Electrostatic generator

An electrostatic generator, or electrostatic machine, is an

electrical generator that produces static electricity, or electricity at
high voltage and low continuous current. The knowledge of static
electricity dates back to the earliest civilizations, but for millennia
it remained merely an interesting and mystifying phenomenon,
without a theory to explain its behavior and often confused with
magnetism. By the end of the 17th century, researchers had
developed practical means of generating electricity by friction, but
the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest
until the 18th century, when they became fundamental instruments
in the studies about the new science of electricity.

Electrostatic generators operate by using manual (or other) power

to transform mechanical work into electric energy, or using
electric currents. Manual electrostatic generators develop
electrostatic charges of opposite signs rendered to two conductors,
using only electric forces, and work by using moving plates,
drums, or belts to carry electric charge to a high potential
electrode.

A Van de Graaff generator, for

Description classroom demonstrations

Electrostatic machines are typically used in science classrooms to

safely demonstrate electrical forces and high voltage phenomena.
The elevated potential differences achieved have been also used
for a variety of practical applications, such as operating X-ray
tubes, particle accelerators, spectroscopy, medical applications,
sterilization of food, and nuclear physics experiments.
Electrostatic generators such as the Van de Graaff generator, and
variations as the Pelletron, also find use in physics research. 12" Quadruple Sector-less
Wimshurst Machine (Bonetti
Electrostatic generators can be divided into categories depending Machine)
on how the charge is generated:

Friction machines use the triboelectric effect (electricity generated by contact or friction)
Influence machines use electrostatic induction
 Others

Friction machines

History
The first electrostatic generators are called friction machines
because of the friction in the generation process. A primitive form
of frictional machine was invented around 1663 by Otto von
Guericke, using a sulphur globe that could be rotated and rubbed
by hand. It may not actually have been rotated during use and was
not intended to produce electricity (rather cosmic virtues),[1] but
inspired many later machines that used rotating globes. Isaac
Newton suggested the use of a glass globe instead of a sulphur
one.[2] About 1706 Francis Hauksbee improved the basic
design,[3] with his frictional electrical machine that enabled a
glass sphere to be rotated rapidly against a woollen cloth.[4]

Generators were further advanced when, about 1730, Prof. Georg

Matthias Bose of Wittenberg added a collecting conductor (an
insulated tube or cylinder supported on silk strings). Bose was the
first to employ the "prime conductor" in such machines, this
consisting of an iron rod held in the hand of a person whose body
was insulated by standing on a block of resin.
Typical friction machine using a
In 1746, William Watson's machine had a large wheel turning
glass globe, common in the 18th
several glass globes, with a sword and a gun barrel suspended century
from silk cords for its prime conductors. Johann Heinrich
Winckler, professor of physics at Leipzig, substituted a leather
cushion for the hand. During 1746, Jan Ingenhousz invented
electric machines made of plate glass.[5] Experiments with the
electric machine were largely aided by the invention of the
Leyden Jar. This early form of the capacitor, with conductive
coatings on either side of the glass, can accumulate a charge of
electricity when connected with a source of electromotive force.

The electric machine was soon further improved by Andrew

(Andreas) Gordon, a Scotsman and professor at Erfurt, who
Martinus van Marum's Electrostatic
substituted a glass cylinder in place of a glass globe; and by generator at Teylers Museum
Giessing of Leipzig who added a "rubber" consisting of a cushion
of woollen material. The collector, consisting of a series of metal
points, was added to the machine by Benjamin Wilson about 1746, and in 1762, John Canton of England
(also the inventor of the first pith-ball electroscope) improved the efficiency of electric machines by
sprinkling an amalgam of tin over the surface of the rubber.[6] In 1768, Jesse Ramsden constructed a
widely used version of a plate electrical generator.
In 1783, Dutch scientist Martin van Marum of Haarlem designed a large electrostatic machine of high
quality with glass disks 1.65 meters in diameter for his experiments. Capable of producing voltage with
either polarity, it was built under his supervision by John Cuthbertson of Amsterdam the following year.
The generator is currently on display at the Teylers Museum in Haarlem.

