Yet Another Benchmark - Part I

Stage Bottles
Book Review: Force Z Shipwrecks of
the South China Sea
Continuous Gas Blending Using Double
Oxygen Analyzer
Diving Pioneers & Innovators: A Series
of In Depth Interviews (Bob Ballard)
Issue 11 – June 2013
Contents Editorial
Editorial 2 Welcome to the eleventh issue of Tech Diving Mag.

A wealth of information along with some interesting stories and first-

Yet Another Benchmark - Part I hand experiences are brought together by our generous contributors
By Albrecht Salm 3 for this issue: world renowned industry professional Bret Gilliam,
technical diving instructor Albrecht Salm (PhD), expert diver and
research enthusiast Jurij Zelic and accomplished diver, instructor
Stage Bottles trainer and book author Steve Lewis. Get to know more about them
and read their bio at www.techdivingmag.com/contributors.html.
By Steve Lewis 11
As you might know, Tech Diving Mag is based on article contribution
Book Review: Force Z Shipwrecks of the South from the readership. So you’re always welcome to drop me a line if
you’re interested in volunteering an article. One more much appreciated
China Sea thing is your photos (even without articles)! For submission guidelines,
By Asser Salama 17 take a look at www.techdivingmag.com/guidelines.html.

Tech Diving Mag is very much your magazine and I am always keen
Continuous Gas Blending Using Double Oxygen to have your input. If you want to share your views, drop me a line at
[email protected].
Analyzer
By Jurij Zelic 19 Please visit www.techdivingmag.com/communicate.html to subscribe
to the newsletter in order to be notified when new issues are available
for download.
Diving Pioneers & Innovators: A Series of In
Depth Interviews (Bob Ballard)
By Bret Gilliam 24
Asser Salama
Front cover image © T. Timothy Smith. Editor, Tech Diving Mag

Pg. 2 www.techdivingmag.com Issue 11 – June 2013

 Yet Another
Benchmark -
Part I
By Albrecht Salm

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We wanted to compare a couple of dive computers, diving tables and BT = Bottom Time (effective time at bottom, normally including
desktop deco software products with our notorious 42 m, 25 min dive descend time)
on air. This, as such, isprobably not a real tec dive to talk about for AT = Ascend Time (normally maximum geometric depth divided by
this magazine but a dive an ambitious recreational diver could do as the ascend rate)
well as a one tank dive. As well we want to lay in Part I the foundation TST = Total Stop Time, basically the sum of all stop times
to get the idea what is going on in Part II. TDT = Total Decompression Time, in principal: TST + AT, but
sometimes as well:
Part II will cover the same dive and basically the same procedure but TDT = Total Dive Time = BT + TST + AT
with a somewhat non-standard mixture of Heliox20 (20 % Oxygen,
balance Helium). The rationale for this we will cover in part II, Most software products and tables are using definition B) for TTS.
appearing in this magazine by the end of 2013. Well, but not everybody and not always ...

But our diver will readily get a good feeling concerning the variability To make comparability even worse we had to fiddle with a couple
in outcomes, if she wants to: the extreme positions in TTS (time-to- of parameters in the dive computers or the PC software: our goal
surface) in Table I for this dive are: was that the dose of absorbed inert gas should be the same for all
 16 or 17 min for a Standard RGBM model via outcomes!
 85 min (from my friend Dr. Max Hahn, who calculated a
conservative table for recreational diving with a tolerated Our definition of the “absorbed inert gas dose” is straightforward: it is
constant inertgas overpressure of 0.4 Bar( [1], [4] ) up to the time-integral (the area) under the dive profile (i.e. depth vs. dive
 102 min with another bubble model software at the very other time). For a rectangular box profile from a table it is just:
end.
depth * time
But before we go into details of Table I, we found out that there is no
real standard definition of TTS to which everybody would adhere to. Thus we had to fiddle about with:
We found various ways to calculate the TTS: • ascend and descend rates
• barometric air pressure at begin of dive
A) TTS = BT + TST + AT • temperature
B) TTS = TST + AT • water density
C) TTS = TST = TDT • pre-defined gradient factors
• set of coefficients for calculation of the allowed / tolerated
Legend: supersaturation.
TTS = time-to-surface

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Even worse for this comparison are the intrinsic gradient factors of, say These errors in physical measurement can easily sum up to 10 to
a couple of, RGBM implementations. These run internally a straight- 20 % of the calculated TTS. This is why we won’t splitt hairs here
forward ZH-L (“RGBM folded over ZH-L” as Bruce Wienke would about smaller variations in the TTS: these could readily be masked by
have it) but had modified the original so-called a- and b-coefficients random behaviour of mother nature.
from the ZH-L mother via gradient factors, called “f-factors” in these
frame works. To breath a little bit more life into this: have a look at the title picture.
There you see 3 dive computers after a common dive from one diver
Products for professional use (i.e. construction & repair diving or (me! I took this one a couple of weeks ago here, ‘round the corner
saturation diving) could allow for: in El Qusier, Red Sea ...) , exactly on the same depth but with 3
• workload (oxygen consumption) different depth readings and, for sure: with 3 different “NDL”s ( =
• skin temperature and even the “no decompression limits”, which I put in inverted commas: because
• respiratory coefficient (volume ratio of carbon dioxide there is no such thing like a no decompression dive …) respectively
production to oxygen consumption). 3 different stop times. Let’s put these readings in a little table for a
clear overview:
If the product was based on the notorious ZH-L 16 system from
Albert Alois Buehlmann [2], we tried to force it to use the “ZH-L Computer: depth reading [m] „NDL“ / stop time
16 C” set of coefficients. The ZH-L 16 C is a somewhat little bit brand & type [min.] (*)
more conservative set than the ZH-L 16 A used for the ZH-86 dive COCHRAN: 16,4 +5
table, and is said to accomodate for the peculiarities of an on-line dive EMC-20 H
computer produced schedule [l.c.: p. 158]. VR Tech.: 16,8 -3
NHeO3 ( 1‘/ 3 + 2‘/ 17)
If we lost this battle, say for a fixed and printed table, we put a remark UWATEC: 16,9 + 10
in the right-most column. And, finally: we are not talking about Aladin TEC 2G
variations, say, in the “sub-5-minute” or “Modulo 2 minute domaine”
but rather when it comes to a factor of 2 oreven more! (*) 1st. dive of the day, i.e. no repetitive dive, max. depth ca. 31
m, topical run time ca. 42 min for all boxes: no special features
But our test-diver could have fun when she calculates the arithmetic (conservativisms, level stops etc. ...) activated.
mean and the standard deviation of all these TTSs …
Here, Cochran’s EMC-20 H (left most box) gives the minimum depth
The basic, primary variation in the TTS, especially within a group of with he shortest NDL: it is sporting an automatic adaption to water
same computers, results of the statistical error in measureing the basic density via conductivity measurement. The longest NDL is given by
parameters (pressure, temperature, time and the fO2 via an analyzer). Uwatec’s / Scubapro’s TEC 2G (box on top), programmed to fresh

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water density. Our little friend from UK (right most box) forced me USN old 2 14 20
already to do a “micro bubble avoidance stop” around 17 m for 2 min MDv 5 15 20 + ca. 4.2 !
and wanted to do as well a real deco stop for 1 min @ 3 m. This is the 450/1
reason that the right part of its display changed to red and gave me the
Deco 1 5 13 24 V 3.01
2 min break for making this little photography.
Trainer
OSTC 6 14 25 TDT = 50
So, in this picture we have everything in common: 470
 deviations of the measurements
Ultimate 6 15 25 TDT = 50
 deviations of the outcomes Planner
1.2
The real bad message here is: the longer and deeper the dive, the more
IANTD 1 4 3 18 26 Table
the deviations. This is probably not so interesting for recreational air
Air
diving: but this one will hit the TEC diver, wanting to do a little bit
longer and deeper than usual. BGV 3 7 17 30 only „total deco time“

C23
And there is another bad message which you learned already from DIVE 1 6 16 27 TDT = 52 (*)
another past issue of this magazine (Tech Diving Mag, Issue 5 – 3_0
December 2011, p. 41 - 53): the more Helium you put in your mix the OSTC 1 6 16 28 TDT = 53
more pronounced are these deviations for bad or negligent software Planner v 434

implementations, be it in a dive computer or in a piece of desktop DIVE 2 6 16 29 TDT = 54

