of NOT gate, the gate so obtained is called
PHYSICS SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

NAND gate. Boolean expression for the NAND gate is

The NOR gate:

If the output (Y') of OR gate is connected to the input of a NOT gate, the gate so obtained is
called the NOR gate. Boolean expression for the NOR gate is

Integrated Circuits:

The concept of fabricating an entire circuit (consisting of many passive components like R and C
and active devices like diode and transistor) on a small single block (or chip) of a semiconductor
has revolutionized the electronics technology. Such a circuit is known as Integrated Circuit (IC).
Mind map : learning made simple Chapter - 14
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

Important Questions

Multiple Choice questions-

1. In the figure, assuming the diodes to be ideal,

A. D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased and hence current flows from A to B.
B. D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased and hence no current flows from B to A
and vice versa.
C. D1 and D2 are both forward biased and hence current flows from A to B.
D. D1 and D2 are both reverse biased and hence no current flows from A to B and vice
versa.
2. Hole is:
A. an anti-particle of electron.
B. a vacancy created when an electron leaves a covalent bond.
C. absence of free electrons.
D. an artificially created particle.
3. For the depletion region of a diode which one is incorrect?
A. There are no mobile charges.
B. Equal number of holes and electrons exists, making the region neutral.
C. Recombination of holes and electrons has taken place.
D. Immobile charged ions exist.
4. To reduce the ripples in a rectifier circuit with capacitor filter which one is false?
A. RL should be increased.
B. Input frequency should be decreased.
C. Input frequency should be increased.
D. Capacitors with high capacitance should be used.
5. Carbon, silicon and germanium have four valence electrons each. These are characterised
by valence and conduction bands separated by energy band gap respectively equal to
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

(Eg)C, (Eg)Si and (Eg) Ge. Which of the following statements is true?
A. (Eg)Si < (Eg)Ge < (Eg)C
B. (Eg)C < (Eg)Ge > (Eg)Si
C. (Eg)C > (Eg)Si > (Eg)Ge
D. (Eg)C = (Eg)Si = (Eg)Ge
6. In an unbiased p-n junction, holes diffuse from the p-region to n-region because:
A. free electrons in the n-region attract them.
B. they move across the junction by the potential difference.
C. hole concentration in p-region is more as compared to n-region.
D. All the above.
7. In a p-n junction diode, change in temperature due to heating:
A. affects only reverse resistance
B. affects only forward resistance
C. Does not affect resistance of p-n junction
D. affects the overall V-I characteristics of p-n junction
8. A specimen of silicon is to be made p-type semiconductor for this one atom of indium, on
an average, is doped in 5 × 107 silicon atoms. If the number density of silicon is 5 × 1022
atoms m-3, then the number of acceptor atoms per cm³ will be:
A. 2.5 × 1030
B. 1.0 × 1013
C. 1.0 × 1015
D. 2.5 × 1036
9. The given circuit has two ideal diodes connected as shown in the figure below. The
current flowing through the resistance R1 will be:

A. 1.43 A
B. 3.13 A
C. 2.5 A
D. 10.0 A
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

10. Consider the junction diode as ideal. The value of current flowing through AB is:

A. 0A
B. 10-2A
C. 10-1 A
D. 10-3 A

Very Short Questions:

1. Give the ratio of number of holes and the number of conduction electrons in an intrinsic
semiconductor.
2. What type of impurity is added to obtain n-type semiconductor?
3. Doping of silicon with indium leads to which type of semiconductor?
4. Draw an energy level diagram for an intrinsic semiconductor.
5. A semiconductor has equal electron and hole concentration of 6×10 8m−3. On doping
with a certain impurity electron concentration increases to 3×1012m−3. Identify the type
of semiconductor after doping.
6. How does the energy gap of an intrinsic semiconductor vary, when doped with a
trivalent impurity?
7. How does the width of the depletion layer of p-n-junction diode change with decrease
in reverse bias?
8. Under what condition does a junction diode work as an open switch?
9. Which type of biasing gives a semiconductor diode very high resistance?
10. If the output of a 2-input NAND gate is fed as the input to a NOT gate,
a) name the new logic gate obtained and
b) write down its truth table

Short Questions :
1. If the frequency of the input signal is f. What will be the frequency of the pulsating
output signal in case of :
(i) half wave rectifier?
(ii) full wave rectifier?
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

2. Find the equivalent resistance of the network shown in figure between point A and B
when the p-n junction diode is ideal and :
(i) A is at higher potential
(ii) B is at higher potential

3. Potential barrier of p.n. junction cannot be measured by connecting a sensitive voltmeter

across its terminals. Why?
4. The diagram shows a piece of pure semiconductor S in series with a variable resistor R
and a source of constant voltage V. Would you increase or decrease the value of R to
keep the reading of ammeter A constant, when semiconductor S is heated? Give reason.

