Physics 01/21/2025

Topics
A.C. generator

An A.C. generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into alternating current (A.C.)
electrical energy through the principle of electromagnetic induction.

The rotating coil within a magnetic field induces an alternating current, producing electricity.
It is commonly used in power plants to generate electricity for homes and industries.
The frequency of the A.C. output depends on the speed of rotation of the coil.
A.C. generators play a crucial role in providing a stable power supply.

Centre of Gravity

The centre of gravity is the point in an object where the weight is evenly distributed and can be
considered the single point where the entire weight of the object can be considered to act.

The centre of gravity of a symmetrical object is located at its geometric centre.

The centre of gravity of an irregular object can be determined experimentally by suspending it
from different points and finding the balance point.
The stability of an object depends on the position of its centre of gravity; a lower centre of
gravity provides greater stability.
The centre of gravity can be affected by the distribution of mass in an object; objects with
uneven mass distribution have a shifted centre of gravity.

d.c. motor

A d.c. motor is an electrical machine that converts electric energy into mechanical energy
through the interaction of magnetic fields.

Commonly used in appliances, toys, and automotive applications for their simplicity and
controllability.
Consists of a stator (stationary part) and a rotor (rotating part) connected through a
commutator and brushes.
The direction of rotation in a d.c. motor can be reversed by changing the polarity of the input
voltage.
Efficiency can be improved by using permanent magnets in the construction of the motor.

Density
Density is a measurement of how much mass is contained within a given volume.

Density can be calculated by dividing mass by volume.

It is a property of matter that remains constant regardless of the size or shape of the object.
Objects with higher density will sink in fluids, while objects with lower density will float.
Density is used to determine the purity of substances.

Earth and the Solar System

Earth is the third planet from the Sun, with an elliptical orbit; it has a diverse atmosphere
supporting life.

Earth has one natural satellite, the Moon, which influences tides and has a significant impact
on Earth's environment.
The Solar System consists of the Sun, eight planets, numerous moons, asteroids, and comets
orbiting around the Sun.
Earth's orbit around the Sun takes approximately 365.25 days, causing seasons due to its
axial tilt of about 23.5 degrees.
The atmosphere of Earth protects life by absorbing harmful radiation from the Sun,
maintaining stable temperatures and providing oxygen for respiration.

Electrical energy

Electrical energy is the energy carried by electric currents, which can be used to power electronic
devices and produce light, heat, and motion.

Electrical energy is generated by the movement of charged particles, such as electrons.

Electricity can be converted into other forms of energy, such as mechanical energy or thermal
energy.
The unit of electrical energy is the watt-hour (Wh) or kilowatt-hour (kWh).
Electrical energy can be stored in batteries for later use.

Electric Charge

Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that determines whether it is positively or

negatively charged.

Charge can be transferred from one object to another through physical contact or by
induction.
Opposite charges attract each other, while like charges repel.
The unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C).
The absence or surplus of electrons in an object determines its charge.

Electric Circuits
Electric circuits are pathways that allow electricity to flow through various components like
resistors, capacitors, and coils, powered by voltage sources.

Current flows from positive to negative terminals in a circuit.

Circuits can be series, parallel, or a combination of both.
Ohm's Law relates voltage, current, and resistance in a circuit.
Kirchhoff's laws are used to analyze complex circuits.

Electric current

Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor, measured in amperes (A).

The flow of electric charge occurs when there is a difference in electric potential between two
points.
The direction of the current is from higher electric potential to lower electric potential.
The unit of electric current, the ampere, is defined as one coulomb of charge passing through
a point in a circuit per second.
Electric current can be direct (DC), when it flows in only one direction, or alternating (AC),
when it periodically changes direction.

Electromagnetic induction

Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating an electromotive force by changing the

magnetic field around a conductor.

It is based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

An electric current is induced in a conductor when it is exposed to a changing magnetic field.
The direction of the induced current can be determined using Lenz's law.
Electromagnetic induction is the principle behind the function of generators and
transformers.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic

radiation, including radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma
rays.

The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from low-energy, long-wavelength radiation to high-

energy, short-wavelength radiation.
The different types of electromagnetic radiation can be distinguished by their wavelengths
and frequencies.
The electromagnetic spectrum is used in various applications, such as communication,
medical imaging, and astronomy.
The study of the electromagnetic spectrum allows us to understand how light and other
 forms of radiation interact with matter.

Electromotive force

Electromotive force, also known as emf, is the electrical potential difference developed by a
source of electrical energy that drives charged particles in a circuit.

Emf is measured in volts (V) and represents the work done per unit charge in moving a
charge from one point to another in a circuit.
Emf is provided by sources such as batteries or generators and can be used to power
electrical devices.
Emf is different from voltage in that it represents the total energy supplied by the source,
while voltage represents the energy per unit charge.
The direction of the emf is always from the higher potential to the lower potential in a circuit.

Energy, work and power

Energy is the capacity to do work, work is the transfer of energy, and power is the rate at which
energy is transferred or converted.

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, while potential energy is stored energy due to position
or condition.
Work is calculated as the force applied over distance, often measured in joules.
Power is measured in watts and indicates how quickly work is done or energy is transferred.
Conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or
converted.

Equilibrium and moments

Equilibrium refers to an object being at rest or moving at a constant velocity with balanced
forces. Moments are rotational forces calculated as force multiplied by distance.

To maintain equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments must equal the sum of
counterclockwise moments.
A moment is also known as torque and its SI unit is the newton-meter.
The moment arm is the perpendicular distance from the pivot point to the line of action of the
force.
A body in equilibrium experiences zero net torque and the sum of all torques is equal to zero.

Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

When a conductor carries an electric current, it experiences a force due to the interaction
between the current and the magnetic field.
 Known as Lorentz force, this phenomenon can be calculated using the equation F = I * L * B *
sin(theta).
The direction of the force is determined by the right-hand rule, with the thumb pointing in the
direction of the current.
The force is maximum when the current is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines.
The force is minimum when the current is parallel to the magnetic field lines.

Forces

Forces are interactions between objects that cause changes in motion.

Forces can be contact forces or non-contact forces.

Some common contact forces include friction, normal force, and applied force.
Gravity is a non-contact force that acts at a distance.
Forces can either change the speed or direction of an object's motion.