2_905
deco-software.
USN 26 31 140 feet
2008
Table I: Test Dive on Air, depth: 42 m, bottom time: 25 min
USN 28 33 140 feet
depth of 24 21 18 15 12 9 6 3 TTS Remarks 09-03
stop à / m m m m m m m m min
stop ZH-86 4 7 19 33 42 m / 27 min
times DECO 1 4 8 16 33
RGBM 1 2 3 3 7 16 Table (pls. cf. 2000
legend)

GAP 1 3 3 3 7 17 RGBM -2 Trust 4 7 19 34 TDT = 59

2.2.17
EMC 2 2 3 8 19 Conservative = 0
DCIEM 7 8 17 36

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NHeO3 26/ 2 1 8 21 36 Version 11/2011 NHeO3 27/ 20/ 1 8 13 39 69 Cons.: 50
2 2 2
TEC 3 k . k . 36 L0 (Level Stop) SDP 1 1 73 P2 / A0
A. A.
Hahn 85+
DP 1 1 3 4 9 19 37 GF: 45 / 90
HLP 1.x 2 3 4 6 8 13 22 44 102 VPM 30 % Safety
factor
GAP 1 1 1 2 4 9 19 37 GF: 45 / 90
VPM 2 2 3 4 6 8 14 39 138 feet Legend (in alphabetic order):
VR3 2 - 2 - - 2 8 22 40 3 m -> 4.5 m BGV C23 = (replaced the old VBG 39), means the german legal/safety
procedures for commercial in-land diving with air from 01.04.2001
TEC 1 k . k . k . 40 L1
DC-12 = UWATEC / Scubapro dive computer with the P-6 set of
A. A. A.
coefficients from Dr. Max Hahn; pls. cf. at: www.divetable.info/
GAP 2 2 4 4 6 10 12 40 RGBM recreational
kap4_e.htm
HLP 1.x 2 3 4 6 9 16 40 Default DCIEM = Defence & Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine)
since 01.04.2002: Defence R & D Canada - Toronto, DRDC Toronto,
EMC 2 1 3 4 8 19 41 Conservative = 50
Air Table in the “Diving Manual” DCIEM No. 86-R-35 March 1992,
VPM 1 2 3 3 5 6 9 14 43 Buehlmann safety p. 1B-14
factor = 145.4 feet
TEC 3 k . k . k . 45 L2 DECO 2000 = table from Max Hahn for rec/air diving, released
A. A. A. 2000; used in europe, especially by CMAS. Tables, as well for EAN
DP (**) 1 2 2 4 6 11 19 46 VPM Rel 3.1.4
and mountain lake diving, available at: www.vdst-shop.de
Hahn 5 5 9 25 47 24 min BT Decotrainer: www.decotrainer.de
DC-12 DP = DecoPlanner Version 2.0.40 resp.:
TEC 1 k . k . k . k . 50 L3
DP(**) = DecoPlannerVersion 3.1.4, www.globalunderwaterexplorers.
A. A. A. A. org
EMC = Cochran EMC-20 H, Version j, www.divecochran.com
TEC 3 k . k . k . k . 57 L4 GAP = GasAbsorptionProgram Version 2.3.1665
A. A. A. A.
Hahn = custom table with inertgas overpressure 0,4 Bar, [4]
HLP 2 3 4 6 8 13 24 60 VPM 10 % Safety
IANTD = Intl. Assoc. of Nitrox & Tec Divers;Technical Diver
factor
TEC 2 k . k . k . k . k . 65 L5 Encyclopedia, May 1998, p. 233; www.iantd.com
A. A. A. A. A. HLP 1.x = HL Planner Version 1.0.2314, www.hlplanner.com/
MDv = Marine Dienstvorschrift 450/1 Anlage 6 (matches the old
DRÄGER Table 210, last version from 1970 and 1984), this is the

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table used for german military diving; classified information. (****) have a look at: www.divetable.info/kap8_e.htm
NHeO3 = successor of the VR3 computer from DeltaP technologies,
which was withdrawn from the market due to a many a lot of problems, What was a little bit disturbing for us where two things:
now: www.techsupport.technologyindepth.com, somewhat strangely 1) The variation of TTS with a factor of ca. 6 (102 / 16)
modified ZH-L (****) 2) The variations of different versions from a given software,
OSTC = Open Source Tauchcomputer / Planner; www.ostc-planner. especially prominent with the Heliox20 dive (Table II in Part
net II)
RGBM = Reduced Gradient Bubble Model, table bought in 2003
from rgbmdiving.com (***), Nota Bene: the difference from the multiple USN entries is not “just
SDP = Suunto Dive Planner 1.0.0.3, www.suunto.com another version”, but instead is a complete change of mindset within
TEC = Uwatec / Scubapro Aladin TEC 2G computer, which allows the decompression paradigm. It changed from the old Workman 1965
for user adjustable level stops (L0 à L5) work horse to the VVAL 18 LEM model from Ed Thalmann. The
Trust : www.keimes.de which is a freeware, but requires Java ( L), old work horse from Bob Workman was a modified Haldane-model,
which is also free embellished with a couple of more compartments and his famous
TTS = time-to-surface (after end of BT) “M-Values”. Haldane himself put the constraints of his table #1 very
Ultimate Planner: www.techdivingmag.com/ultimateplanner.html clearly: less than 50 m, less than 30 min TTS, no repetitive dives,
USN = United States Navy; the NEDU (Naval Experimental Diving not for old (>40 years) and men inclined to obesity! [3]. As well he
Unit) is taking care about these things. The topical diving manual pointed out, that his table is only for “uneventful decompression”, i.e.
Rev. 6 with all the tables is available at NAVSEA: www.supsalv.org NO BUBBLES! His argument was, that bubbles would mechanically
; resp.: www.supsalv.org/pdf/Dive%20Manual%20Rev%206%20 hinder the perfusion, i.e.: the blood flow. But an unhindered blood
with%20Chg%20A.pdf flow is essential for the de-saturation with inertgas. This is why Ed
VPM = Varying Permeability Model, here an Excel Version from Eric Thalmann said:
Baker (for XP or older OS, so no longer available)
VR3 = mix gas computer from DeltaP with up to 10 mixes, ZH-L “... at NEDU our exponential uptake on off-gassing led us into a brick
based, once it was king of the road ... ; see above at NHeO3 wall. I injected the V-VAL 18 into it, the exponential uptake and linear
ZH-86 = Zuerich air table from 1986, [2, p. 225] off-gassing model.”Captn. Dr. Edward D. Thalmann, Naval Forces
(*) DIVE 3_0 with full blown numerical solution, no rounding up; under the Sea: The Rest of the Story, p. 293.
whereas DIVE 2_9x is not …
(***) this company went bankrupt ca. 2004, as well there have been Thus the new USN table (Rev. 6, 2008) prolonged all the deco stops
a couple of rumours after the dcs treatments of Mark Elyatt after his and as well shifted all the 10 feet (3 m) stops down to 20 feet (6m)!
various record-dives with RGBM schedules ... a specimen copy is
available at: www.divetable.info/skripte/ntable.pdf

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The standard question on looking at this table of TTSs is the following: Basically it’s not only depth, time and fO2: but as well workload and
skin temperature (besides a very lot of other stuff and: de-hydration,
Is the longer TTS safer? fitness and age J).