5. Why is a photo diode used in reverse bias?

6. What is an ideal diode? Draw the output wave form across the load resistor R, if the input
waveform is as shown in the figure.

7. With the help of a labeled circuit diagram, explain full wave rectification using junction
diode. Draw input and output wave forms?
8. Name the gate shown in the figure and write its truth table?
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

9. In the following diagrams indicate which of the diodes are forward biased and which are
reverse bias?

10. In the given figure, is

(i) The emitter base
(ii) collector base forward or reverse biased? Justify.

(i)
Long Answers Q.:
1. Distinguish between conductors, insulators and semiconductors on the basis of energy
band diagrams?
2. The following truth table gives the output of a 2-input logic gate.

A B Output

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

Identify the logic gate used and draw its logic symbol. If the output of this gate is fed as
input to a NOT gate, name the new logic gate so formed?
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

3. With the help of a diagram, show the biasing of a light emitting diode (LED). Give its two
advantages over conventional incandescent lamps?
4. The input resistance of a silicon transistor is 665. Its base current is changed by 15 A,
which results in the change in collector current by 2mA. This transistor is used as a
common emitter amplifier with a load resistance of 5k. Calculate current gain ( ac).
5. Draw the symbol for zener diode? Zener diodes have higher dopant densities as
compared to ordinary p-n junction diodes. How dos it affect the (i) width of the
depletion layer (i) junction field?
6. A P-N-P transistor is used in common – emitter mode in an amplifier circuit. A change of
4oA in the base current brings a change of 2mA in collector current and 0.04V in base
– emitter voltage. Find (i) input resistance (ii) current amplification factor ( ). If a load
resistance of 6k is used, then find voltage gain?
7. A semiconductor has equal electron and whole concentration of 6 × 108 / m3.
On doping with certain impurity, electron concentration increases to 8 × 1012 / m3.
(i) Identify the new semiconductor
(ii) Calculate the new whole concentration.
(iii) How does the energy gap vary with doping?
8. Draw a labeled circuit diagram of a common emitter transistor amplifier. Draw the input
and the output wave forms and also state the relation between input and output signal?
9. In an intrinsic semiconductor the energy gap Eg is 1.2 eV. Its hole mobility is much
smaller than electron mobility and independent of temperature. What is the ratio
between conductivity at 600K and that at 300K? Assume that the temperature
dependence of intrinsic carrier concentration n i is given by

where n0 is a constant.
10. In a p-n junction diode, the current I can be expressed as

where I0 is called the reverse saturation current, V is the voltage across the diode and is
positive for forward bias and negative for reverse bias, and I is the current through the
diode, k is the Boltzmann constant (8.6 × 10-5 eV/K) and T is the absolute temperature. If
for a given diode I0 = 5 × 10-12 A and T = 300 K, then
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

(a) What will be the forward current at a forward voltage of 0.6 V?

(b) What will be the increase in the current if the voltage across the diode is increased to
0.7 V?
(c) What is the dynamic resistance?
(d) What will be the current if reverse bias voltage changes from 1 V to 2 V?
Assertion and Reason Questions –
1. Two statements are given-one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R).
Select the correct answer to these questions from thecodes(a), (b), (c) and (d) as given below.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
c) A is true but R is false.
d) A is false and R is also false.
Assertion: The ratio of free electrons to holes in intrinsic semiconductor is greater than one.
Reason: The electrons are lighter particles and holes are heavy particles.
2. Two statements are given-one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R).
Select the correct answer to these questions from the codes(a), (b), (c) and (d) as given below.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
c) A is true but R is false.
d) A is false and R is also false.
Assertion: : The half-wave rectifier work only for positive half cycle of ac.
Reason: In half-wave rectifier only one diode is used.
Case Study Questions –
1. Solar cell is a p-n junction diode which converts solar energy into electric energy. It is
basically a solar energy converter. The upper layer of solar cell is of p-type semiconductor and
very thin so that the incident light photons may easily reach the p-n junction. On the top face of
p-layer, the metal finger electrodes are prepared in order to have enough spacing between the
fingers for the lights to reach the p-n junction through p-layer.
(i) The schematic symbol of solar cell is:
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