In 1785, N. Rouland constructed a silk-belted machine that rubbed two grounded tubes covered with hare
fur. Edward Nairne developed an electrostatic generator for medical purposes in 1787 that had the ability
to generate either positive or negative electricity, the first of these being collected from the prime
conductor carrying the collecting points and the second from another prime conductor carrying the
friction pad. The Winter machine possessed higher efficiency than earlier friction machines.

In the 1830s, Georg Ohm possessed a machine similar to the Van Marum machine for his research (which
is now at the Deutsches Museum, Munich, Germany). In 1840, the Woodward machine was developed by
improving the 1768 Ramsden machine, placing the prime conductor above the disk(s). Also in 1840, the
Armstrong hydroelectric machine was developed, using steam as a charge carrier.

Friction operation
The presence of surface charge imbalance means that the objects will exhibit attractive or repulsive
forces. This surface charge imbalance, which leads to static electricity, can be generated by touching two
differing surfaces together and then separating them due to the phenomenon of the triboelectric effect.
Rubbing two non-conductive objects can generate a great amount of static electricity. This is not the
result of friction; two non-conductive surfaces can become charged by just being placed one on top of the
other. Since most surfaces have a rough texture, it takes longer to achieve charging through contact than
through rubbing. Rubbing objects together increases amount of adhesive contact between the two
surfaces. Usually insulators, e.g., substances that do not conduct electricity, are good at both generating,
and holding, a surface charge. Some examples of these substances are rubber, plastic, glass, and pith.
Conductive objects in contact generate charge imbalance too, but retain the charges only if insulated. The
charge that is transferred during contact electrification is stored on the surface of each object. Note that
the presence of electric current does not detract from the electrostatic forces nor from the sparking, from
the corona discharge, or other phenomena. Both phenomena can exist simultaneously in the same system.

Influence machines

History
Frictional machines were, in time, gradually superseded by the second class of instrument mentioned
above, namely, influence machines. These operate by electrostatic induction and convert mechanical work
into electrostatic energy by the aid of a small initial charge which is continually being replenished and
reinforced. The first suggestion of an influence machine appears to have grown out of the invention of
Volta's electrophorus. The electrophorus is a single-plate capacitor used to produce imbalances of electric
charge via the process of electrostatic induction.

The next step was when Abraham Bennet, the inventor of the gold leaf electroscope, described a "doubler
of electricity" (Phil. Trans., 1787), as a device similar to the electrophorus, but that could amplify a small
charge by means of repeated manual operations with three insulated plates, in order to make it observable
in an electroscope. In 1788, William Nicholson proposed his rotating doubler, which can be considered as
the first rotating influence machine. His instrument was described as "an instrument which by turning a
winch produces the two states of electricity without friction or communication with the earth". (Phil.
Trans., 1788, p. 403) Nicholson later described a "spinning condenser" apparatus, as a better instrument
for measurements.

Erasmus Darwin, W. Wilson, G. C. Bohnenberger, and (later, 1841) J. C. E. Péclet developed various
modifications of Bennet's 1787 device. Francis Ronalds automated the generation process in 1816 by
adapting a pendulum bob as one of the plates, driven by clockwork or a steam engine – he created the
device to power his electric telegraph.[7][8]

Others, including T. Cavallo (who developed the "Cavallo multiplier", a charge multiplier using simple
addition, in 1795), John Read, Charles Bernard Desormes, and Jean Nicolas Pierre Hachette, developed
further various forms of rotating doublers. In 1798, The German scientist and preacher Gottlieb Christoph
Bohnenberger, described the Bohnenberger machine, along with several other doublers of Bennet and
Nicholson types in a book. The most interesting of these were described in the "Annalen der Physik"
(1801). Giuseppe Belli, in 1831, developed a simple symmetrical doubler which consisted of two curved
metal plates between which revolved a pair of plates carried on an insulating stem. It was the first
symmetrical influence machine, with identical structures for both terminals. This apparatus was
reinvented several times, by C. F. Varley, that patented a high power version in 1860, by Lord Kelvin (the
"replenisher") 1868, and by A. D. Moore (the "dirod"), more recently. Lord Kelvin also devised a
combined influence machine and electromagnetic machine, commonly called a mouse mill, for
electrifying the ink in connection with his siphon recorder, and a water-drop electrostatic generator
(1867), which he called the "water-dropping condenser".