I.e.: is a TTS of 100 min+ really “6 times” safer than the shortest And we shall not forget, how Michael Powell put it in the past issue
RGBM schedule? Well, probably not so:decompression sickness of this magazine:
is a relatively seldom event. It appears ca. 1 – 2 times in 100.000
scientific dives, in 10.000 recreational dives, ca. 3 times in approx. “No tables have been tested with subjects haling tanks on the surface.”
10.000 military dives (normal operation), 1 – 2 times in 1.000 to [Tech Diving Mag, Issue 10, 2013], p. 26.
2.000 commercial dives and, appeared exactly 338 times in 7.755
USN experimental dives done by the NEDU. A couple of weeks ago I gave a lecture on these topics during a
GTUEM meeting (www.gtuem.org) on the occasion of an anniversary
There is another nice result from Dick Vann (UHMS, ASM 2008, p. celebration for a recompression chamber facility in the frankfurt area
251) covering these topics: (germany). We discussed these things with the doctores Arne Sieber
(www. seabear-diving.com) and Adel Taher (who is running the deco
chamber in SSH): one argument was, that despite the great variation
in TTS, theP(DCS), the statistical probability of getting hit with
adecompression sickness, would be more or less the same for the
whole bunch of these TTS’s. Mathematically speaking, this is quite
true but these are just numbers which would not help for our real
world diving.As well the true discrimination of a 1% P(DCS) margin
from one TTS to anotherwith zero or only one or 2 hits of DCS
within reasonable statistical accuracywould require something like
additionally 300 controlled dives [private communication, 02. Feb.
2013, 15th. anniversary of HBO-RMT, Wiesbaden, after a couple of
beers …].Or, to put this one into your perspective of real diving: if
you made one DCS-free mix gas dive the last weekend and would
like to question if the next one, absolutely identical dive, will be as
well DCS free the next weekend then your confidence intervall ranges
from almost nearly 0 % (unknown) to ca. 90% (relatively sure).

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So the simple take-home message is:
none of these models (inert gas book keepers, tables, dive computers,
… ) have a lease on the ultimate truth. NONE!

(to be continued with: Heliox20 and a little bit about bubble models)
…

Albrecht Salm (Albi)

Submarine Consulting: www.SMC-de.com

Cited literature
[1] Hahn MH. 1995. Workman-Bühlmann algorithm for dive
computers: A critical analysis. In: Hamilton RW, ed. The effectiveness
of dive computers in repetitive diving, UHMS workshop 81(DC)6-1-
94. Kensington, MD: Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Soc.

[2] Tauchmedizin, Albert A. Bühlmann, Ernst B. Völlm (Mitarbeiter),

P. Nussberger; 5. Auflage in 2002, Springer, ISBN 3-540-42979-4

[3] Boycott, A.E., Damant, G.C.C., & Haldane, J.S.: The Prevention
of Compressed Air Illness, Journal of Hygiene, Volume 8, (1908), pp.
342-443.

[4] Hahn M, Wendling J: No-Bubbles Decompression Tables. In:

Safety Limits of Dive Computers, UHMS workshop 1992, pp. 68 –
72

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Stage Bottles
By Steve Lewis

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A good place to start outlining what works for me or Doing What Works • Bailout Cylinder or Cylinders: typically an open-circuit
(DW2) or whatever you wish to call it, is with stage bottles. These are alternative for rebreather divers in the event of a catastrophic
as close to ubiquitous as any other piece of kit—even closed-circuit unit failure such as a completely flooded loop or carbon-dioxide
divers use them – and rigging a stage bottle in a preferred way (or break-through. Fitted with regulator first stage and often
as close as possible to DW2) is not as easy as companies selling the connected directly to the diver’s bailout regulator. Sometimes
“store-bought” accessories for rigging them would have us believe. fitted with a standard second stage on a medium-length or long
hose, and an SPG on a short hose or a button SPG.
First though, a definition: the term stage bottle describes an independent • Contingency bottle/cylinder: Usually a staged cylinder used in
scuba cylinder filled with “breathing medium” and fitted with at very the event of system failure, and typically employed in complex
least a regulator first and second stage. Its exact configuration and ascents requiring multiple gas chances. Often attached to a
intended use goes a long way to dictating what else the bottle has decompression station and possibly fitted with more than one
attached to it and what it contains. second stage.
• Redundant gas source: Another name for a Buddy Bottle,
The list of names and uses for this “additional” gas source include: Bailout Cylinder, and Contingency Bottle.
• Deco bottle: a cylinder filled with decompression gas to help
optimize off-gassing during the diver’s ascent. Fitted with There are probably others but this list presents the most common
regulator first and second, and an SPG on a short hose. variants that you are likely to come across.
• Sling bottle: any scuba cylinder carried at a diver’s side and
often rigged in the traditional North Florida Cave Diver’s One additional note (and apologies to those of us who use SI units
fashion (see diagram below) as opposed to side-mounted. primarily): Many divers believe aluminum (or aluminium) alloy
• Stage bottle/stage cylinder: a cylinder usually containing cylinders make great stage, bailout, deco, etc. bottles. The reasoning
bottom mix which can be “staged” (left at a strategic point) behind this is the buoyancy characteristics of aluminum bottles
for use in either an emergency or to extend bottom time/cave compared to steel.
penetration.Fitted with regulator first and second, an SPG on a
short hose, and occasionally a LP inflator hose with a universal The classic aluminum 80 (nominally holding 80 cubic feet of “ideal
Schrader connection. gas” at its working pressure of 3000 psi), weighs roughly 32 pounds
• Buddy bottle: a cylinder of bottom mix used as a redundant on the surface when empty; but in the water in the same state has a
gas source to be used in the case of an Out of Air Emergency buoyant lift of three and a quarter pounds (in other words, it floats
or primary regulator failure, situations traditionally dealt with when empty, and can do so even taking into account the effect of an
by signaling “share air” to a buddy. Required kit in the case of attached regulator). When filled, the same tank has an apparent in-
recreational solo divers. Fitted with regulator first and second, water weight of almost two pounds, due to the mass of the gas it is
and an SPG on a short hose. filled with.

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A steel cylinder with an imperial volume of 80 cubic feet is more The advantage of this simple design is that it is easy to
compact, which lends it very different characteristics in and out of find rigging kits, which are available from various
the water. For example, it has thinner walls and surprisingly perhaps, mainstream equipment manufacturers. Many dive
less mass. A steel 80 weighs approximately 28 pounds on the surface stores, even those who do not “cater” to technical
when empty. In the water its smaller dimensions mean it displaces divers, seem to have one or two kits in stock or on
less water, and when empty has an apparent in-water weight of about display. Less expensive, and with access to some
three pounds. When full, that apparent weight is around nine pounds. equipment line, stainless steel bolt-snaps and a pipe-
The difference between an aluminum and a similar capacity steel clamp, fitting this type of rigging on a stage bottle is
cylinders’ buoyant shift appeals to those of us who intend to carry the work of a few minutes and it effectively and quickly
a bottle throughout the whole dive. Steel bottles are popular when attaches the stage bottle reasonably close to the diver
the practice or environment suggests dumping it (staging it) at the when she clips the top bolt-snap to a D ring on her
beginning of a dive. Typically, this is what the majority of cave divers shoulder harness and the bottom snap to another D ring
do with their decompression gas: leaving it staged somewhere near on her hip. There is one modification to a store-bought
the cave entrance at the beginning of the dive: although not all cave a stage-bottle kit that will help with clipping and
divers use steel decompression cylinders! unclipping the bottle, as well as help it to sit as close as
possible to the diver. This is to make the distance from
In the vast majority of diving undertaken by open-circuit technical the clip on the bottle’s neck to the anchor point of the tail clip,
divers, the most common uses of additional cylinders are to carry correspond to the distance between the diver’s shoulder and left hip
decompression gas(es) (deco bottles) and to help extend bottom D rings.
time or penetration in caves (stage bottles). These can be rigged and
configured in very much the same way; and the same methods and However, there is one issue that a growing number of divers have
technique works for their buddies diving closed-circuit equipment, with this technique: even when rigged according to Hoyle, the
and needing to carry bailout cylinders. orientation of the stage bottle is awkward. When the diver assumes a
horizontal trim, the tanks nose points down and its bum sticks in the
The traditional North Florida rigged stage bottle looks like this: air. A concern with this orientation particularly in tight spots, is that
the business-end of the tank – the part with the valve and gas supply
system attached – is likely to drag in silt or get tangled in line. But this
orientation also creates unnecessary drag and can actually influence
a diver’s passage through the water… especially in a strong current.

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Grey is diver’s body, red is orientation of bottle that we want to Aluminum bailout cylinder oriented at diver’s side. Tail is a
avoid. little high but acceptable.

Another, better option is to sidemount stage bottles. Rigging a stage for sidemount carry requires a little more planning,
and the following list of accessories:
Here’s a snap of a diver in horizontal trim carrying an 80 cubic • A CAM band with steel bolt snap
foot aluminum bottle sidemount style. Notice that the rig is more • A short loop of heavy-duty bungee cord and a second steel bolt
streamlined and offers fewer options for entanglement and less water snap (a size or two smaller than the one on the CAM band)
resistance than the traditional North Florida rig. • A plastic or silicon (preferred) snorkel keeper
• Some bungee loops or inner-tube loops for stuffing regulator
hoses (the techniques for which we will discuss later)

Let’s look first at preparing the bottle itself.

