General Chemistry 1 (CHM 101)

Topic: ATOMS AND MOLECULES

INTRODUCTION

Chemistry is the study of matter and chemists in their investigations, study the properties and
transformations of matter. Many materials that we use everyday, directly or indirectly are
products of chemical research and examples of useful products of chemical reactions are
limitless.

What is matter?

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is classified into solid, liquid and
gas. The basic unit of matter in chemical reactions is the atom. Atoms and molecules are the
building blocks of matter.

The Concept Atoms and Molecules

Experiments show that very small quantities of matter have the same chemical properties or
characteristics as larger ones of the same type e.g. a small iron nail and a big iron rod have the
same chemical characteristics. For example both will rust when exposed to air and moisture and
both will conduct heat and electricity.

● The smallest unit of an element that has the properties and characteristics of the element
is the atom. The atom is the smallest unit of an element that can take part in a chemical
reaction.
● The molecule is the smallest unit of a compound that has the characteristics of the
compound. It is the smallest unit of the compound that can take part in a chemical
reaction. The atom is to the element as the molecule is to the compound.
● The behaviour of matter is explained using the above concept and chemical reactions are
explained as combinations and rearrangement of atoms.

The Atomic Theories - Historical Background of The Atoms

Ancient Greek philosophers proposed that all matter consisted of some combination of four
elements: air, earth, fire, and water. Democritus (~460-370 B.C.) disagreed, proposing that all
matter could be repeatedly subdivided until an indivisible particle was reached. He called this the
atom (Greek: a = not; tomos = cut). Experimental evidence from early scientific investigations
supported the concept of atoms, eventually leading to the definition of elements and compounds.
However, it was not until 1808 that an English Scientist and school teacher named John Dalton,
proposed his theory of the atom. Dalton’s atomic theory marks the beginning of the modern are
of chemistry to account for the building blocks of matter.

Dalton atomic theory can be summarized as follows:

1. All matter consists of solid and indivisible atoms.

2. Atoms are indestructible and retain their identity in all chemical reactions.
3. All of the atoms of a given chemical element are identical in mass and in all other
properties.
4. Different elements have different kinds of atoms; these atoms differ in mass from element
to element.
5. Compounds consist of elements combined in small whole-number ratios.

The Atomic Theory was partially supported by experimental evidence deduced from the Law of
Conservation of Mass, Definite Proportion, Multiple Proportions and so on. However, it could
not explain electrolysis and certain other phenomena. While the essence of this theory has
withstood the test of time, most of the postulates have since been modified.

1. It does not account for subatomic particles: Dalton’s atomic theory stated that atoms
were indivisible. However, the discovery of subatomic particles (such as protons,
electrons, and neutrons) by J.J Thompson, Rutherford and other Scientists disproved this
postulate.
2. It does not account for isotopes: As per Dalton’s atomic theory, all atoms of an element
have identical masses and densities. However, different isotopes of elements have
different atomic masses (Example: hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium).
3. It does not account for isobars: This theory states that the masses of the atoms of two
different elements must differ. However, it is possible for two different elements to share
the same mass number. Such atoms are called isobars (Example: 40Ar and 40Ca).
4. Elements need not combine in simple, whole-number ratios to form compounds:
Certain complex organic compounds do not feature simple ratios of constituent atoms.
Example: sugar/sucrose (C11H22O11).
5. The theory does not account for allotropes: The differences in the properties of
diamond and graphite, both of which contain only carbon, cannot be explained by
Dalton’s atomic theory.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

The Discovery of Electrons

● The discovery of electrons by J.J. Thompson in 1897 using a cathode ray tube containing
gas under certain pressure and potential difference. Further experiments showed that
green rays from the tube travel in a straight line and cast shadows of opaque objects
placed in their paths. The rays are composed of negative charged particles capable of
 producing mechanical motion. The rays were presumed electrons and the charge to mass
ratio were determined.
● Millikan, in 1910, successfully measured the charge of the electron using his oil drop
experiments.

The Discovery of Protons

● J.J. Thompson repeated his earlier experiment with a discharged tube and noticed a
reddish glow in the opposite direction to green glow, this reddish glow is positively
charged to balance the negatively charged particle (green glow) of a given atom of the
element. Further experiments showed that unlike the cathode rays, the positive rays
required a much larger magnetic field to cause its deflection, indicating that they are
much heavier than the former. Also, mass of the positively charged particle will depend
on the nature of the gas in the tube. The ratio of charge to mass for the positive charged
ions was measured and it was found that the mass of the protons (positive charge ions) is
1840 times heavier than electrons (negatively charged ions). J.J. Thompson concluded
and proposed his theory that the atom is a sphere of positively charged matter in which a
negatively charged electron is embedded.
● Thompson’s model could not account for the result of the later experiments conducted by
Rutherford and his coworkers Geiger and Marsden on the scattering of alpha particles.
● Rutherford's atomic theories gave a picture of the structure of atoms, more detail into
what the subatomic particle is using the Scattering and Planetary models. The discovery
of radioactivity and nuclear reaction showed the atom is made of positively charged
protons and negatively charged electrons.