Gravitational attraction

Gravitational attraction is the force that pulls objects towards each other due to their mass, with
larger masses exerting a greater force.

This force follows Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation.

It decreases with distance squared.
Depends on the masses of the objects involved.
It is responsible for holding planets in orbit around stars.

Half-life

Half-life refers to the time it takes for a substance to decay by half, indicating the stability or the
rate of decay for radioactive elements.

The concept of half-life is commonly used in radiocarbon dating to determine the age of
organic materials.
Half-life is a probabilistic concept and is based on the principle of exponential decay.
The decay rate of a substance is independent of the initial quantity present.
The half-life of a substance can vary greatly, from fractions of a second to billions of years.

Hubble constant

The Hubble constant represents the rate at which the universe is expanding, determined by the
recessional velocity of galaxies.

It is named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble who first observed the expansion of the
universe in the 1920s.
 The Hubble constant is a crucial parameter used in estimating the age and size of the
universe.
Its value is currently estimated to be around 70 km/s/Mpc.
A higher Hubble constant indicates a faster rate of cosmic expansion.

Kinetic Particle Model of Matter

The Kinetic Particle Model of Matter describes particles in constant motion, with different states
of matter exhibiting varying levels of particle movement.

Particles in solids vibrate in fixed positions, in liquids they move past each other, and in gases
they move freely.
The model helps explain changes in state by illustrating how particles gain or lose kinetic
energy.
The temperature of a substance is related to the average kinetic energy of its particles.
Understanding this model aids in comprehending phenomena such as diffusion, pressure
changes, and phase transitions.

Magnetic effect of a current

The magnetic effect of a current refers to the creation of a magnetic field around a current-
carrying conductor.

Magnetic fields are generated perpendicular to the direction of the current flow.
Magnetic field strength increases with the magnitude of the current.
The right-hand rule helps determine the direction of the magnetic field around a current-
carrying wire.
This phenomenon is utilized in devices like electromagnets and electric motors.

Mass and Weight

Mass is the amount of matter in an object, while weight is the force of gravity acting on an
object's mass.

Mass is measured in kilograms or grams, while weight is measured in newtons or pounds.

Mass remains constant regardless of location, while weight changes with differing
gravitational pull.
Mass can be measured using a balance scale, while weight is measured using a spring scale
or by weighing on a scale.
Mass determines inertia, while weight affects an object's interaction with gravitational forces.

Momentum

Momentum is a property of an object that describes its motion. It is a measure of how difficult it
is to stop or change the motion of the object.
 Momentum is the product of an object's mass and velocity.
Momentum is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction.
The law of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum of a closed system
remains constant if no external forces act on it.
Momentum plays a crucial role in collisions and is used to analyze and predict the outcomes
of such events.

Motion

Motion refers to the change in position of an object with respect to time.

An object can be in different states of motion, such as uniform motion, varied motion, or rest.
The speed of an object can be calculated by dividing the distance traveled by the time taken.
Velocity includes both speed and direction, while speed is just the magnitude of velocity.
Acceleration describes how fast the velocity of an object changes over time.

Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which atomic nuclei combine to form heavier nuclei, releasing vast
amounts of energy.

Nuclear fusion powers the sun and other stars.

The goal of nuclear fusion research is to develop a practical and sustainable energy source.
Fusion reactions require extremely high temperatures and pressures to overcome the
electrostatic repulsion between atomic nuclei.
Deuterium and tritium, isotopes of hydrogen, are commonly used as fuel in fusion reactions.

Nuclear model of the atom

The nuclear model of the atom proposes that an atom consists of a positively charged nucleus
surrounded by negatively charged electrons.

The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, which make up the majority of the atom's
mass.
Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific energy levels or shells.
The nucleus is tiny compared to the overall size of the atom.
This model explains the stability and behavior of atoms in chemical reactions.

Phases of the Moon

The phases of the Moon are different stages in which the Moon's appearance changes as seen
from Earth due to the relative positions of the Moon, Earth, and Sun.
 Phases include New Moon, Waxing Crescent, First Quarter, Waxing Gibbous, Full Moon,
Waning Gibbous, Third Quarter, Waning Crescent.
The Moon transitions through these phases every 29.5 days.
The sunlight striking the Moon from different angles causes the varying visible portions
during each phase.
The different phases are a result of the changing alignment of the Moon, Earth, and Sun.

Physical Quantities and Measurement Techniques

Physical quantities are properties that can be measured, such as length, time, and mass, using
various measurement techniques like rulers, timers, and balances.

Units of physical quantities provide standard measurements for comparisons.

Precision and accuracy in measurements ensure reliable data.
Calibration of instruments is crucial for ensuring measurement accuracy.
Graphical analysis can aid in interpreting and visualizing measurement data.

Pressure

Pressure is the force exerted per unit area and is calculated by dividing the force applied on a
surface by the area over which it is applied.

Pressure is a scalar quantity and is measured in units of pascal (Pa) or newton per square
meter (N/m²).
Pressure increases with an increase in force and decreases with an increase in area.
Fluid pressure is exerted in all directions equally due to the molecules moving randomly.
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the Earth's atmosphere on any
given surface.

Properties of the nucleus

The nucleus is the central part of an atom, composed of protons and neutrons. It carries a
positive charge and most of the atom's mass.

Protons determine the element's identity, while neutrons affect its stability.
The size of the nucleus is extremely small compared to the overall size of the atom.
Nuclei can undergo radioactive decay, releasing energy and particles.
Nuclear forces, both attractive and repulsive, play a crucial role in the stability of the nucleus.

Radioactive Decay

Radioactive decay is the spontaneous process by which unstable atomic nuclei emit radiation in
the form of particles or electromagnetic waves.
 Radioactive decay occurs in isotopes that have an imbalance of protons and neutrons in their
nuclei.
The rate of radioactive decay is measured using the concept of half-life.
The three main types of radioactive decay are alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma decay.
The decay process can result in the transformation of one element into another over time.

Radioactivity

Radioactivity refers to the spontaneous emission of radiation from the unstable nucleus of an
atom.