Holtz machine
Between 1864 and 1880, W. T. B. Holtz constructed and described a large
number of influence machines which were considered the most advanced
developments of the time. In one form, the Holtz machine consisted of a
glass disk mounted on a horizontal axis which could be made to rotate at a
considerable speed by a multiplying gear, interacting with induction plates
mounted in a fixed disk close to it. In 1865, August J. I. Toepler developed
an influence machine that consisted of two disks fixed on the same shaft Holtz's influence machine
and rotating in the same direction. In 1868, the Schwedoff machine had a
curious structure to increase the output current. Also in 1868, several mixed
friction-influence machine were developed, including the Kundt machine and the Carré machine. In 1866,
the Piche machine (or Bertsch machine) was developed. In 1869, H. Julius Smith received the American
patent for a portable and airtight device that was designed to ignite powder. Also in 1869, sectorless
machines in Germany were investigated by Poggendorff.

The action and efficiency of influence machines were further investigated by F. Rossetti, A. Righi, and
Friedrich Kohlrausch. E. E. N. Mascart, A. Roiti, and E. Bouchotte also examined the efficiency and
current producing power of influence machines. In 1871, sectorless machines were investigated by
Musaeus. In 1872, Righi's electrometer was developed and was one of the first antecedents of the Van de
Graaff generator. In 1873, Leyser developed the Leyser machine, a variation of the Holtz machine. In
1880, Robert Voss (a Berlin instrument maker) devised a form of machine in which he claimed that the
principles of Toepler and Holtz were combined. The same structure become also known as the Toepler–
Holtz machine.

Wimshurst machine
In 1878, the British inventor James Wimshurst started his studies
about electrostatic generators, improving the Holtz machine, in a
powerful version with multiple disks. The classical Wimshurst
machine, that became the most popular form of influence
machine, was reported to the scientific community by 1883,
although previous machines with very similar structures were
previously described by Holtz and Musaeus. In 1885, one of the
largest-ever Wimshurst machines was built in England (it is now
at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry). The Wimshurst
machine is a considerably simple machine; it works, as all A small Wimshurst machine
influence machines, with electrostatic induction of charges, which
means that it uses even the slightest existing charge to create and
accumulate more charges, and repeats this process for as long as the machine is in action. Wimshurst
machines are composed of: two insulated disks attached to pulleys of opposite rotation, the disks have
small conductive (usually metal) plates on their outward-facing sides; two double-ended brushes that
serve as charge stabilizers and are also the place where induction happens, creating the new charges to be
collected; two pairs of collecting combs, which are, as the name implies, the collectors of electrical
charge produced by the machine; two Leyden Jars, the capacitors of the machine; a pair of electrodes, for
the transfer of charges once they have been sufficiently accumulated. The simple structure and
components of the Wimshurst Machine make it a common choice for a homemade electrostatic
experiment or demonstration, these characteristics were factors that contributed to its popularity, as
previously mentioned.[9]

In 1887, Weinhold modified the Leyser machine with a system of vertical metal bar inductors with
wooden cylinders close to the disk for avoiding polarity reversals. M. L. Lebiez described the Lebiez
machine, that was essentially a simplified Voss machine (L'Électricien, April 1895, pp. 225–227). In
1893, Louis Bonetti patented a machine with the structure of the Wimshurst machine, but without metal
sectors in the disks.[10][11] This machine is significantly more powerful than the sectored version, but it
must usually be started with an externally applied charge.