Before we run through how to attach the rigging for a sidemounted

stage, we need to decide on which side of our body the bottle will
sit. Most divers who wish to carry a single stage, hang it on their

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left side. The convention for this has its genesis in old-school cave need a small ballast weight to help orient the bottle horizontally in
diving because of the routing of a diver’s long hose from his manifold the water.)
(behind his head and connecting a set of twin tanks) down the right
side of his body and across his chest. That being the case, here’s a Step four: Pull one loop of the silicon snorkel keeper over the valve
step-by-step guide on how to rig a stage that will sit on the diver’s so that it lays flat against the top of the cylinder with the other loop in
left flank. a position that allows for the regulator mouthpiece to be stuffed into
it.
Step one: You will need a tank fitted with a valve with the orientation
of the hand-wheel to the mouth of the valve the opposite of “normal.” Step five: Pull the small loop of equipment line with the bolt snap over
With the valve opening of a conventional valve facing away from the the valve making sure it cannot slip off easily. This bolt snap is not
viewer, its hand-wheel (the on-off knob) points to the viewer’s left. the primary thing keeping the top of the stage bottle in place – that’s
The majority of single tanks are fitted with left valves regardless of the bungee loop that’s going to be fitted to the diver’s harness (more
whether they are DIN, Yoke or Convertible. The reason usually given on this later). This bolt snap is a backup and therefore, can have some
for this – apocryphal or otherwise – is that a right-handed diver using slop without effecting how tightly the tank sits to the diver’s side.
this valve on her back-mounted single cylinder can reach the valve
behind her head [and operate it] with her right hand. In any event, for Step six: Add a couple of inner-tube rubber bands to the tank to hold
this application, you want the other one! regulator hoses in place.

Step two: Stand the tank on the floor, and look at it from above Step seven: Make fine adjustments to the “height” of the CAM band
imagining an analog clock face superimposed over it. Now with the in the water with the help of a friend. The aim is to adjust the anchor
hand-wheel at 12 o’clock, the valve’s mouth will point to your right point until the bottle sits parallel to the body’s centerline with the
a full 90 degrees from the hand-wheel, or to three o’clock. When the business end not restricting the diver’s arm movement. It may not
tank is being carried, we want to have the regulator first and second be intuitive, but decreasing the distance from the anchor point of the
stages pointing away from our body. This is the orientation we want. bottom bolt snap and the bottom of the cylinder (moving the CAM
Step three: Slip the CAM band over the top of the cylinder and orient band away from the valve), will push the top of the cylinder into the
the anchor point for its bolt snap to seven o’clock. This is a starting diver’s armpit, which may not be a comfortable feeling!
point and will probably need slight adjustment to make sure that when
the bottle is carried, the hand wheel points away from the diver’s
bottle.

Step three: Now slide the CAM band down until its bottom is a few
centimeters from the floor. (On an aluminum 80, the CAM band may

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 Notice the silicon snorkel keeper.

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History! The world of ultimate fascination, and what’s better than the what’s in between. The Repulse lies on her side, while the Prince of
accounts of two mighty dreadnoughts! Wales lies inverted. This is clearly illustrated via detailed paintings.
Finally there are some underwater photographs towards the end of
In 1941, Force Z including the two top-notch Royal Navy battleships this section.
HMS Repulse and HMS Prince of Wales, along with their supporting
fleet sailed out to Singapore. The Repulse was 242 meter (794 foot) Force Z Shipwrecks of the South China Sea comes in 166 pages
long, while the Prince of Wales was 227 meter (745 foot) long. and is published by Whittles Publishing. It is available at:
www.whittlespublishing.com/Force_Z_Shipwrecks_of_the_
December the same year, exactly on the tenth, the two beauties South_China_Sea
were destroyed by the Japanese air power. 85 bombers pounded
them leading to their demise. They both sunk with a huge number This book is also available in North America from NBN Books
of casualties. Three days earlier, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, (www.nbnbooks.com).
Hawaii, causing huge damage to the US Navy fleet and thousands
of casualties. After these two events, it became clear that air force,
which was then a recent innovation in warfare, is the way to go.

WWII has put the battleship era to an end.

Internationally acclaimed author and wreck diver Rod Macdonald

divides this volume, Force Z Shipwrecks of the South China Sea, into
three “books”, or simply sections. The first comes in three chapters
and is all about the construction, commissioning and sea career of the
two dreadnoughts. The specifics of each battleship are described in
details, along with some terrific black and white photographs.

The second section comes in nine chapters and is a historic research

on the Japanese aims and steps that led eventually to the siege of
Singapore. This is explored in details with some outstanding
photographs are illustrations.

And finally, the third section comes in two chapters and deals with
diving! Both wrecks are covered in details in terms of bow, stern and

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Continuous Gas Blending
Using Double Oxygen
Analyzer
By Jurij Zelic

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This article does not contain enough information one needs to neither
start blending his own gas mixes safely nor build his own continuous
gas blender. It just suggests a different approach to blenders who
already use home-built continuous blenders. I suggest to read Oxygen
Hacker’s Companion published by Airspeed Press or to attend an
appropriate gas blending course.

Continuous gas blending

Continues trimix blending has some advantages compared to more
traditional methods. Better gas usage and less equipment exposed to
high-pressure pure oxygen are just two of them.

The main disadvantage for sure is the high price of commercially

available gas blending units. This disadvantage along with the fact
that continuous blending units are very simple devices, are the main
reasons many divers build their own gas blending units.

Most of the continuous gas blenders use the same principle of

operation. The air is mixed with the low pressure gas in a first mixing
stage, analyzed for oxygen share, mixed with second gas and analyzed
for oxygen again. First and second gases are pure oxygen and pure
helium in any order, based on personal preference and desired mix.
Desired oxygen and helium flow is adjusted using needle valves (blue
buttons in fig 1) that are fed from gas regulators.

There is no need for an expensive helium analyzer in this process.

Anything about the end mix can be calculated from the two readings
of oxygen share.

Gas mix is then compressed using any diving compressor and filled
into the scuba tank.
Fig 1 – commercial gas blending unit

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Based on which gas (oxygen or helium) is mixed with air in the first
mixing stage and which gas is added in a second mixing stage, two
flavors of procedure can be used; oxygen first procedure versus
helium first procedure.

The choice of which procedure to use is made based on few criteria:

• Avoiding oxygen rich readings (more than 40%) for safety
reasons – oxygen first procedure produces higher readings on first
sensor. Mix richer than 40% must never be fed into compressor inlet.
• Avoiding oxygen low readings (less than 10%) for accuracy
reasons – helium first procedure produces lower readings on the first
sensor.
• Personal preference.

The mix being filled can be calculated through the readings of the Fig 2 – home-built double oxygen analyzer
first and a second oxygen sensor. Commercial blending units use a
microprocessor unit to calculate the mix in real time (plus they can The tricky part is setting both needle valves to set the desired oxygen
provide some safety features like shutting off the oxygen supply in readings for both analyzers. On oxygen first procedure opening
case of too rich oxygen concentration being feed into the compressor oxygen valve will increase oxygen reading on both analyzers, opening
inlet). In fact the processor unit is by far the most expensive part of helium valve will decrease reading on second analyzer and increase
commercial blender and that is why most home-built blending units reading on the first. The situation is similar on helium first procedure.
will use double nitrox analyzer instead.
Knowing that typical response time of oxygen sensor is 5 seconds, one
Determining the readings of both oxygen analyzers that correspond to can imagine that setting correct flows of oxygen and helium is long
the desired mix is pretty easy math. In fact if “oxygen first” procedure iterative process of applying small changes on both needle valves.
is used the fist analyzer always reads the same value (that depends on
MOD of the mix being filled), the reading of the second analyzer is Gas blending using VpmMixer program
the same as the oxygen share of the mix being filled. The idea behind VpmMixer program is to separately adjust oxygen
flow and helium flow reducing the problem to same level as mixing
nitrox. That reduces the time needed to set correct oxygen and helium
flows and increases the mixing accuracy and saves the expensive
helium.