(ii) The p-n junction which generates an emf when solar radiations fall an it, with no external
bias applied, is a:
a) Light emitting diode.
b) Photodiode.
c) Solar cell.
d) None of these.
(iii) For satellites the source of energy is:
a) Solar cell.
b) Fuel cell.
c) Edison cell.
d) None of these.
(iv) Which of the following material is used in solar cell?
a) Barium.
b) Silicon.
c) Silver.
d) Selenium.
(v) The efficiency of a solar cell may be in the range:
a) 2 to 5%
b) 10 to 15%
c) 30 to 40%
d) 70 to 80%
2. P-n junction is a single crystal of Ge or Si doped in such a manner that one half portion of it
acts asp-type semiconductor and other half functions as n-type semiconductor. As soon as a p-
n junction is formed, the holes from the p-region diffuse into then-region, and electron from n
region diffuse in top-region. This results in the development of V 8 across the junction which
opposes the further diffusion of electrons and holes through the junction.
(i) In an unbiased p-n junction electrons diffuse from n-region top-region because:
a) Holes in p-region attract them.
b) Electrons travel across the junction due to potential difference.
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

c) Electron concentration inn-region is more as compared to that in p-region.

d) Only electrons move from n top region and not the vice-versa.
(ii) Electron hole recombination in p-n junction may lead to emission of:
a) Light.
b) Ultraviolet rays.
c) Sound.
d) Radioactive rays.
(iii) In an unbiased p-n junction:
a) Potential at pis equal to that at n.
b) Potential at pis + ve and that at n is - ve.
c) Potential at pis more than that at n.
d) Potential at pis less than that at n.
(iv) The potential of depletion layer is due to:
a) Electrons.
b) Holes.
c) Ions.
d) Forbidden band.
(v) In the depletion layer of unbiased p-n junction,
a) It is devoid of charge carriers.
b) Has only electrons.
c) Has only holes.
d) P-n junction has a weak electric field.
Multiple Choice question’s Answers –
1. D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased and hence no current flows from B to A
and vice versa.
2. a vacancy created when an electron leaves a covalent bond.
3. There are no mobile charges.
4. Input frequency should be decreased.
5. (Eg)C > (Eg)Si > (Eg)Ge
6. hole concentration in p-region is more as compared to n-region.
7. affects the overall V-I characteristics of p-n junction
8. 1.0 × 1015
9. 2.5 A
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

10. 10-2A

Very Short Answers :

1.

2. Pentavalent atoms (group -15) like Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), etc.
3. Doping of Silicon with Indium produces a p-type semiconductor as Indium is a trivalent
impurity.
4. In intrinsic semiconductor, ne = nh
The energy level diagram for an intrinsic semiconductor is shown below:

5. According to the question, after doping, ne > nh.

Clearly, we get an n-type semiconductor after doping.
6. An acceptor energy level is formed in the forbidden energy gap above the valence band
when an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity.
Due to this, electrons quickly jump to the acceptor energy level.
7. The width of the depletion layer will decrease with decrease in reverse bias.
8. A junction diode works as an open switch when it is connected under reverse bias
conditions.
9. Reverse biasing gives a semiconductor diode very high resistance.
10.
a) An AND gate is obtained when the output of a 2-input NAND gate is fed as the
input to a NOT gate.
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

b) Truth table for an AND gate is given below.

A B Y
0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Short Answers:
1. Frequency of output in half wave Rectifier is f and in full have rectifier is 2f.
2. Equivalent resistance is
(i) 10
(ii) 20
3. Because there is no free charge carrier in depletion region.
4. On heating S, resistance of semiconductors S is decreased so to compensate the value of
resistance in the circuit R is increased.
5. In this case diode is sensitive and it gives very large amount of current in this situation.
6. An ideal diode has zero resistance when forward biased and an infinite resistance when it
is reverse biased. Output wave from is:

7. Full wave rectifier consists of two diodes and a transformer with central tap. For any half
cycle of a.c. input only one diode is forward biased where as the other one is reverse
biased.
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

Suppose for positive half of a.c. input diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased,
then the current will flow across D1 where as for negative half of a.c. input diode D2 is
forward biased and the current flows across D2 .Thus for both the halves output is
obtained and current flows in the same direction across load resistance R 2 and thus a.c. is
converted into d.c.
8. It is AND gate and its truth table is:

9. (a) Forward Biased

(b) Reverse Biased
(c) forward Biased
10. Figure shows n-p-n transistor
(ii) Emitter is reversed biased because n-region is connected to higher potential.
(iii) Collector is also reversed biased because n-region of p-n junction is at higher
potential than p-region.
Long Answers:
1.
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

Conductor – Conduction band in a conductor is either partially filled or conduction and

valence band overlaps each other. There is no energy gap in a conductor.