Radioactive decay occurs when an unstable nucleus emits alpha particles, beta particles, or
gamma rays.
The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes for half of the atoms in a sample to
decay.
The three main types of radiation emitted from radioactive decay are alpha particles, beta
particles, and gamma rays.
Radioactive elements are used in various applications such as nuclear power generation,
medical imaging, and cancer treatment.

Redshift

Redshift is a phenomenon when light from distant objects appears more red than usual,
indicating that the object is moving away from an observer.

The redshift of a celestial object can provide information about its distance from Earth and
the rate at which it is moving away.
Redshift is caused by the Doppler effect, where the wavelength of light is stretched as an
object moves away from the observer.
The amount of redshift is directly proportional to the velocity of the object, allowing scientists
to measure the speed of distant galaxies.
The concept of redshift is essential in studying the expansion of the universe and the Big
Bang theory.

Reflection of light

Reflection of light is the phenomena where light bounces off a surface, obeying the law of
reflection, which states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Regular reflection occurs on smooth surfaces, producing clear and sharp images.
Diffuse reflection happens on rough surfaces, creating scattered reflections.
The angle of incidence is measured between the incident ray and the normal line.
The angle of reflection is measured between the reflected ray and the normal line.

Refraction of Light
Refraction of light is the bending of light waves as they pass from one medium to another with
different optical densities.

The speed of light changes as it travels through different mediums, causing the bending of
the light rays.
Refraction occurs due to the change in the velocity of light waves when they move from one
medium to another.
The amount of bending of light during refraction is determined by the change in speed and
the angle of incidence.
The refractive index of a material affects the degree of refraction when light passes through
it.

Resistance

Resistance is a measure of how much a material or device resists the flow of electric current.

Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω), and is calculated by dividing voltage by current.

Resistors are components specifically designed to introduce resistance into an electric
circuit.
The longer and thinner a wire is, the higher its resistance will be.
Temperature can also affect the resistance of a material, with most materials having an
increased resistance as temperature increases.

Series and parallel circuits

Series circuits have components connected in a daisy chain along a single pathway, while
parallel circuits have components connected across multiple pathways.

Series circuits offer one path for current, making all components share the same current.
Parallel circuits provide multiple paths for current, allowing components to have different
currents.
In series circuits, the total resistance is the sum of individual resistances.
In parallel circuits, the total resistance is less than the lowest individual resistance.

Solar System

The Solar System is a collection of planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and other celestial bodies
that orbit around the Sun.

The Sun is at the center of the Solar System and exerts gravitational force on all other
objects.
The Solar System is approximately 4.6 billion years old.
The eight planets in the Solar System are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
and Neptune.
 The outer region of the Solar System is composed of icy bodies called Kuiper Belt objects.

Sound transmission

Sound transmission refers to the movement of sound waves through a medium, such as air,
water, or solids, from a sound source to a receiver.

Sound travels faster through solids than liquids, and faster through liquids than gases due to
differences in molecular density.
Materials such as wood and glass are better at transmitting sound compared to materials like
foam and rubber, which absorb sound.
Sound transmission can be affected by obstacles and barriers that can reflect, absorb, or
diffract sound waves.
The intensity of a sound wave decreases as it travels farther from the source, known as
sound attenuation.

Thermal properties and temperature

Thermal properties refer to how materials respond to heat, affecting their temperature,
expansion, and conductivity.

Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance.

Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a
given amount of substance by 1 degree Celsius.
Thermal conductivity measures a material's ability to conduct heat.
Expansion in materials occurs as their temperature increases, causing changes in volume
and dimensions.

thin lenses

Thin lenses are optical devices that are flat and have negligible thickness, used to converge or
diverge light rays to form images.

Lenses are categorized as converging (convex) or diverging (concave), based on their ability
to focus light rays.
The focal length of a lens is the distance from the lens to the point where parallel rays
converge or appear to converge.
The image formed by a thin lens can be real or virtual, upright or inverted, and magnified or
reduced depending on the object's position.
Lens equation (1/f = 1/do + 1/di) relates the focal length (f), object distance (do), and image
distance (di) for thin lenses.

Transfer of thermal energy

Transfer of thermal energy refers to the process of heat flowing from a warmer object to a cooler
object due to a temperature difference.

Conduction, convection, and radiation are the three main mechanisms of thermal energy
transfer.
In conduction, heat is transferred through direct contact between materials.
Convection involves the transfer of heat through the movement of fluids, such as air or water.
Radiation is the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves, such as sunlight.

Transformer

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits
through electromagnetic induction.

It consists of two or more coils of wire wrapped around a common iron core.
The primary coil receives the input voltage and current, while the secondary coil delivers the
output voltage and current.
Step-up transformers increase voltage and step-down transformers decrease voltage.
Transformers are used in power distribution systems to transmit electricity efficiently over
long distances.

Turning Effect of Forces

The turning effect of forces, also known as torque, describes the rotational force that causes an
object to rotate.

Torque is calculated as the product of the force applied and the distance from the pivot point.
It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction.
The longer the lever arm from the pivot point, the greater the torque produced.
Torque can cause an object to accelerate rotationally or change its rotational speed.

Types of nuclear emission

Nuclear emission refers to the release of energetic particles or radiation from an atomic nucleus
due to instability or radioactive decay.

Common types include alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays.

Alpha particles are Helium-4 nuclei, beta particles are electrons or positrons, gamma rays are
high-energy photons.
Alpha particles are the least penetrating, gamma rays are highly penetrating.
Alpha decay releases alpha particles, beta decay releases beta particles, gamma decay
releases gamma rays.

Voltmeter
A voltmeter is a device used to measure the electric potential difference between two points in
an electric circuit.

It is typically connected in parallel to the component or circuit being measured.

The unit of measurement for voltage is volts (V).
Voltmeters can be analog or digital, with digital voltmeters providing more accurate and
precise measurements.
They have a high internal resistance to prevent any significant flow of current through them.

wave motion

Wave motion refers to the transfer of energy through a medium by oscillations of particles or
disturbance of a field, characterized by properties such as frequency and amplitude.

Common examples include water waves, sound waves, and electromagnetic waves.
Wave motion can be classified as transverse waves, where the oscillations are perpendicular
to the direction of energy transfer, or longitudinal waves, where the oscillations are parallel.
Wave frequency determines the pitch of sound waves and the color of light waves.
The speed of a wave is determined by the medium through which it is propagating and can be
affected by factors such as temperature and pressure.