Pidgeon machine
In 1898, the Pidgeon machine was developed with a unique setup by W. R. Pidgeon. On October 28 that
year, Pidgeon presented this machine to the Physical Society after several years of investigation into
influence machines (beginning at the start of the decade). The device was later reported in the
Philosophical Magazine (December 1898, pg. 564) and the Electrical Review (Vol. XLV, pg. 748). A
Pidgeon machine possesses fixed electrostatic inductors arranged in a manner that increases the
electrostatic induction effect (and its electrical output is at least double that of typical machines of this
type [except when it is overtaxed]). The essential features of the Pidgeon machine are, one, the
combination of the rotating support and the fixed support for inducing charge, and, two, the improved
insulation of all parts of the machine (but more especially of the generator's carriers). Pidgeon machines
are a combination of a Wimshurst Machine and Voss Machine, with special features adapted to reduce the
amount of charge leakage. Pidgeon machines excite themselves more readily than the best of these types
of machines. In addition, Pidgeon investigated higher current "triplex" section machines (or "double
machines with a single central disk") with enclosed sectors (and went on to receive British Patent 22517
(1899) for this type of machine).

Multiple disk machines and "triplex" electrostatic machines (generators with three disks) were also
developed extensively around the turn of the 20th century. In 1900, F. Tudsbury discovered that enclosing
a generator in a metallic chamber containing compressed air, or better, carbon dioxide, the insulating
properties of compressed gases enabled a greatly improved effect to be obtained owing to the increase in
the breakdown voltage of the compressed gas, and reduction of the leakage across the plates and
insulating supports. In 1903, Alfred Wehrsen patented an ebonite rotating disk possessing embedded
sectors with button contacts at the disk surface. In 1907, Heinrich Wommelsdorf reported a variation of
the Holtz machine using this disk and inductors embedded in celluloid plates (DE154175; "Wehrsen
machine"). Wommelsdorf also developed several high-performance electrostatic generators, of which the
best known were his "Condenser machines" (1920). These were single disk machines, using disks with
embedded sectors that were accessed at the edges.

Van de Graaff
The Van de Graaff generator was invented by American physicist Robert J. Van de Graaff in 1929 at MIT
as a particle accelerator.[12] The first model was demonstrated in October 1929. In the Van de Graaff
machine, an insulating belt transports electric charge to the interior of an insulated hollow metal high
voltage terminal, where it is transferred to the terminal by a "comb" of metal points. The advantage of the
design was that since there was no electric field in the interior of the terminal, the charge on the belt
could continue to be discharged onto the terminal regardless of how high the voltage on the terminal was.
Thus the only limit to the voltage on the machine is ionization of the air next to the terminal. This occurs
when the electric field at the terminal exceeds the dielectric strength of air, about 30 kV per centimeter.
Since the highest electric field is produced at sharp points and edges, the terminal is made in the form of a
smooth hollow sphere; the larger the diameter the higher the voltage attained. The first machine used a
silk ribbon bought at a five and dime store as the charge transport belt. In 1931 a version able to produce
1,000,000 volts was described in a patent disclosure.

The Van de Graaff generator was a successful particle accelerator, producing the highest energies until the
late 1930s when the cyclotron superseded it. The voltage on open air Van de Graaff machines is limited to
a few million volts by air breakdown. Higher voltages, up to about 25 megavolts, were achieved by
enclosing the generator inside a tank of pressurized insulating gas. This type of Van de Graaff particle
accelerator is still used in medicine and research. Other variations were also invented for physics
research, such as the Pelletron, that uses a chain with alternating insulating and conducting links for
charge transport.

Small Van de Graaff generators are commonly used in science museums and science education to
demonstrate the principles of static electricity. A popular demonstration is to have a person touch the high
voltage terminal while standing on an insulated support; the high voltage charges the person's hair,
causing the strands to stand out from the head.