Insulators – conduction band and valence band of all insulator are widely separated by
and energy gap of the order 6 to 9eV Also conduction band of an insulator is almost
empty.
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

Semiconductor – In semiconductors the energy gap is very small i.e. about 1ev only.

2. The gate is NOR gate. If the output of NOR gate is connected to a NOT gate then the
figure will be:

New truth table is:

A B Output

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

3. Light emitting diode is forward biased i.e. energy is released at the junction.
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

Advantages of LED
1) They are used in numerical displays as compact in size.
2) It works at low voltage and has longer life than incandescent bulbs.
4.
(1) Trans conductance (gm) (2) voltage gain (Av) of the amplifier.

5. Symbol for zener diode

SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

(i) Width of the depletion layer of zener diode becomes very small due to heavy
doping of p and n-regions
(ii) Junction field will be high..
6. Ans:

7.
(i) New semiconductor obtained is N-type because
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

(ii) Energy gap decreases due to creation of donor level in between the valence band
and the conduction band.
8. Diagram:

Relation – output waveform has 180o phase reversal as compared to input and also the
output is being amplified.
9. Energy gap of the given intrinsic semiconductor, Eg = 1.2 eV
The temperature dependence of the intrinsic carrier-concentration is written as:

Where KB = Boltzmann constant = 8.62 × 10-5 eV/K

T = Temperature
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

n0 = Constant
Initial temperature, T1 = 300 K
The intrinsic carrier-concentration at this temperature can be written as:

Final temperature, T2 = 600 K

The intrinsic carrier-concentration at this temperature can be written as:

The ratio between the conductivities at 600 K and at 300 K is equal to the ratio between
the respective intrinsic carrier-concentrations at these temperatures.

Therefore, the ratio between the conductivities is 1.09 × 105.

10. In a p-n junction diode, the expression for current is given as:
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

Where,
I0 = Reverse saturation current = 5 × 10-12 A
T = Absolute temperature = 300 K
KB = Boltzmann constant = 8.6 × 10-5 eV / K = 1.376 × 10-23 JK-1
V = Voltage across the diode
(a) Forward voltage, V = 0.6 V

Therefore, the forward current is about 0.0256 A.

(b) For forward voltage, V' = 0.7 V, we can write:

Hence, the increase in current, ΔI = I' - I

= 1.257 - 0.0256 = 1.23 A
(c)

(e) If the reverse bias voltage changes from 1 V to 2 V, then the current (I) will almost
remain equal to I0 in both cases. Therefore, the dynamic resistance in the reverse
bias will be infinite.
Assertion and Reason Answers –
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

1. (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
Explanation:
In intrinsic semiconductor = 𝐼 and holes are not particles but vacancies created due to
breakage of covalent bond.
2. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
Explanation:
In half wave rectifier, the one diode is biased only when ac is in positive half of its cycle. For
negative half of the ac cycle the diode is reversed biased and there is no output corresponding
to that. Since for only one-half cycle we get a voltage output, because of which it is called half
wave rectifier.
Case Study Answers –
1. Answer :
(i) (a)

(ii) (c) Solar cell.

(iii) (a) Solar cell.
Explanation:
Solar cells are the source of energy for satellites.
(iv) (b) Silicon.
Explanation:
Silicon is used in solar cell.
(v) (b) 10 to 15%
2. Answer :
(i) (c) Electron concentration inn-region is more as compared to that in p-region.
SCIENCE SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES

Explanation:
Electron concentration in n-region is more as compared to that in p-region. So electrons
diffuse from n-side to p-side.
(ii) (a) Light.
Explanation:
When an electron and a hole recombine, the energy is released in the form of light.
(iii) (a) Potential at pis equal to that at n.
Explanation:
In an unbiased p-n junction, potential at p is equal to that at n.
(iv) (c) Ions.
Explanation:
The potential of depletion layer is due to ions.
(v) (a) It is devoid of charge carriers.
Explanation:
In the depletion layer of unbiased p-n, junction has no charge carriers.