SCIENCE REVIEWER

Respiratory system
Respiration: is the overall exchange of gases, (how the body gets oxygen and gets rid of carbon
dioxide) between the atmosphere, the blood and the cells.
Breathing : A phase in respiration.

TYPES OF RESPIRATION
1 Breathing or Ventilation: The act of taking air in (Inspiration) and out of the lungs
(expiration)
2 External Respiration: The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the
blood within the lungs
3 Internal Respiration: The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and
body cells
4 Cellular Respiration: The process of using oxygen (oxidation) to break down sugar (glucose)
in food, producing Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) in cells and releasing carbon dioxide as a
waste product.

THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system consists of the lungs and the various breathing tubes that allow air to
reach the lungs. The respiratory system allows gas exchange. It brings oxygen into the body and
expels carbon dioxide. All animals must undergo gas exchange to stay alive

Upper respiratory tract

consist of: nostrils, nasal cavities, pharynx, and larynx.

Nostrils: The external opening of the nose and may also be called anterior nares.
The dividing partition between the nostrils is the nasal septum which forms two nasal cavities.
Each cavity is divided into 3 air passages: The superior, middle, and inferior conchae which lead
to the passageway called the Pharynx, Here the ear is connected to the sinuses, the ears
through the eustachian tubes and even the eyes through the nasolacrimal ducts

The palatine (palate) bones and maxilla (upper jawbone) separate the nasal cavities from the
mouth cavity. Cilia (hairs) line the mucous membrane. About 1 qt of mucous is produced daily.

Pharynx: The pharynx is the correct term for the THROAT. It is a muscular and membranous
tube that is about 5 inches long and extends downward from the base of the skull. It eventually
becomes the esophagus

The Nasopharynx is behind the nose

The oropharynx is behind the mouth
The laryngopharynx is behind the larynx

There are 7 openings to the pharynx. In the nasopharynx, there are two openings from the
eustachian tubes of the ear and two openings from the posterior hares of the nose.
in the oropharynx is one opening from the mouth.

The pharynx also contains 3 pairs of tissues that are part of the lymphatic system:
1 The pharyngeal tonsils… The adenoids – Nasopharynx
2 The Palatine tonsils – oropharynx
3 The lingual tonsils – laryngopharynx

The pharynx has 3 functions

- Serves as a passageway for air
- serves as a passageway for food
- aids in phonation by changing its shapes

Larynx: commonly called the VOICE BOX, is located at the upper end of the trachea below the
root of the tongue and hyoid bone. It is lined with mucous membrane; the Larynx contains vocal
cords which produce sound. Short, tense vocal chords produce high notes; long relaxed vocal
chords produce low notes.

We can see several of the cartilage structures of the larynx in this side view:
1 The thyroid cartilage or Adam’s apple is usually longer in the male, allowing longer vocal
cords and contributing to a deeper male voice
2 The epiglottis covers the entrance of the larynx while swallowing foods to avoid chocking
3 The cricoid cartilage contains the vocal cords

Epiglottis: is a flap tissue that closes the entrance to the rest of the respiratory system when you
swallow. As a result, food and water are routed to the digestive system.

Trachea: WINDPIPE is a smooth muscular tube leading from the larynx to the main bronchi.
Cartilage rings prevent the crushing of the trachea.

The trachea is the passageway for air from the lungs. It is lined with cilia (hairs), which sweep
foreign matter out of the pathway. It is only about 1 Inch in diameter and 4 ½ inches long

Bronchi: are the two main branches at the bottom of the trachea. Providing a passageway for
air to the lungs. The trachea divides into the right bronchus and the left bronchus and then
divides further into the bronchi tree.

The left bronchi are smaller than the right bronchi because room is needed to accommodate
the heart. If a foreign body is inhaled or aspirated it usually lodges in the large right bronchi or
enters the right lung

In the presence of infection, the bronchi sometimes become inflamed, resulting in a diagnosis of
bronchitis

LUNGS: are two spongy organs located in the thorax. They consist of elastic tissue, filled with an
interlacing network of tubes and sacs that carry in blood vessels that carry blood. Each lung is
divided into lobes, the right lung into 3 lobes, and the left lung into 2. The left lung has an
indentation called the cardiac depression or notch, for placement of the heart.

At the end of each bronchiole are the alveoli. The lungs contain about 300 million alveoli sacs,
which are the air cells where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place with the
capillaries.

The base of the lungs rests on the diaphragm, a muscular wall separating the thorax from the
abdominal cavity, it is involved in respiration, drawing downward in the chest during inhalation
and pushing upward during exhalation
GAS EXCHANGE

breathing: is the physical action of taking oxygen into, and releasing the waste carbon dioxide
out of the lungs. These gases are transported by the circulatory system and exchanged in the
cells.