Key Terms
Absolute zero

Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature, at which all molecular motion ceases and
entropy is minimized.

Absolute zero is equivalent to -273.15 degrees Celsius or -459.67 degrees Fahrenheit.

At absolute zero, gases liquify and solids become even more rigid.
The concept of absolute zero is derived from the laws of thermodynamics.
The study of absolute zero has led to advances in cryogenics and superconductivity.

Acceleration

Acceleration pertains to the rate of change of velocity per unit of time. It's a vector, implying it
carries both magnitude and direction.

Acceleration involves change in speed or direction, or both.

It's measured in meters per second squared (m/s^2).
Zero acceleration means constant speed and unchanging direction.
Acceleration due to gravity is approximately 9.8 m/s^2.
Alpha particle

An alpha particle is a type of ionizing radiation consisting of two protons and two neutrons,
identical to a helium-4 nucleus.

Alpha particles have a positive charge and are emitted by certain radioactive materials.
Due to their large mass, alpha particles have a low penetrating power and can be easily
stopped by a sheet of paper or even a few centimeters of air.
Alpha decay is a common form of radioactive decay where an unstable atomic nucleus emits
an alpha particle to become more stable.
Alpha particles are commonly used in medical treatments and are also used in smoke
detectors for their ionizing properties.

Alternating current

Alternating current is an electric current that reverses direction in a circuit at regular intervals,
typically 60 times per second.

AC is used to deliver electricity to homes and buildings.

The voltage of AC can be easily changed using a transformer.
AC is safer to use than direct current (DC) for high-power applications.
The frequency of AC in most countries is 60 Hertz (Hz).

Amplitude

Amplitude, in physics, is the maximum displacement of a point of a wave from its equilibrium
position. It is associated with the energy of the wave.

It describes the size of cyclical movements, making it critical in areas like waves and
vibrations.
In sound waves, amplitude determines loudness; in light waves, it affects intensity.
The amplitude of a pendulum is the maximum angle it swings away from vertical.
Amplitude differs from frequency, which measures the rate of repetition.

Astronomical distance

Astronomical distance refers to the vast lengths measuring the distances between celestial
bodies in space, typically expressed in units like light-years or astronomical units.

A light-year is the distance light travels in one year, approximately 9.46 trillion kilometers.
An astronomical unit (AU) is the average distance between Earth and the Sun, around 149.6
million kilometers.
Distances in space are so large that astronomers often use scientific notation to express
them more conveniently.
 Studying astronomical distances allows astronomers to understand the vastness of the
universe and the scale of celestial bodies.

Beta particle

A beta particle is a high-energy electron or a positron emitted by a radioactive nucleus during

beta decay.

Beta particles have a charge of either -1 or +1.

They have a mass equal to 1/1836 times the mass of a proton.
Beta particles can ionize atoms and cause damage to living cells.
They can be stopped by a few millimeters of aluminum or a few centimeters of air.

Black hole

A black hole is a region in space where the gravitational pull is so strong that nothing, not even
light, can escape from it.

Black holes are formed from the remnants of massive stars that have collapsed under their
own gravitational force.
They have a singularity at their center, which is a point of infinite density and gravity.
The event horizon of a black hole is the boundary beyond which nothing can be seen or
detected.
Black holes can emit a form of radiation called Hawking radiation, which causes them to
slowly evaporate over time.

Brownian motion

Brownian motion refers to the random movement of particles in a fluid due to collisions with the
fluid molecules.

Discovered by botanist Robert Brown in 1827 by observing pollen grains in water.

Provides evidence for the existence of atoms and molecules.
Described by Albert Einstein in 1905 as the result of molecular collisions.
Used to study diffusion, the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low
concentration.

centre of mass

The 'centre of mass' is a point in an object or system where the mass can be considered to be
concentrated. It is the average position of all the parts of an object.

The centre of mass does not need to lie within the object itself.
The centre of mass can be outside of the object if there are external forces acting on it.
 The centre of mass is not affected by the shape or density distribution of the object.
The centre of mass is an important concept in determining the stability and motion of
objects.

Circuit Diagram

A circuit diagram is a visual representation of an electrical circuit using symbols to show

components and connections.

Circuit diagrams help understand circuit structures and analyze how electricity flows within a
circuit.
Components like resistors, capacitors, and power sources are represented with specific
symbols in circuit diagrams.
Lines connecting components indicate the flow of electricity, with different line types
representing different types of connections.
Circuit diagrams are essential for designing circuits, troubleshooting issues, and
communicating circuit configurations effectively.

Conduction

Conduction refers to the transfer of heat or electricity through a material by direct contact or
collision between particles.

Conduction occurs because particles in a material have kinetic energy, causing them to
vibrate and collide with neighboring particles.
The rate of conduction is influenced by the type of material, its temperature, and the
temperature difference between the two ends of the material.
Good conductors, such as metals, allow heat or electricity to pass through easily, while
insulators, like rubber or wood, restrict the flow.
Conduction is an important mechanism in everyday life, including the cooking of food, the
functioning of electrical circuits, and the thermal insulation of buildings.

Conductor

A conductor is a material that allows the flow of electric current due to the presence of free
electrons. It has low resistance.

Examples of conductors include metals such as copper, silver, and aluminum.

Conductors can transfer heat as well as electricity.
The conductivity of a material is related to the density of free electrons.
Conductors are used in electrical wires to transmit electricity efficiently.

Convection

Convection is a process of heat transfer in which heat is transferred through the movement of
fluids, such as liquids or gases.

The warmer fluid rises due to its lower density and is replaced by cooler fluid, creating a
convection current.
Convection occurs in everyday situations, such as boiling water or air currents in a room.
The rate of convection is influenced by factors like temperature difference, fluid density, and
the viscosity of the fluid.
Convection is an important mechanism for energy transfer in the Earth's atmosphere and
oceans, driving weather patterns and ocean currents.

converging lens

A converging lens is a lens that is thicker in the middle and causes parallel rays of light to come
together or converge at a specific point.

A converging lens is also known as a convex lens.

It has a positive focal length.
It forms real and inverted images.
The focal point is located on the opposite side of the lens from the object.

Crescent Moon

The Crescent Moon is the phase when the Moon is less than half illuminated but not completely
dark, resembling a curved slice of the Moon.