The Discovery of Neutrons

In 1932, James Chadwick bombarded a thin sheet of Beryllium with alpha particles which
eventually released y (gamma) rays, which actually consist of electrically neutral particles having
a mass slightly greater than that of protons. Chadwick named these particles neutrons. This
discovery accounted for atomic mass (sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom).

Atoms consist of three types of subatomic particles:

Mass Relationship of Atoms

Example: Give number of protons, neutrons and electrons in each of the following species:
(a) 1 1H (b) 11 5B (c ) 238 92U (d) 199 80Hg (e) 23 11Na

Atomic Masses
By international agreement, an atom of isotope of carbon (called carbon -12) that has six protons
and six neutrons has a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu). This carbon-12 atom serves
as the standard, so one atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as the mass exactly equal to
one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom.
Mass of one carbon-12 atom = 12 amu
1 amu = mass of one carbon-12 atom / 12

Experiments have shown that, on average, a hydrogen atom is only 8.400 percent as massive as
the standard carbon-12 atom. Thus if we accept the mass of one carbon-12 atom to be exactly 12
amu, then the atomic mass, (that is, the mass of the atom in atomic mass units) of hydrogen must
be 0.08400 x 2 = 1,008 amu. Similar calculations show that the atomic mass of oxygen is 16.00
amu and that of iron is 55.85 amu.
Average Atomic Mass
The actual value for amu of carbon is not 12.00 amu but 12.01 amu. The reason for the
difference is that most naturally occurring elements (including carbon) have more than one
isotope. This means that when we measure the atomic mass of an element, we must generally
settle for the mass of the naturally occurring mixture of isotopes.

Example 2: The natural abundances of carbon-12 and carbon-13 are 98,89 percent and 1.11
percent, respectively. The atomic mass of carbon-13 has been determined to be 13 000335 amu
Thus the average atomic mass of carbon can be calculated as follows:

average atomic mass of natural carbon

= (0.9889 x 12.00000 amu) + (0.0111 x 1300335 = 12.01 amu.

It is important to understand that when we say that the atomic mass of carbon is 12.01 amu, we
are referring to the average value. If carbon atoms could be examined individually, we would
find an atom of atomic mass 12.00000 amu or one of 13.00335 amu, but either neveran one of
12.01 amu.
The following example shows how the average atomic mass of an element is calculated.
of
Example 3: Copper, a metal known since ancient times, is used in electrical cables, among other
things, The atomic -masses stable isotopes, 63 29Cu (69 09%) and 65 29Cu are 62.93amu and
64.9278amu respectively. Calculate the average atomic mass of copper.

average atomic mass of the copper

= (0.6909 x 62.93 amu) + (0.3091 x 64.9278 = 63.55 amu.

On this scale 1 atom of carbon-12 isotope is given a mass of 12 atomic mass units. With the use
of the mass spectrometer it has been possible to determine fairly accurately the relative atomic
masses of elements.

Molecules and Chemical formulas

A molecule is an aggregate of at least two atoms in definite arrangement held together by
chemical forces. For example hydrogen molecule H2, oxygen molecule O2 etc.

A chemical formula expresses the composition of a compound in ters of the symbols of he atoms
of the elements involved. Examples are water (H2O), ozone O3, ammonia NH3 etc.
It is important that you know the symbols for as many of the common elements as possible.
Table I .3 gives some examples of chemical symbols of elements.

Formula include:
1. Empirical Formula: This is the simplest formula of a compound which tells us which
elements are present and the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms. For example, the
empirical formula of benzene (C6H6) is CH, hydrazine (N2H4) is NH2 etc.
2. Molecular Formula: This is the actual formula of a compound. It shows the exact number
of atoms of each element in a molecule. For example compounds like Benzene is C6H6,
Carbon(IV)oxide is CO2 etc. Also two atoms combining gives molecules such as
chlorine, ozone and hydrogen molecules with molecular formula Cl2, O3 and H2
respectively. The number of atoms in a molecule is called atomicity. E.g the atomicity of
chlorine, ozone and hydrogen molecules are 2, 3 and 2 respectively. For single molecules
like number gases; He, Ne, the atomicity is 1 and is called monoatomic while that of
oxygen molecule is 2 (diatomic; two atoms). Ozone is 3 (triatomic). Note that both
oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3) are elemental forms of the same elements, oxygen. Different
forms of the same elements are called allotropes.
3. Structural Formula: This shows the arrangements of atoms in space. It gives detailed
information of the compound.

Example :

Molecular Mass
The relative molecular mass of a compound is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the
elements present in the chemical formula of the compound. Example, the atomic mass unit of Cl
is 35.453 amu, then molecular mass of Cl2 = 35.453 x 2 = 70.906.
Mole and Molar Mass
It would be convenient to have a special unit to describe a very large number of atoms. This unit
is defined by the SI system, is the mole (mol), which is the amount of substance that contains as
many elementary entities (atoms, molecules or other particles) as there are atoms in exactly 12g
of carbon -12 isotope. The actual number is determined experimentally.
1 mole = 6.02 x 10 23 particles

The molar mass of any substance is the mass of one mole of that substance expressed in grams.
For example the molar mass of oxygen molecule, O2 is 32g