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VpmMixer will do topping up calculations for all three cases and
all the necessary calculations for topping up mix; necessary flows of
each gas, helium cost calculation and filling time.

On the bottom of the screen there are all the necessary calculations for
three stage process of setting the correct gas flows for both “oxygen
first” and “helium first” procedures.
1. Start the compressor.
2. Keep the oxygen and helium banks closed and calibrate both
oxygen analyzers.
3. Open the oxygen bank and set the correct oxygen flow by
setting the oxygen needle valve until the correct readings on both
analyzers are reached (not the same as any of the end readings).
4. Open the helium bank and set the helium flow by setting the
helium needle valve until the correct readings on both analyzers are
reached.

After that you can open the scuba tanks and start filling them, while
doing just some minor adjustments on both needle valves during the
process.

The oxygen tank must always be shut before shutting down the
compressor (that is why the automatic compressor is not the best
choice for continuous gas blending and the blending unit should
never be left unattended during the filling process).

After letting the mix to settle down for a few hours and analyzing the
mix, the tank is ready to use.

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Most of the previous interview subjects have been with pure divers oceanography he has put together. In less than 20 minutes, I’d seen
who made their mark in film, manufacturing, writing and photography. the entire Institute For Exploration, burned four rolls of film, met
This interview however, is with famed oceanographer Dr. Bob about a dozen staff and assistants, climbed over the exhibits including
Ballard, discoverer of the Titanic and Bismarck wrecks and leader of re-created models of Titanic’s radio room, PT-109’s bridge, and
over a hundred other memorable expeditions. probably lost five pounds through perspiration alone.

Ballard’s offices are located at the Institute For Exploration (IFE) We ended up in Ballard’s spacious office suite dominated on one
at the Mystic Aquarium in Mystic, Connecticut. As summer crowds wall by a 30-ft. long map of the world and an opposite wall of
of eager visitors thronged through the turnstiles of the IFE exhibits glass overlooking the outside exhibits. As he sat at his desk politely
at the rate of nearly a 1,000 an hour, I navigated my way past a full- answering my questions and reflecting on his unique career, a large
sized replica of a support ship with a full-scale submersible on its aft plasma TV screen streamed a live video from a rocky kelp bed off
deck “floating” in its own massive water basin. I then rendezvoused California where two kayakers were ogling a sea lion colony. Aside
with an eager staff member who shuttled me into a private elevator from being a fascinating intellect, Ballard is perhaps the premier
and up to Ballard’s inner sanctum. “gadget guy” I’ve ever met. He views advances in imaging technology
as the ultimate tools for exploration. He’s also a font of insightful
Catching up with Dr. Bob Ballard, probably the world’s apex ocean quotes that help the layperson find some perspective between hype
explorer, is roughly akin to attempting to lasso a tornado. The man and science.
moves at the manic pace of a Jack Russell terrier that had way
too many cups of coffee. It’s not hard to see how he maintains an “Exploration is a discipline,” explains Ballard. “Look at Charles
athletic frame well into late middle age. Since both of us were on a Darwin, Christopher Columbus, and one of my heroes, Capt. James
tight schedule that day (he was off for a horseback riding vacation Cook. They were sent forth as disciplined observers. Adventure is
in Jackson Hole, Wyoming and I had to depart for Cocos Island to bungee jumping off a bridge; exploring is mapping the canyon under
ride sharks), I outlined what I needed for some photo opportunities the water of that bridge.”
before settling down for the interview Q&A. Before the last words
were out of my mouth, Ballard was off with the urgent stride of an This perspective dovetails nicely with the IFE’s mission statement:
Omaha insurance salesman late for his first lap dance at a Las Vegas “To inspire people everywhere to care about and protect our ocean
convention. by exploring and sharing their biological, ecological, and cultural
treasures.”
I streamed behind in the turbulence of his wake as we set up shots
in his office, by the submersible exhibits, at a control console for Ballard’s just the guy to make all that happen. He has a Ph.D. in
some of his many remote video streams from cameras in the wild, marine geology and geophysics from the University of Rhode Island.
and on a sprinting slalom course through the fascinating museum of He spent three decades at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute where

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he helped refine and develop the use of manned submersibles and “When I first arrived in 1967, the best way of getting to work was
remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) for marine exploration. With 13 submarines. So I was a pioneer in using submarines to explore the
honorary degrees, the rank of commander in the Naval Reserves, deep sea. During the course of that work, it became glaringly obvious
and a litany of cutting edge research expeditions that have rightly that physically going to the ocean floor was not going to work. With
established him as “da man” in the niche of modern ocean exploration, the average depth of the ocean at 12,000 feet, it used to take me two
Ballard had already made a career’s worth of marks when he made and a half hours just to do the descents. That’s a five hour commute
himself a household name with the discovery of Titanic’s wreck over round trip! My average bottom time was three and half hours and I
two miles deep in 1985. could only explore about a mile. It was ludicrous.

He notes ruefully, “After I found the ship, I got some 16,000 letters “Since 71 percent of the planet is under water, and there are only
from children.” This may have been the richest treasure he has five submarines in the world that can go to that depth, and each of
discovered: the imagination of a whole new generation of potential them can only carry three people... this means that on a really good
scientists, explorers, ecologists, etc. that is growing up in a new age day, you might have 15 people exploring. So I got out of submarines
of information and access. after decades of diving, and went to Stanford, circa 1979, and taught
geophysics.”
Ballard has been involved in over 110 expeditions that included
break-through research in proving the theory of plate tectonics, While there teaching, Ballard saw the acorn of a technology advance
the discovery of hydrothermal hot water vents, the pioneering use that would grow into Silicon Valley. The rest would prove to be
of submersibles and ROVs as scientific tools, and a host of other historic for him and the ocean science community. He was on a roll
pure science accomplishments that should have left a footprint in the and I let him go.
public’s consciousness along the way.
“What I was most interested in was fiber optics. You know in the
“No child had ever said to me, ‘that’s cool!’ about my work,” he movie The Graduate where the guy whispers to Dustin Hoffman’s
reflects. “But as soon as I find an old rusty ship, I’m inundated.” character: ‘It’s plastics.’ Well, I’ll tell you, it’s fiber optics! I could see
the logical breakthrough in my world because of fiber optics.”
Go figure. Ballard’s Jason project now allows nearly two million
students and 33,000 teachers to join him in his work through the This forever relieved explorers of the need to physically dive the
modern miracle of telepresence... each year! His new facility in Mystic depths of the ocean and deal with the limitations of time, not to
carries that educational mission a notch farther and his imagination mention the associated hazards. Physically, he could be relieved of
continues to grow. the need to travel to the work site if an underwater robot observer
could communicate what it was ‘seeing’ effectively. This led to the
development of the Argo-Jason concept.

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Pg. 27 www.techdivingmag.com Issue 11 – June 2013
“Argo-Jason was named in honor of Jason and the Argonauts, the that you felt the dolphins were training you.» It was interesting
first explorers of western civilization. This allowed us to put robots working with an intelligent animal. I discovered that kindness and
under the ocean and leave them there, around the clock. Instead of affection was as powerful a motivator as food.
three hours, we now had 24 hours, and could do 10 times the work.
Instead of three people crammed into this little metal ball, freezing You earned an ROTC commission as an Army officer but ended
to death with the angst of ‘we could all die down here,’ the idea was up being transferred to the Navy. How did that come about?»
to build a control center and do it all by telepresence. Now I can I was a graduate student pursuing a Ph.D. in Oceanography at the
turn on a monitor, and I’m under the ocean, the TV monitors are my University of Hawaii and went down to the Navy Recruiting Office
windows. More importantly, I can have 20 other people with me. So at Pearl Harbor to inquire about transferring. The Navy needed
when something swims by, there is all this mental intellect gathered oceanographers so they took me.
together, plus a satellite link. Say the world’s expert on something is
fishing in Montana, we can go get them online, then ask, hey, take a Tell us about your first experience with deep submersibles at
look at this!” the Ocean Systems Group in 1966.» I was working for Dr. Andy
Rechnitzer and Dr. Richard Terry. They were designing and building
With that opener, we began talking about what got him started along the Beaver Mark IV lock-in, lock-out submersible for Mobile Oil and
this path. wanted to use it for scientific as well as commercial purposes. My job
was to dream up operational requirements for geological exploration
You began as a geologist in physical sciences then went on a career and observe how that translated into the design.
path to becoming a classic scientist. Did you perceive a change to
oceanography when you did graduate work at the University of What was it like to work with Dr. Rechnitzer?» Great. He and Dr.
Hawaii?» The change came much later when I was asked by the Navy Terry were both dreamers.
to survey the sunken remains of the U.S.S. Thresher and Scorpion,
followed then by my search for and investigation of the RMS Titanic. The Navy threw a wrench in your academic path when they
That changed my career direction from geological oceanography to suddenly called you up for duty. What was that like being uprooted
archaeological and historical oceanography. from sunny California and landing in the snowy northeast?» I
loathed it at first, it was quite a culture shock but it proved to be a
When and where did you learn to scuba dive?» I learned to scuba critical turning point in my career.
dive in Southern California in 1958-59. I was certified by the L.A.
County Fire Department, if I recall correctly, since back then that was The Navy assignment was your first introduction to Woods Hole
the only organization that could certify divers. Oceanographic Institution (WHOI). How did you fit in?» I had
helped in the original design of Alvin while working for Rechnitzer
You spent time in Hawaii as a dolphin trainer and later commented and Terry, therefore knew a lot about similar submersibles. I was also