Occurs after the New Moon and before the First Quarter phase.
Visible shortly after sunset in the western sky.
Gets its name from the Latin word 'crescere' which means 'to grow.'
The illuminated portion of the Moon is increasing in size during this phase.

Deceleration

Deceleration refers to the rate at which an object slows down. It is the opposite of acceleration.

Deceleration is represented by a negative value in equations.

It is calculated by dividing the change in velocity by the time taken.
Deceleration can be caused by a decrease in speed or a change in direction.
The unit of deceleration is meters per second squared (m/s^2).

Electromagnet

An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is created by an electric current
flowing through a coil of wire.
 The magnetic field of an electromagnet can be turned on or off by controlling the flow of
electric current.
The strength of the magnetic field of an electromagnet can be increased by increasing the
number of turns in the coil of wire.
Electromagnets are used in various applications such as electric motors, loudspeakers, and
MRI machines.
The polarity of an electromagnet can be reversed by reversing the direction of the electric
current flowing through the wire.

Electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are a type of wave that consists of electric and magnetic fields
oscillating perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation.

They can travel through a vacuum and have a broad range of wavelengths and frequencies.
Common examples include radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light,
ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.
The speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is constant and equals approximately 3 x
10^8 meters per second.
Electromagnetic waves can be reflected, refracted, diffracted, and absorbed, exhibiting
various properties and behaviors.

Electron

The electron is a fundamental subatomic particle with a negative charge found outside the
atomic nucleus and is often involved in chemical reactions.

The electron has a mass of approximately 9.11 x 10^-31 kilograms.

Electrons exist in discrete energy levels or shells around the nucleus of an atom.
Electrons can move from one energy level to another by absorbing or emitting energy in the
form of photons.
The arrangement of electrons in an atom determines its chemical properties and reactivity.

Equilibrium

Equilibrium refers to a state of balance where all forces acting on an object are equal and cancel
each other out.

An object in equilibrium may be at rest or moving with a constant velocity.

Equilibrium can be achieved when an object is experiencing no external forces.
There are three types of equilibrium: stable, unstable, and neutral.
In stable equilibrium, a small displacement from the balanced position results in a force that
brings the object back to equilibrium.
Fleming's Left Hand Rule

Fleming's Left Hand Rule is a rule used in science to determine the direction of a magnetic force
in a current-carrying conductor.

Fleming's Left Hand Rule is also known as the motor rule.

It provides a way to remember how the direction of a magnetic field, electric current, and
motion are related.
The thumb represents the direction of motion, the index finger represents the direction of the
magnetic field, and the middle finger represents the direction of the current.
By using these three fingers, the rule helps determine the resulting force or direction of a
current in a magnetic field.

Fleming's Right Hand Rule

Fleming's Right Hand Rule is a mnemonic for the orientation of forces, magnetic fields, and
current in a three-dimensional coordinate system.

Fleming's Right Hand Rule is used to determine the direction of the force on a current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic field.
The thumb represents the direction of the current, the forefinger indicates the direction of the
magnetic field, and the middle finger shows the direction of the force.
The rule is based on the principle that when current flows through a wire in a magnetic field, a
force is exerted on the wire.
This rule is crucial in understanding the interaction between magnetic fields and electric
currents.

Frequency

Frequency, measured in Hertz (Hz), defines the number of cycles an event, such as a wave,
completes in one second.

It's the reciprocal of the period of a wave or oscillation.

High frequency indicates many wave cycles per second.
It is critical when studying sound, light, or electromagnetic waves.
Frequency affects properties like pitch in sound or color in light.

Full Moon

A Full Moon occurs when the Moon is on the opposite side of the Earth from the Sun, making its
entire illuminated side visible from Earth.

Full Moons happen approximately once a month.

During a Full Moon, the Moon appears completely round and bright in the night sky.
 Tides are typically stronger during Full Moons due to alignment of gravitational forces.
Some cultures believe the Full Moon influences human behavior and emotions.

Gamma ray

Gamma rays are the highest-energy electromagnetic radiation, consisting of photons with the
shortest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum.

Gamma rays have the highest frequency and energy among all forms of electromagnetic
radiation.
Gamma rays are produced by nuclear reactions and radioactive decay.
Gamma rays can penetrate most materials, making them useful for medical imaging and
sterilization purposes.
Exposure to high levels of gamma rays can be harmful to living organisms, causing damage
to cells and tissues.

Gibbous moon

A gibbous moon is when the moon's shape is between a half-moon and a full moon, where more
than half of its face is illuminated.

Occurs during the waxing phase, after the first quarter moon but before the full moon.
Its name is derived from the Latin word 'gibbosus,' meaning humpbacked, due to its shape.
Visible in the evening hours during the waxing phase.
Gibbous moons are larger and brighter than crescent moons due to more of the moon's
surface being lit.

Gravitational field strength

Gravitational field strength refers to the force experienced by an object due to gravity per unit
mass.

Gravitational field strength is defined as the ratio of gravitational force to mass.

It is measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg).
Gravitational field strength is a vector quantity.
Near the surface of the Earth, the gravitational field strength is approximately 9.8 N/kg.

Gravitational potential energy

Gravitational potential energy refers to the energy possessed by an object due to its height in a
gravitational field.

Gravitational potential energy depends on the mass of the object and the height it has been
lifted to.
 It is a form of potential energy that can be converted into other forms when the object is
released or allowed to fall.
The formula for gravitational potential energy is PE = mgh, where m is the mass, g is the
acceleration due to gravity, and h is the height.
Gravitational potential energy is directly proportional to both the mass and the height of the
object.

Hooke's Law

Hooke's Law states that the force needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance is
proportional to that distance.

The relationship between the force and displacement is linear.

The proportionality constant is called the spring constant.
Hooke's Law applies to elastic materials, not just springs.
The negative sign indicates that the force acts in the opposite direction to the displacement.

Impulse

Impulse is the product of force and the time interval over which the force is applied.

Impulse can change the momentum of an object.

An impulse can be positive or negative, depending on the direction of the force.
According to the impulse-momentum theorem, the impulse experienced by an object is equal
to the change in momentum.
Impulse is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction.