Others
Not all electrostatic generators use the triboelectric effect or electrostatic induction. Electric charges can
be generated by electric currents directly. Examples are ionizers and ESD guns.

Applications

Gridded ion thruster

EWICON
An electrostatic vaneless ion wind generator, the EWICON, has been developed by The School of
Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science at Delft University of Technology (TU
Delft). Its stands near Mecanoo, an architecture firm. The main developers were Johan Smit and Dhiradj
Djairam. Other than the wind, it has no moving parts. It is powered by the wind carrying away charged
particles from its collector.[13] The design suffers from poor efficiency.[14]

Dutch Windwheel
The technology developed for EWICON has been reused in the Dutch Windwheel.[15][16]

Air ioniser

Fringe science and devices

These generators have been used, sometimes inappropriately and with some controversy, to support
various fringe science investigations. In 1911, George Samuel Piggott received a patent for a compact
double machine enclosed within a pressurized box for his experiments concerning radiotelegraphy and
"antigravity". Much later (in the 1960s), a machine known as "Testatika" was built by German engineer,
Paul Suisse Bauman, and promoted by a Swiss community, the Methernithans. Testatika is an
electromagnetic generator based on the 1898 Pidgeon electrostatic machine, said to produce "free energy"
available directly from the environment.

See also
Electrostatic motor
Electrometer (also known as the "electroscope")
Electret
Static electricity