1 Integumentary exchange or cutaneous respiration: occurs through the skin. For example
Earthworms
2 Gills: allow for the exchange of gases underwater. For example fishes
3 Tracheal system: Used by insects
4 Lungs: Found in the land animals

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The main function of the circulatory system is to carry oxygen and nutrients to every cell of the
body and to remove carbon dioxide and other wastes from the cells. The movement of
materials from blood to cells and vice versa happens through the process of diffusion.

In humans, the circulatory system consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels that carry
blood to every part of the body and the lymphatic system. The fluids contained in these systems
are blood and lymph.

Heart: this organ is about the size of your clenched fist. It pumps blood through the blood
vessels. The heart is divided into four chambers. The two upper chambers are the right and left
atria. They receive blood coming into the heart. The two lower chambers are the right and left
ventricles. They pump blood out of the heart.

A one-way valve separates each atrium from the ventricle below it. As a result, blood only flows
from an atrium to a ventricle. It cannot flow in the opposite direction. A wall of tissue called the
septum divides the heart in half, prevents blood from flowing between the two atria or two
ventricles, and separates the flow of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Blood Vessels
Blood is carried throughout the body by a vast network of blood vessels, which resembles a
series of pipelines that deliver water to households. The three types of blood vessels are
arteries, veins, and capillaries

Arteries: are blood vessels that move blood away from the heart. Each of the two ventricles of
the heart is connected to a major artery. As a result of each contraction of the ventricles, blood
is pushed into the arteries. The artery’s wall is made up of three layers of tissues. Its elastic
structure is similar to a balloon expanding when you inflate it. Blood that enters the artery is
under great pressure; thus, the blood spurts, reflecting the rhythmic pumping of the heart.

Veins: Veins are blood vessels that move blood with wastes toward the heart. Blood that enters
the vein flows slower and smoother because the heart does not push blood through veins.
Instead, veins have one-way valves to keep blood flowing. A valve is a flap of tissue that
prevents the backflow of blood and keeps its flow in one direction.

Capillaries: Arteries and veins are connected by very small blood vessels called capillaries. The
walls of most capillaries are only one cell thick. This allows oxygen and nutrients to diffuse
through the capillary walls into the body cells. It also lets carbon dioxide and other waste
materials diffuse through walls into the capillaries.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
commonly refers as the “other” circulatory system, is a network of lymphatic vessels and tiny
bean-shaped structures called lymph nodes. Lymph tissues are also located in various parts of
the body, including the tonsils, thymus spleen, and bone marrow. Aside from collecting and
recycling fluids that leak from the circulatory system, it also helps fight bacterial and viral
infections.
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
Pulmonary circulation transports oxygen-depleted blood from the heart to the lungs. Its main
function is to oxygenate the blood.

SYSTEMATIC CIRCULATION
The systematic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the heart into the organs and tissues.
This moves blood from the heart to all of the body organs and tissues, except for the heart and
lungs.

GENETICS
Genetics is a branch of biology that studies hereditary information. It deals with the
mechanisms of heredity. Heredity refers to the passing of characteristics.

Genetics can be divided into three branches – Mendelian genetics, Molecular Genetics, and
Population Genetics

Mendelian: reviews the basic laws of inheritance that were described by Gregor Mandel
Molecular: deals with the chemical nature of the gene, the mechanisms of transmission, and its
varied applications.
Population: focuses on the behavior of a particular gene in a group of organisms and how gene
frequency by environmental factors

Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884)

- Is the father of genetics. He entered the monastery at the age of 21 and became a priest four
years later. Mendel’s breeding experiments using garden peas were a work in the transmission
of traits from parents to offspring. He presented his work on pea plants at the Society for the
study of Natural Science in 1866. However, the specific community accepted and acknowledged
the importance of his work. To date, the basic principles of genetic inheritance, as a laid down
by Gregor Mendel, are still valid and remain the cornerstone of the study of genetics.
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of ecosystems in a biosphere. Climate and the amount
of sunlight help organisms adapt to particular habitats. Ecosystem diversity includes the
terrestrial ecosystem known as biomes such as tropical rainforests, grasslands, and coniferous
forests, as well as aquatic ecosystems like coral reefs, mangrove forests, vast seas, and lakes

FUNCTIONAL DIVERSITY
Functional diversity refers to the biological and chemical processes that include energy flow,
biogeochemical or nutrient cycles, and interactions of organisms, which are important for the
survival of species, populations, communities, and entire ecosystems. Species interact with one
another to create relationships like mutualism, competition, parasitism, commensalism, and
predation