Induced magnetism

Induced magnetism occurs when a material becomes magnetized due to the influence of an
external magnetic field.

It involves aligning magnetic domains in a material temporarily.

Induced magnets lose their magnetism once the external field is removed.
Commonly observed in ferromagnetic materials like iron and steel.
Distinguished from permanent magnets which retain their magnetism without an external
field.

Insulator

An insulator is a material that does not conduct electricity or heat easily and is used to prevent
the transfer of energy.

Insulators have high resistance to the flow of electric current.

 They are often used to coat or wrap conductors to prevent electric shocks and short circuits.
Common examples of insulators include rubber, plastic, glass, and wood.
Insulators are important in maintaining the efficiency and safety of electrical and thermal
systems.

Ion

An ion is an atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a
positively or negatively charged particle.

Ions are often formed when atoms or molecules interact with other substances, such as
through chemical reactions.
The charge of an ion is determined by the number of electrons gained or lost.
Positive ions, called cations, have more protons than electrons, while negative ions, called
anions, have more electrons than protons.
Ions play a crucial role in many natural processes, including the conduction of electricity in
liquids and the transmission of nerve impulses.

Isotope

An isotope is a variant of a chemical element that differs in neutron number, but still has the
same number of protons.

Isotopes have the same atomic number but different atomic mass.
Isotopes can be stable or unstable, with unstable isotopes undergoing radioactive decay.
Isotopes are often used in various applications such as radiocarbon dating and medical
imaging.
The study of isotopes can provide information about the origin and formation of objects in
the universe.

Kilowatt-hour

A kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy commonly used to measure electricity consumption and

production, equal to the power of one kilowatt sustained for one hour.

1 kilowatt-hour is equivalent to 3,600,000 joules.

The energy consumption of appliances is often measured in kilowatt-hours.
Kilowatt-hours are used to determine the cost of electricity on utility bills.
Renewable energy sources, like solar panels, can generate kilowatt-hours of electricity.

Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving object due to its motion.
 Kinetic energy is directly proportional to the mass of the object and the square of its velocity.
The formula for calculating kinetic energy is KE = 0.5mv^2, where KE is the kinetic energy, m
is the mass, and v is the velocity.
Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity and is always positive.
The SI unit for kinetic energy is the joule (J).

Latent heat

Latent heat refers to the heat absorbed or released during a phase change of a substance,
without a change in temperature.

Latent heat is measured in joules or calories.

The latent heat of fusion is the heat absorbed or released during the phase change between
solid and liquid states.
The latent heat of vaporization is the heat absorbed or released during the phase change
between liquid and gaseous states.
Increasing the pressure on a substance can affect its latent heat values.

light-year

A light-year is the distance light travels in one year at a speed of about 186,282 miles per second.

Equals about 5.88 trillion miles or 9.46 trillion kilometers.

Used to measure vast distances in space.
Helps in understanding the vastness of the universe.
Not a measure of time but a measure of distance.

Longitudinal wave

A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate back and forth in the
same direction as the wave.

A longitudinal wave consists of compressions and rarefactions that move through the
medium.
The amplitude of a longitudinal wave is the maximum displacement of the particles from
their rest position.
The wavelength of a longitudinal wave is the distance between two consecutive
compressions or rarefactions.
Sound waves are examples of longitudinal waves.

Magnetic field

A magnetic field is a region in space around a magnet or a current-carrying wire, where a

magnetic force is experienced.
 Magnetic field lines always form closed loops.
The strength of a magnetic field is measured in Tesla (T).
The direction of a magnetic field is represented by the direction in which the North pole of a
compass needle points.
The magnetic field around a straight current-carrying wire forms concentric circles around the
wire.

Mass

Mass is a fundamental property of matter that measures the amount of matter in an object. It is
a scalar quantity, generally measured in kilograms.

Mass is independent of location, including gravitational field variations, making it different

from weight.
Inertia, the resistance of an object to changes in its state of motion, is directly proportional to
the object's mass.
Mass plays an essential role in Newton's Second Law of Motion, influencing the acceleration
of an object.
Mass and energy are interchangeable according to Einstein's theory of relativity, exemplified
by E=mc².

Moment of a force

The moment of a force is the measure of its tendency to cause an object to rotate about a
specific point.

The moment of a force depends on both its magnitude and the distance from the point of
rotation.
The moment of a force can be calculated using the formula: moment = force x distance.
The direction of the moment depends on the direction of the force and the direction from the
point of rotation.
The moment of a force can be increased by either increasing the force or increasing the
distance from the point of rotation.

Monochromatic Light

Monochromatic light consists of a single wavelength, producing light of a specific color without
any other wavelengths present.

Used in various optical devices such as spectrometers for precise measurements.

Helps in the study of interference patterns and diffraction phenomena.
Commonly produced using lasers, which emit highly monochromatic light.
Monochromatic light is essential in various scientific applications including microscopy and
telecommunications.
Nebula

Nebula refers to a cloud of gas and dust in space, often the birthplace of stars and planetary
systems.

Nebulae are typically composed of hydrogen, helium, and trace elements.

There are four main types of nebulae: emission, reflection, dark, and planetary.
Nebulae can vary in size, with some spanning over hundreds of light-years.
Nebulae emit light due to the ionization of gases by nearby stars or intense radiation.

Neutron

A neutron is a subatomic particle with no electrical charge, found in the nucleus of an atom, and
it has a mass slightly greater than that of a proton.

Neutrons help stabilize atomic nuclei and are involved in nuclear reactions.
Neutrons can be emitted during certain types of radioactive decay.
The study of neutron interactions is used to understand nuclear structure and nuclear forces.
Neutrons are ideal for materials research and non-destructive testing due to their ability to
penetrate matter.

New Moon

During a New Moon, the Moon is positioned between the Earth and the Sun, appearing as a dark
circle in the sky.

New Moon marks the start of a new lunar cycle.

This phase is characterized by minimal illumination from the Sun, making stars more visible.
Tides are usually more extreme during New Moons due to the alignment of the Sun, Moon,
and Earth.
New Moons can be the optimal time for stargazing and observing celestial events due to the
darker sky.

Newton's First Law

Newton's First Law states that an object will remain at rest or move in a straight line at a
constant speed unless acted upon by an external force.

It's also known as the Law of Inertia.