References
1. See:
 Heathcote, N. H. de V. (1950) "Guericke's sulphur globe", Annals of Science, 6 : 293–
305. doi:10.1080/00033795000201981
Zeitler, Jürgen (2011) "Guerickes Weltkräfte und die Schwefelkugel", Monumenta
Guerickiana 20/21 : 147–156.
Schiffer, Michael Brian (2003). Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and
Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment (https://archive.org/details/drawlightni
ngdow00mich). Univ. of California Press. pp. 18 (https://archive.org/details/drawlightning
dow00mich/page/18)-19. ISBN 0-520-24829-5.
2. Optics, 8th Query
3. Hauksbee, Francis (1709). Psicho-Mechanical Experiments On Various Subjects. R. Brugis.
4. Pumfrey, Stephen (May 2009). "Hauksbee, Francis (bap. 1660, d. 1713)" (http://www.oxford
dnb.com/view/article/12618). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford
University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/12618 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F1
2618). Retrieved 2011-12-11. (Subscription or UK public library membership (https://www.oxfor
ddnb.com/help/subscribe#public) required.)
5. Consult Dr. Carpue's 'Introduction to Electricity and Galvanism' (https://archive.org/details/b2
2042684), London 1803.
6. Maver, William Jr.: "Electricity, its History and Progress", The Encyclopedia Americana; a
library of universal knowledge, vol. X, pp. 172ff. (1918). New York: Encyclopedia Americana
Corp.
7. Ronalds, B.F. (2016). Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph. London:
Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-78326-917-4.
8. Ronalds, B.F. (2016). "Sir Francis Ronalds and the Electric Telegraph". International Journal
for the History of Engineering & Technology. 86: 42–55.
doi:10.1080/17581206.2015.1119481 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17581206.2015.111948
1). S2CID 113256632 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:113256632).
9. De Queiroz, A. C (2014). "Operation of the Wimshurst Machine" (http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~ac
mq/whyhow.html).
MIT (2010). "MIT Physics Demo – The Wimshurst Machine" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20130320163625/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zilvl9tS0Og&gl=US&hl=en).
YouTube. Archived from the original (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zilvl9tS0Og) on
2013-03-20.
Weisstein, E. W (1996–2007). "Wimshurst Machine – from Eric Weisstein's World of
Physics" (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/WimshurstMachine.html).
Von Slatt, J (2012). "Jake's Wimshurst Machine and How to Build It! (Part 1)" (http://stea
mpunkworkshop.com/how-build-wimshurst-influence-machine-part-1/).
10. Bonetti, "Une machine électrostatique, genre Wimshurst, sans secteurs et invisible" [An
electrostatic machine of the Wimshurst type, without visible sectors], French patent no.
232,623 (issued: September 5, 1893). See: Description des machines et procédés pour
lesquels des brevets d'invention ont été pris … (Descriptions of machines and processes for
which patents of invention have been taken … ), 2nd series, vol. 87, part 2 (1893), section:
Instruments de précision: Production et transport de l'électricité, page 87. (http://babel.hathit
rust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924062420827;view=1up;seq=385)
11. See also:
(Anon.) (April 14, 1894) "Machines d'induction électrostatique sans secteurs" (http://ww
w.dbnl.org/arch/_lan015189401_01/pag/_lan015189401_01.pdf#page=305)
(Electrostatic induction machines without sectors), La Nature, 22 (1089) : 305–306.
English translation of La Nature article (above): (Anon.) (May 26, 1894) "Electrostatic
induction machines without sectors," (https://archive.org/stream/scientific-american-1894
-05-26/scientific-american-v70-n21-1894-05-26#page/n4/mode/1up/) Scientific
American, 70 (21) : 325-326.
S. M. Keenan (August 1897) "Sectorless Wimshurst machines," (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=Z9RLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA316) American Electrician, 9 (8) : 316–317
Instructions for building a Bonetti machine (http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/bonetti.html)
G. Pellissier (1891) "Théorie de la machine de Wimshurst" (https://archive.org/stream/jo
urnaldephysiq57physgoog#page/n454/mode/1up) (Theory of Wimshurt's machine),
Journal de Physique théoretique et appliquée, 2nd series, 10 (1) : 414–419. On p. 418,
French lighting engineer Georges Pellissier describes what is essentially a Bonetti
machine: " ... la machine de Wimshurst pourrait, en effet, être construite avec des
plateaux de verre unis et des peignes au lieu de brosses aux extrémités des
conducteurs diamétraux. L'amorçage au départ devrait être fait à l'aide d'une source
étrangère, placée, par example, en face de A1, à l'extérieur." (... Wimshurst's machine
could, in effect, be constructed with plain glass plates and with combs in place of
brushes at the ends of the diametrical conductors. The initial charging could be done
with the aid of an external source placed, for example, opposite and outside of [section]
A1 [of the glass disk].) Pellissier then states that "the role of the metallic sectors of the
Wimshurst machine seems to be primarily, in effect, to facilitate its automatic starting
and to reduce the influence of atmospheric humidity."
12. Van de Graaff, R. J.; Compton, K. T.; Van Atta, L. C. (February 1933). "The Electrostatic
Production of High Voltage for Nuclear Investigations" (http://web.ihep.su/dbserv/compas/sr
c/van%20de%20graaff33/eng.pdf) (PDF). Physical Review. 43 (3). American Physical
Society: 149–157. Bibcode:1933PhRv...43..149V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933Ph
Rv...43..149V). doi:10.1103/PhysRev.43.149 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.43.149).
Retrieved August 31, 2015.
13. landartgenerator (April 13, 2013). "EWICON (Electrostatic Wind Energy Converter)" (http://la
ndartgenerator.org/blagi/archives/2872). landartgenerator.org. Retrieved February 26, 2015.
14. How Long Must We Wait for the Bladeless Windmill? (https://www.citylab.com/life/2013/04/h
ow-long-must-we-wait-bladeless-windmill/5183/)
15. Dutch Windwheel 2.0: Herontwerp zonder windenergie? (http://www.wattisduurzaam.nl/334
9/energie-opwekken/wind/elektrostatische-windmolen-zonder-molen/)
16. Dutch Windwheel (https://dutchwindwheel.com/en/index)