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going to graduate school at USC and working for the Oceans Systems
Group. The head of the Geology Group at Woods Hole was Dr. K.O.
Emery who founded the Graduate School of Marine Geology at USC,
so both groups accepted me and I was quickly put to work. Later it
was Dr. Emery and Bill Rainnie who made it possible for me to return
to graduate school at Rhode Island to receive my Ph.D. while making
a living with the Alvin Group.

Was this your first experience with intense competition between

various academics for funding?» That came later. At first I worked
for the Alvin Group with the Office of Naval Research (ONR) funding.

Originally it was the WHOI that brought you and the Alvin deep
submersible together. What was Alvin’s history and mission
at that time?» There was quite the buzz when I arrived at WHOI
in March of 1967. Alvin had just found the H-bomb off Spain. As
submersibles were still considered scientifically untested, the science
community did not take them seriously. Alvin was also unable to
dive deeper than 6,000 feet; therefore it was confined to dives on the
continental margin while many other findings were happening in the
deeper mid-ocean ridge.

What projects had Alvin participated in?» Besides the bomb search,
Alvin was doing dives for geologists and biologists but nothing earth
shaking.

Can you share with us some of the first research projects you
were involved in at WHOI?» At first, I went to sea with K.O. Emery
and one of his previous graduate students from USC, Dr. Al Uchupi.
They taught me a great deal about continental margin geology,
submarine canyons, and the complex geology of the Gulf of Maine
and its relationship to the newly emerging science of plate tectonics.

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You had to deal with some raging egos that infiltrated some of was not necessarily about the science of the sea, but rather the art of
your cruises and affected morale. What did you learn from those diving.
Ph.D. types that seemed to lack leadership?» Intelligence is not a
substitute for leadership. In fact, the scientific community tends to I understand that one of your first discussions about Titanic
produce poor leaders. originated at a lobster bake with the Sea Rovers. Did you envision
then that such a dive in a submersible was possible?» Yes. The
Alvin and the NR-1 represented different approaches to project was named Titanius, not far off from Titanic. Alvin’s steel hull
submersible design, compared to older craft like Trieste. Did was about to be replaced with one made of titanium. The new hull
you see the exploration potential right away?» Not so much an would allow for an increase in diving depth. This meant Alvin could
exploration potential in the case of Alvin as it can only cover a limited now reach the Titanic for the first time.
amount of terrain, but what made it unique was its ability to go to
complex geologic settings and figure out the science associated with Eventually you were forced to make a decision between a Navy
it. The NR-1 had exploration potential but it was highly classified, career and pursuing your Ph.D. as a scientist. Was that a difficult
very expensive, and very uncomfortable to use. choice for you?» No, I knew I had to pursue a Ph.D. Without one
you can’t lead. You have to work under someone else and always play
Alvin sank in 1968. What happened?» They were lowering the sub second fiddle.
in its cradle with the hatch open when the forward cables snapped,
throwing the sub into the water with enough force to send it underwater How did you become the designated fundraiser for the Alvin
and flood the pressure sphere. They were lucky to get out alive before projects?» In 1970, ONR told Bill Rainnie he had three years to
she sank. replace ONR’s funding with new, non-military funding sources. I was
convinced it could be done so Bill hired me to do it and I did.
What was your first dive in Alvin like?» I had dove in Ben Franklin
the previous year. The Franklin was very comfortable and could stay Describe your feelings upon first viewing the deep water Jonah
down for three-to-five days. My first dive in Alvin was in the Gulf of crabs from a submersible.» It was on my first Ben Franklin dive.
Maine and it was very frustrating because visibility was so poor. We had dropped a bait can to attract life and when I saw the 55-gallon
drum completely covered by hundreds if not thousands of feeding
While you were in New England you hooked up with the Boston crabs… I decided never to be buried at sea.
Sea Rovers.» I was a young Ensign in the Navy when I went to my
first Sea Rovers Clinic. Cousteau, Waterman, Giddings, and many Later you became embroiled in the debate among scientists over
others were there. It was the greatest collection of diving egos you the theory of “continental drift.” These differing opinions sparked
could ever hope to meet. The annual gathering was full of energy heated and sometimes rancorous discussion, didn’t they?» That
and excitement, but as I would later learn, the focus of these clinics was a very exciting and heady time which truly demonstrated how

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exciting science really is and that diving should be more than just a mid-ocean ridge along the plate boundary was rugged and complex,
great story at a Sea Rover clinic. yet less than one mile across.

Didn’t Alvin help to confirm your theory about continental drift?»

Yes, but only in a supporting role to a lot of other tools.

You changed the way Alvin and other submersibles were utilized
by trying to pinpoint their focus on specific marine areas.»
During Project Famous, Alvin demonstrated that having human eyes
and hands on the bottom of the ocean was the ultimate final step in
underwater science.

On one of your earlier Alvin dives you were nearly crushed by a

huge boulder? How deep were you and how did that happen?»
It was 1976 and we were diving in the Cayman Trough. We were
working at the base of a giant cliff pulling rocks out of the rock face.
As we moved up the face, we realized that the rocks we were trying to
pry loose were holding up a massive boulder just above us. That was
a scary moment. Thank God we were unsuccessful in prying them
loose!

Alvin was originally only designed to go to 6,000 feet. You pushed

for the submersible to be certified to twice that depth. How did You also had a narrow escape when a fire started on a deep dive.
you accomplish that?» The Navy wanted to build and test a new What caused that and how did you deal with it?» I was diving in
titanium sphere so we convinced them to use Alvin as a test bed for the French bathyscaph Archimede in 1973, a year before we used
that program. Alvin, on a series of preliminary dives in the Famous area. We were
on the bottom at 9,000 feet when an electrical fire broke out inside the
Tell us about the pioneering work you did on Famous?» Famous pressure sphere. The sphere quickly filled with toxic black insulation
was the turning point in deep submergence science. We were under smoke. Our eyes and lungs were burning as we dropped out weights
scrutiny by the entire oceanographic community and they were and headed up. It took one and a half hours to surface. I was sick with
convinced it would fail. Fortunately, the critical science could be done strep throat, which only compounded my misery, but it was a historic
over a very small area, ideally suited for Alvin. The rift valley of the dive.

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Did you feel vindicated when finally earning your Ph.D. after all damage. It had melted down to the foam, close to the viewport on
the challenges to your work?» Getting my Ph.D. was the end of one the port side of the sub. We then became very careful when working
phase in my life and beginning of a new one. Without it, too many around black smokers on future dives. It could have been a disaster
doors were locked. had we let the hot fluid hit our view ports inches away.