This law explains that an object's motion won't change unless a force changes its speed or
direction.
In the absence of net external forces, an object maintains a steady velocity.
The law applies to objects in any state of motion or at rest.
Newton's Second Law

Newton's Second Law states that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net
force applied and inversely proportional to its mass.

- In the formula F = ma, F represents the net force, m is mass, and a is acceleration.
- The law implies that an object will remain in its state unless acted on by a force.
- It is in the form of a vector equation which means it has direction associated with it.
- Force and acceleration are directly related while mass and acceleration are inversely related.

Nucleon number

Nucleon number refers to the total number of protons and neutrons in an atomic nucleus,
indicating its mass and is denoted by the letter A.

Nucleon number is crucial in determining an element's isotopes and stability.

The nucleon number is essential for predicting an element's overall atomic mass.
Isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but different nucleon numbers.
Nucleon number can be calculated by summing the protons and neutrons present in a
nucleus.

Nucleus

The nucleus is the central part of an atom, containing protons and neutrons.

The nucleus has a positive charge due to the presence of protons.

The number of protons in the nucleus determines the atomic number of an element.
The mass of an atom is primarily concentrated in the nucleus.
The nucleus is incredibly small compared to the overall size of the atom.

Optical fibre

Optical fiber is a thin, transparent thread usually made of glass or plastic that carries light signals
over long distances by total internal reflection.

Light signals travel through fiber by bouncing off the walls due to the principle of total internal
reflection.
Optical fibers are used for high-speed data transmission in telecommunications networks.
Fiber optics have low signal losses over long distances compared to traditional copper wires.
Different types of optical fibers, like single-mode and multimode, cater to varying
transmission needs.

Orbital Speed
Orbital speed refers to the velocity required for an object to maintain a stable orbit around
another object due to gravitational forces.

It is influenced by the mass of the objects involved and the distance between them.
The closer an object is to the center of mass of the body it is orbiting, the higher the orbital
speed required.
Objects with higher orbital speeds have orbits closer to the object they are orbiting.
The orbital speed needed to escape the gravitational pull of an object altogether is known as
escape velocity.

Potential Difference

'Potential Difference' refers to the difference in electric potential energy per unit charge between
two points in an electric field.

The unit for potential difference is volt (V).

Potential difference is also known as voltage.
It is the driving force that causes current to flow in a circuit.
Potential difference depends on the amount of charge and the distance between the two
points.

Power

Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. It is measured in watts (W).

Power is calculated by dividing work done or energy transferred by the time taken.
Power is directly proportional to work done or energy transferred.
A device with a higher power rating can do more work or transfer more energy in a given
amount of time.
Power is often used to express the efficiency of machines or appliances.

Principal focus

Principal focus refers to the point on the principal axis of a lens or mirror where all the rays
parallel to the principal axis converge or diverge.

The principal focus of a converging lens is a real focus point in front of the lens.
The principal focus of a diverging lens is a virtual focus point behind the lens.
The distance from the lens to the principal focus is called the focal length.
A lens with a short focal length has a stronger focusing power than a lens with a long focal
length.

Proton
A proton is a subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom, carrying a positive electrical
charge.

Protons are composed of up quarks and down antiquarks, and have a mass of about 1.67 x
10^-27 kilograms.
They are stable particles and play a crucial role in determining the atomic number and
chemical properties of an element.
Protons are attracted to electrons in the electron cloud, creating an overall neutral charge for
an atom.
In particle accelerators, protons are commonly used due to their relatively high mass and
positive charge.

Protostar

A protostar is a dense cloud of dust and gas collapsing under gravity, preparing to become a star
through nuclear fusion.

Protostars are formed in stellar nurseries within giant molecular clouds.

They evolve into stars once nuclear fusion ignites in their core.
Protostars go through various stages, including the T-Tauri phase, before becoming a main-
sequence star.
The mass of a protostar determines its final fate as a star, which can range from a red dwarf
to a massive star.

Radiation

Radiation refers to the emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving subatomic

particles.

Radiation can be natural, such as sunlight and radioactive decay, or artificial, such as X-rays
and nuclear power.
Radiation can be ionizing or non-ionizing, depending on its ability to remove electrons from
atoms.
It is used in various applications, such as medical imaging, communication technology, and
power generation.
Understanding radiation is crucial for evaluating potential health effects and implementing
safety measures in radioactive environments.

real image

A real image is formed when light rays converge to a point and can be projected onto a screen.

A real image is formed in front of a mirror or lens.

It is always inverted compared to the object.
 It can be captured using a film or digital camera.
A real image can be magnified or reduced in size.

Red giant

A red giant is a late-stage star with low to intermediate mass, recognized by its enlarged size and
red hue due to cooling temperatures.

Red giants form when a star runs out of hydrogen fuel and starts burning helium in its core.
These large stars are cooler than main sequence stars but much brighter due to their
expanded size.
Red giants eventually shed their outer layers, creating beautiful nebulae, before collapsing
into a white dwarf.
The presence of certain elements like carbon and oxygen in a red giant's atmosphere can
affect its color and behavior.

Refractive index

The refractive index is a measure of how much a ray of light bends when it passes from one
medium into another.

The refractive index of a medium is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of
light in that medium.
Refractive index determines how much light is bent when it passes through a medium, which
affects the angle of refraction.
The refractive index of a medium is always greater than or equal to 1.
Materials with higher refractive indexes have a greater ability to bend light.

resultant force

Resultant force is the overall force experienced by an object or point when multiple forces are
acting upon it.

The resultant force can be found by adding up all the individual forces using vector addition.
If the forces are in the same direction, the resultant force is the sum of the magnitudes of the
forces.
If the forces are in opposite directions, the resultant force is the difference between the
magnitudes of the forces.
The resultant force determines the motion of an object according to Newton's second law of
motion.

Scalar quantity

A scalar quantity in physics refers to a physical measurement that has magnitude but no
direction.
 Scalar quantities can be expressed using a number and a unit, such as speed (m/s) or
temperature (°C).
Scalar quantities can be added or subtracted algebraically.
Examples of scalar quantities include mass, time, distance, and energy.
Scalar quantities are independent of the coordinate system used to describe them.

slip ring

A slip ring is an electrical component that allows the transmission of power and electrical
signals between a stationary system and a rotating structure.