Further reading
Gottlieb Christoph Bohnenberger: Beschreibung unterschiedlicher Elektrizitätsverdoppler
von einer neuen Einrichtung nebst einer Anzahl von Versuchen üb. verschiedene
Gegenstände d. Elektrizitätslehre (https://books.google.com/books?id=-KHBInyVhcIC)
[Description of different electricity-doubler of a new device, along with a number of
experiments on various subjects of electricity] Tübingen 1798.
Holtz, W. (1865). "Ueber eine neue Elektrisirmaschine" (https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id
=umn.31951d00326565g;view=1up;seq=177) [On a new electrical machine]. Annalen der
Physik und Chemie (in German). 202 (9). Wiley: 157–171. Bibcode:1865AnP...202..157H (ht
tps://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1865AnP...202..157H). doi:10.1002/andp.18652020911 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18652020911). ISSN 0003-3804 (https://search.worldcat.org/i
ssn/0003-3804).
Wilhelm Holtz: the higher charge on insulating surfaces by side pull and the transfer of this
principle to the construction of induction machines .. In: Johann Poggendorff, CG Barth
(eds): Annals of physics and chemistry. 130, Leipzig 1867, pp. 128–136
Wilhelm Holtz: The influence machine. In: F. Poske (Eds.): Annals of physics and chemistry.
Julius Springer, Berlin 1904 (seventeenth year, the fourth issue).
O. Lehmann: Dr. J. Frick's physical technique. 2, Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, Braunschweig
1909, p. 797 (Section 2).
F. Poske: New forms of influence machines. In: F. Poske (eds) for the physical and chemical
education. journal Julius Springer, Berlin 1893 (seventh year, second issue).
C. L. Stong, "Electrostatic motors are powered by electric field of the Earth (http://www.meri
dian-int-res.com/Energy/ESMotors.pdf)". October, 1974. (PDF)
Oleg D. Jefimenko, "Electrostatic Motors: Their History, Types, and Principles of Operation".
Electret Scientific, Star City, 1973.
G. W. Francis (author) and Oleg D. Jefimenko (editor), "Electrostatic Experiments: An
Encyclopedia of Early Electrostatic Experiments, Demonstrations, Devices, and Apparatus".
Electret Scientific, Star City, 2005.
V. E. Johnson, "Modern High-Speed Influence Machines; Their principles, construction and
applications to radiography, radio-telegraphy, spark photography, electro-culture, electro-
therapeutics, high-tension gas ignition, and the testing of materials". ISBN B0000EFPCO
Simon, Alfred W. (1 November 1924). "Quantitative Theory of the Influence Electrostatic
Generator" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1085669). Physical Review. 24
(6). American Physical Society (APS): 690–696. Bibcode:1924PhRv...24..690S (https://ui.ad
sabs.harvard.edu/abs/1924PhRv...24..690S). doi:10.1103/physrev.24.690 (https://doi.org/10.
1103%2Fphysrev.24.690). ISSN 0031-899X (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-899X).
PMC 1085669 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1085669). PMID 16576822
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16576822).
J. Clerk Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (2nd ed., Oxford, 1881), vol. i.
p. 294
Joseph David Everett, Electricity (expansion of part iii. of Augustin Privat-Deschanel's
"Natural Philosophy") (London, 1901), ch. iv. p. 20
A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik (Breslau, 1905), vol. iv. pp. 50–58 (contains a large
number of references to original papers)
J. Gray, "Electrical Influence Machines, Their Historical Development and Modern Forms
[with instruction on making them]" (London, I903). (J. A. F.)
Silvanus P. Thompson, The Influence Machine from Nicholson – 1788 to 1888, Journ. Soc.
Tel. Eng., 1888, 17, p. 569
John Munro, The Story Of Electricity (The Project Gutenberg Etext)
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(1971).
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External links
Electrostatic Generator – Interactive Java Tutorial (https://web.archive.org/web/2014012522
2625/http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/electrostaticgenerator/index.html)
National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
Fleming, John Ambrose (1911). "Electrical Machine" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_E
ncyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Electrical_Machine). In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 176–179.
"How it works : Electricity (https://web.archive.org/web/20060910031840/http://www.triquart
z.co.uk/electricity.html)". triquartz.co.uk.

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