How did Angus come about?» Angus was developed by Dr. Bill Although you were a huge advocate of deep submersibles, you
Bryan and Dr. Joe Phillips at WHOI for Famous to conduct a series of eventually favored a different means of observation in deep
film runs across the rift valley floor. I went on to perfect it as a search ocean zones by utilizing unmanned vehicles. Did this cause a rift
tool for Alvin. We used it in 1977 to find the first active hydrothermal between your ideas and the manned submersible factions?» My
vents and in 1979 to find the first “Black Smokers.” conversion to remotely operated vehicles made me a traitor in the
eyes of the deep submergence community. It was a fraternity that
You discovered publicity aided funding for your exploration felt I had deserted them. The physical act of diving was such a part
projects. But this also brought criticism from the old school of deep submergence that not doing it, or worse yet, replacing it with
academics. How did you deal with that element?» Working for robots threatened to emasculate those who utilized remotely operated
National Geographic was a blessing and a curse. Every Sea Rover submersibles. I was more interested in why I was diving as opposed
loved National Geographic while most oceanographers thought doing to the pure act of diving. Diving was becoming “old hat” for me and
anything with them was a waste of time. I later discovered it was much I saw so many people continuing to “pound their chests” about the
more complex than that. The fact was most oceanographers were dangers of diving when in reality air travel took more lives. People
doing things that the public and National Geographic had no interest would return from a dive then talk about it but never tell me anything
in. To make matters more difficult, the press, National Geographic interesting about what they saw. It was too macho a world for me to
included, portrayed science as an “I” profession when in reality, it’s live up to the rest of my life – a Sea Rovers Clinic gone to the extreme.
an “us” (it’s a collective scientific effort). The press would single out
an individual and make them a hero. This made some rightfully angry You were left to conceive, design and build the Argo-Jason system.»
and others wrongly jealous. In 1979, we returned from the Galapagos Rift with the first biologists
to see the exotic marine life living around the vents. We mounted a
The discovery of the hydrothermal vents off the Galapagos was new digital color camera on Alvin’s arm to test. I had my back turned
another landmark.» It was a great expedition and it was clearly the to the view ports and was looking at a TV monitor when I noticed
result of much hard work by many great scientists. the biologist was doing the same. A light went off in my mind. Why
were we down here if the biologist thought the view on the screen
Didn’t you also nearly have an accident by approaching a hot was better than looking out of the sub’s viewport? That year, I took a
water chimney vent?» We didn’t realize at the time how hot the vent sabbatical to Stanford and began to dream up the Argo/Jason system.
water was until Alvin returned to the surface and we saw the heat The idea was to use the newly emerging technology of fiber optics

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to move the sub’s window to the surface so we could achieve more disappointment concerning the Titanic project was the conflict that
bottom time. Bottom time is so short in a submersible, particularly erupted between the French and Woods Hole over credit for the
when you make a deep dive. It takes too long to get down, surface, discovery, as well as the subsequent salvaging of the Titanic by
and then recharge the batteries. With an ROV, our bottom time could the French after the discovery. I’m convinced that had there been a
be 24-hours a day. Again I was more interested in why I was diving diplomatic solution, both sides would have protected the Titanic, and
than the act itself. I was willing to give up the chest-pounding heroics she would look just like she did when we first found her.
to get more time on the bottom and learn more about the wonders of
the underwater world.

In searching for the wreck of the submarine Thresher you had an

epiphany about the trajectory and trace debris left on the bottom
that changed your methodology for looking for wrecks. Can you
explain how you changed the accepted theories and why?» Prior
to that experience, the standard way to look for something on the
bottom was to use a side-scan sonar. But in complex bottom terrain
with many targets, deep canyons and narrow ridges, a side-scan
sonar can quickly become difficult to use. In such terrain, only the
largest of targets can be seen and then you have to be on top of them
before they’re detected. The Thresher was destroyed by a powerful
implosion creating a vast debris field that stretched out over several
square kilometers. A side-scan was unable to tell the difference
between debris and the millions of glacial stones (erratics) dropped Although many artifacts of the Titanic are nearly perfectly
by melting icebergs years before, but a camera could. preserved, there are no traces of human remains. Why?»
Remember the Jonah crabs? People are eaten and their bones are
The discovery of the Titanic, sunk to a depth of more than 12,000 exposed. The deep sea is undersaturated in calcium carbonates that
feet, etched your reputation for all time.» Finding the Titanic was make up bones. As a result, bones dissolve quickly leaving only the
a mixed bag. It made me famous, it made me enemies for life and inedible shoes behind. Inside wrecks you’ll find bodies and skeletons,
it totally changed my life and career. I often wonder where I would but not outside unless you are in the Black Sea, which has no oxygen.
be today had I not found the Titanic. I am very happy where I am
today, thanks in a large degree to the Titanic. I’m doing things that What are your thoughts on the practice of taking laypersons
never would have been possible. Clearly, however, finding the Titanic on submersible dives to the Titanic if they ante up the fee?» I
was not the most important project I have ever done. My biggest think visiting the Titanic by lay people is wonderful. It’s no different

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from going to see the Arizona in Pearl Harbor. My concern is for the difficult hunt I have ever conducted, and that includes finding the
damage to her decks that will result from the subs that land there and RMS Titanic, the USS Yorktown, and PT-109.
leave things behind. I’ll give you an update next summer when I go
back for the first time since finding her. What made the search for Bismarck difficult was the depth at which
the ship lies–more than 14,500 feet of water–the uncertainty of its
Did you like Jim Cameron’s movie Titanic?» Yes. Great movie! location, the terrain in which it had come to rest, and the avalanche it
set off on impact with the seafloor. Unlike other seekers of shipwrecks,
You and I are both members of the prestigious Explorers Club. I adopted a hunt strategy for finding shipwrecks in the deep that
Cameron was just inducted and given a special award, how involved constant visual contact with the bottom. My colleagues
does this sit with you?» I think Jim is a great moviemaker and an questioned this strategy, relying instead upon the age-old technique of
innovator of filming technology. I wish I had his cameras, lights and using a side-scan sonar to search. Operating in total darkness, video
his budgets. cameras can only see a short distance, 30 meters at best, while 100
kHz side-scan sonars can reach out more than 400 meters to a side.
You’ve had a long relationship with the National Geographic Why would I want to search with a camera?
Society and produced some great articles and films for them.
You’ve had your differences along the way including a ruckus Back in 1984, the U.S. Navy was thinking about disposing of the
over the first press conferences following Titanic’s discovery in nuclear containment vessel that housed the reactors in retired nuclear
1985. How do you balance the relationship with sponsors?» I have submarines. We were concerned about the adverse affects the reactors
a wonderful relationship with the National Geographic Society. I am might have on the deep benthic environment. For that reason, the
one of their Explorers-in-Residence and receive more support from Navy wanted to investigate the nuclear reactors of the USS Thresher
them now than I have ever received in the past. I hope it goes on and USS Scorpion that have been lost and still never found, in the
forever. National Geographic management stood with me during the 1960s. I was called in to see if I could find them using my new camera
Titanic press flap with the French and our sub-sequent return to the sled Argo.
Titanic the following year, others didn’t.
While mapping the wreck sites, I made a fundamental discovery.
Please enlighten us on the discovery of the Bismarck. Was it a Shortly after sinking, both subs imploded catastrophically thousands
similar project to Titanic?» Same visual-search strategy just a larger of feet above the sea floor, creating a mass of debris of all weights and
area and with another sunken ship close by that threw us off the first sizes. As this material sank, underwater currents carried the lighter
year, we recovered the second year and found her. Before one can debris more than one mile away from the heavier objects, creating
explore a ship, one needs to find it, and that is the hard part. Exploring a long trail of wreckage. More importantly, side-scan sonars were
a wreck site is the reward one is given after the hunt ends. And finding unable to detect these light objects while a camera could.
the German battleship Bismarck was not easy. In fact, it was the most

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 Both Titanic and Bismarck released a tremendous quantity of debris
into the water at their moment of sinking. Knowing the currents in
the area, I could predict the direction in which the debris would have
drifted and lay out search patterns that crossed the debris field at one-
mile intervals. This made it possible to move through the area very
quickly. For Titanic, this strategy worked fantastically. Once I located
the debris field, I was able to follow it to the shipwreck. For Bismarck,
however, the method proved more difficult. During the 1988 search,
I picked up a debris trail that led to another ship, a larger wooden
schooner that had sunk years before. The summer search window was
lost.

The following year, I picked up another debris field but it led to a

large depression with nothing in it. Had Bismarck been buried by its
own impact? No, Bismarck’s impact with the seafloor had set off a
giant landslide, carrying the ship downslope, requiring more time to
finally locate her. As I got close, I saw its skid marks on the bottom,
surrounded by hundreds of German boots.