Often used in applications such as rotating machinery and robotics.

Consists of stationary brushes that maintain contact with the rotating conductive ring.
Advantages include continuous rotation without tangling wires and efficient signal and power
transfer.
Commonly used in wind turbines, radar systems, and CCTV cameras.

Sonar

Sonar is a technology that uses sound waves to detect and locate objects underwater.

Sonar is an acronym for Sound Navigation and Ranging.

It is commonly used in navigation for submarines and boats to avoid obstacles.
Sonar systems work by emitting sound waves and measuring the time it takes for them to
bounce back.
The speed of sound in water is approximately 1500 meters per second.

Specific heat capacity

Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a
substance by a certain amount.

Specific heat capacity depends on the type of substance and is measured in J/(kg·K).
Water has a high specific heat capacity, which means it can absorb a lot of heat energy
without a significant change in temperature.
Specific heat capacity is used in calculations to determine the amount of heat transferred in a
system.
The specific heat capacity of a substance can vary with temperature.

Speed of a wave

The speed of a wave is determined by the frequency of the wave multiplied by its wavelength. It
is the rate at which a wave travels through a medium.
 The speed of a wave is independent of the amplitude of the wave.
In a given medium, waves with higher frequencies usually travel faster than waves with lower
frequencies.
The speed of a wave is constant in a uniform medium, like a vacuum, but can change when it
enters a different medium.
The formula for calculating wave speed is speed = frequency x wavelength.

Speed of Light

The speed of light is a fundamental constant in nature, with a value of approximately

299,792,458 meters per second.

Light travels at this speed in a vacuum.

It is the fastest possible speed in the universe.
The speed of light is used to define the meter, a unit of length.
Einstein's theory of relativity is based on the constancy of the speed of light.

Split ring commutator

A split ring commutator is a device used to reverse the direction of current in an electric motor,
ensuring the motor continues to rotate in a single direction.

The split ring commutator is made up of two half-rings that are insulated from each other and
mounted on the rotor of the motor.
Each half-ring is connected to a different coil of the motor and is in contact with stationary
brushes that supply current to the rotor.
By reversing the direction of the current in the coils through the action of the split ring
commutator, the magnetic field produced by the coils also changes direction, allowing the
motor to continue rotating.
The split ring commutator is a crucial component in DC motors, as it helps to maintain a
constant direction of rotation by periodically reversing the current flow in the coils.

Spring constant

Spring constant is a measure of how stiff or flexible a spring is, and it determines the amount of
force needed to stretch or compress the spring by a certain amount.

The spring constant is denoted by the letter k.

The higher the spring constant, the stiffer the spring.
The unit of spring constant is N/m (newton per meter).
Hooke's law describes the relationship between the force applied to a spring and the resulting
displacement.

Supernova
A supernova is a powerful explosion that occurs at the end of a star's life cycle, resulting in the
release of massive amounts of energy and the creation of heavy elements.

Supernovas can occur when a star runs out of fuel and collapses under its own gravity.
The explosion of a supernova can briefly outshine an entire galaxy.
Supernovas release vast amounts of energy in the form of light, heat, and high-energy
particles.
The remnants of a supernova can form new stars and planets through the process of
nucleosynthesis.

Transverse wave

A transverse wave is a type of wave that moves perpendicular to the direction of its propagation.

Examples of transverse waves include light waves and water waves.

The motion of particles in a transverse wave is perpendicular to the direction of energy
transfer.
The amplitude of a transverse wave represents the maximum displacement of particles from
their equilibrium position.
Transverse waves exhibit properties such as reflection, diffraction, and interference.

Vector quantity

A vector quantity is a physical quantity with both magnitude and direction, such as velocity or
force.

Scalars only have magnitude, while vectors have magnitude and direction.
Vector quantities can be represented by arrows, with the length of the arrow representing the
magnitude and the direction of the arrow representing the direction.
The sum of two vectors is called the resultant, which can be found using graphical or
algebraic methods.
Vector quantities are often represented using coordinate systems, such as the Cartesian
coordinate system.

virtual image

A virtual image is an optical phenomena where light rays appear to originate from a point that
does not actually exist.

Virtual images cannot be projected onto a screen as they do not physically exist.
These images can only be seen by looking into a mirror or through a lens.
Virtual images are always erect and appear to be smaller than the object.
The distance from the image to the mirror or lens is the same as the object's distance.
Voltage

Voltage is the electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit, which
determines the flow of electric current.

Voltage is measured in volts (V) and can be positive or negative.

A higher voltage means a greater electric potential difference and a stronger flow of current.
Voltage can be calculated by multiplying current and resistance (V = I x R).
Devices like batteries and power supplies provide voltage to provide energy for electric
circuits.

Wavefront

In the context of waves, a wavefront refers to the continuous surface containing points that are
in the same phase of a wave at a given time.

Wavefronts are used to represent the shape and propagation of waves.

They can be planar, spherical, or cylindrical, depending on the type of wave.
Wavefronts are usually represented by lines or curves on a diagram.
The wavefronts can be used to determine information about the wave, such as its direction
and speed.

Wavelength

Wavelength denotes the distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave. It's a
defining characteristic that helps determine a wave's energy and speed.

Wavelength is directly related to a wave's frequency and speed, via the formula Speed =
Wavelength x Frequency.
In the electromagnetic spectrum, longer wavelengths imply lower frequency and energy, while
shorter wavelengths imply higher frequency and energy.
Wavelength is commonly measured in meters, nanometers (nm), or Angstroms (Å),
depending on the wave's type.
Visible light, microwaves, and radio waves all possess unique wavelength ranges.

Weight

Weight is the measure of the force experienced by an object due to gravity.

Weight is a vector quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

Weight is always directed towards the center of the Earth.
Weight is proportional to an object's mass.
Weight can be calculated using the formula W = m * g, where W is the weight, m is the mass,
and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Work Done

Work done refers to the transfer of energy that occurs when a force is applied to an object and it
moves in the direction of the force.

Work done is calculated by multiplying the force applied to an object by the distance it
moves.
Work is a scalar quantity and is measured in joules.
If the force and displacement are perpendicular to each other, no work is done.
When work is done against the force of gravity, it is called lifting work.