Except for a small portion of the stern, the ship was upright, intact
and in an amazing state of preservation. The swastikas on her bow
and stern decks were still there. We examined the mighty armor belt
looking for signs of damage. We found none. As I wrote in my 1990
book, the Discovery of the Bismarck, “alongside the hull we could see
evidence of hits from the British secondary guns. In some cases, the
shells had splattered like bugs on a windshield, seeming to leave the
armor intact.”

But what struck us most as we returned to port was the absence of

implosive damage to her hull like that on the stern of Titanic, the result
of a ship sinking before being fully flooded. From the integrity of the
wreck, it would seem that Bismarck sank well after her watertight

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compartments had been blown open to speed her final journey to the should do including putting humans on Mars. I simply think we, as a
ocean floor. The first question I was asked by the British press was, society, should be spending a similar amount on ocean exploration.
“Did we sink her or was she scuttled?” To their horror, I answered,
“I believe she was scuttled.” But only after further exploration would What’s your opinion on the state of manned submersible and
we know for sure. ROV units today and what would you like to see next?» The Ocean
Science Board of the National Academy of Science has been asked
You’ve extensively explored the shipwrecks of the Solomon by the National Science Foundation to deal with the furtherance of
Islands’ Iron Bottom Sound. You later turned your attention to deep submergence technology. That study is underway and I’ve made
locating the wreckage of John Kennedy’s PT-109 off Gizo in the a specific series of recommendations to the group but time (less than
northern Solomons. How did that search differ from your hunt a few months) will tell. Their hearings are ongoing.
for other wrecks?» PT-109 was a true needle in a haystack. It wasn’t
where everyone thought, so what’s new? And we didn’t have much Graham Hawks’ Deep Flight submersible has gotten a lot of press.
time to find her. The bottom currents were very strong and she was It exudes sizzle and sex appeal but do you feel it will it prove to be
mostly buried by drifting sand dunes. a useful tool for science?» I think it will provide people, particularly
the lay public, with a wonderful opportunity to fly in the underwater
How did the Kennedy family feel about your expedition?» The world. I don’t think it will result in a great deal of compelling science,
Kennedy family was great and fun to work with, particularly Max but that doesn’t mean Deep Flight submersibles shouldn’t be built
Kennedy who went on the expedition with us. Our strongest support with private money.
came from Senator Edward Kennedy and his great staff.
Since you founded Jason in 1989 it has greatly expanded. Bring
You’ve also been conducting explorations in the Mediterranean us up to date on its current programs and where you see this
for ancient shipwrecks.» After finding many contemporary going.» The Jason Foundation for Education is entering its 15th year.
shipwrecks like Titanic, Bismarck, PT-109, Yorktown, etc. I began to More than five million students and teachers have been involved in its
wonder about the fate of older and potentially more important ancient annual educational program. This year alone, one and a half million
shipwrecks. This thought has now set me on a new path. I’m now students are doing Jason and 33,000 pre-college science teachers are
convinced that the deep sea contains more ancient history than all of using our web-based curriculum and annual “live” expedition.
the museums in the world combined and I want to help unlock that
underwater museum for the world to enjoy and learn from. Let’s touch on an item of controversy. Are wrecks graveyards
to be left undisturbed or are they fair game for archaeological
Do you believe that, as a society, we are spending too much study?» It depends. There are wrecks… and there are wrecks. Some
money on space exploration and not enough on marine and ocean are important and many are not. I draw a line between a recent wreck
exploration?» I think space exploration is something our nation and an ancient wreck. Recent wrecks have living survivors and living

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relatives of the dead. They need to be treated with respect for the removing artifacts, particularly artifacts that can remain underwater
feelings of the living individuals left behind. I draw a line between for thousands of years (i.e. glass, ceramics, etc.) lessens the experience
wrecks that are historical and ones that are not. I draw a line between of others who follow. I think technology will soon make it possible to
wrecks that are fascinating and/or beautiful to visit and ones that stop further degradation, in fact, even reverse it.
are not. In other words, if you find a wreck that is historically or
archaeologically important, a wreck that is enjoyable or beautiful to What’s this new project you’ve got going at the Mystic Aquarium?»
visit, what gives you the right to take something from that wreck that It is the Institute For Exploration (IFE)/Mystic Aquarium and it has
makes it less important, less enjoyable, or less beautiful for those who no endowment. Wish it did. Donations are accepted. IFE is dependent
follow. Just because you can take something from a wreck does not upon many sources including federal grants from the Office of
mean you should. I think objects taken from a ship lessen the object Naval Research, NOAA, in particular, Office of Ocean Exploration,
and lessen the ship. Once found, a ship is no longer lost. Modern National Geographic Society, private donations, and 750,000 visitors
technology is making it easier and easier for others to visit that ship that come to our exhibit center every year.
in person or with telepresence technology. Again, I think salvage is
a form of macho thinking that needs to change. It demonstrates lack For most of your career, you’ve had to chase funding from the
of integrity to rip something off a shipwreck and it proves nothing. It Navy, National Geographic, National Science Foundation, etc.
takes much more character to leave it as you find it. Will your new Institute make your exploration projects easier
now?» The need to raise funds to chase your dreams will never go
Should artifacts be studied and left underwater or brought up away. Columbus had to do it. Lewis and Clark had to do it. Peary had
and preserved?» If there is something to be learned scientifically to do it and I, along with other explorers, am no exception. It’s a rite
or archaeologically, then recovery is justified. Many of the ancient of passage.
shipwrecks I found were commercial carriers with large quantities of
the same object and in some cases, these objects are still preserved You’ve recently embarked on a project for semi-submersible
underwater. In such cases, only a few need to be recovered. The oceanic habitats. Do you see floating cities in our future? Is
remainder is not going anywhere and is easy to locate should scientists Waterworld just around the corner?» I don’t think a large number
need another sample. I think underwater museums should be created. of people will live beneath the sea in ambient pressure habitats. That’s
It’s very expensive to conserve, guard and protect ancient artifacts great for science and for industry but too expensive for the masses. I
forever. Forever is a long time! do believe that more people will move out onto the sea. They already
are doing it on offshore platforms of the oil and gas industry. Tens of
What about the ships themselves, such as the Civil War ironclad thousands of us do it each day. I foresee a time when families will
Monitor?» In some cases, bringing shipwrecks to the surface, begin to do it on vertical spar buoys like Scripps’ FLIP. It’s a matter
particularly small ones, is the best way to preserve them for others of time and dropping costs.
to enjoy and that action is justifiable. But in the case of the Titanic,

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You’ve managed to carve out a fascinating career as an underwater world looks on.
equivalent of Indiana Jones. What advice might you give young
people who’d like to pursue a similar path in ocean exploration?» Editor’s note: There are about 40 copies of the original book
I always tell young people to follow their dreams. Not their mother’s, still in Bret Gilliam’s personal inventory. They are available as a
father’s, or teacher’s dreams but their own. You need the passion of Signed/Numbered Limited Edition personalized to each buyer by
your dreams to get you back up on your feet when society knocks you Gilliam at $200 each, including shipping. He can be contacted for
down. purchase at [email protected].

What are your new dreams?» I have always lived in two worlds.
The world of deep submergence technology and the world of deep
submergence science. It goes back to my upbringing by Andy
Rechnitzer and Dick Terry and later by K.O. Emery and Bill Rainnie.
In the world of deep submergence technology, I want to go to the
next level in telepresence this summer when I begin the process
of moving the diver to the beach so one can have infinite “bottom
time.” Just think, if you come to Mystic in July and August, for 24
hours a day for 30 days you can be underwater in the Black Sea and
Eastern Mediterranean diving on a series of ancient shipwrecks,
working with those at sea as if you were there. In the world of deep
submergence science, I want to begin a new field of research in deep-
water archaeology. Just last year, I accepted a full professorship at my
alma mater, the Graduate School of Oceanography at the University
of Rhode Island where I received my Ph.D. in the summer of 1974,
just before going to sea on Project Famous.

I am now director of the Institute for Archaeological Oceanography

and starting next year we begin offering a dual degree with the
University’s History Department. New graduate students in this
program will receive a Ph.D. in Oceanography and a Masters in
Marine Archaeology. Using our newly developed vehicle systems
(Echo, Argus, Little Herc, and Hercules), we hope to pioneer this new
field of research and uncover lost chapters of human history while the

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