Boiling and Condensation

AEAS 301: Heat Transfer

Comparison of Convection Coefficient
Type of Convection h, W/m2K
Free Convection of Gases 2-25
Free Convection of Liquids 10-1000
Forced Convection of Gases 25-250
Forced Convection of Liquids 50-20,000
Boiling and Condensation 2500-100,000
Difference between Evaporation & Boiling?
Boiling Heat Transfer
• Boiling occurs at the solid–liquid interface when a liquid is brought into
contact with a surface maintained at a temperature Ts sufficiently above the
saturation temperature Tsat of the liquid
Boiling Heat Transfer
• The boiling process is characterized by the rapid formation of vapor bubbles
at the solid–liquid interface that detach from the surface when they reach a
certain size and attempt to rise to the free surface of the liquid

• Boiling is a complicated phenomenon because of the large number of

variables involved in the process and the complex fluid motion patterns
caused by the bubble formation and growth.

• As a form of convection heat transfer, the boiling heat flux from a solid
surface to the fluid is expressed from Newton’s law of cooling as
Classification Based on Bulk Fluid Motion
• Boiling is classified as pool boiling or flow boiling

• Boiling is called pool boiling in the absence of bulk fluid flow and
flow boiling (or forced convection boiling) in the presence of it

• In pool boiling, the fluid body is stationary, and any motion of the
fluid is due to natural convection currents and the motion of the
bubbles under the influence of buoyancy

• In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move in a heated pipe or over a

surface by external means such as a pump
Classification Based on Bulk Fluid Motion
Classification Based on Bulk Fluid Temperature
• Pool and flow boiling are further classified as subcooled boiling or saturated
boiling, depending on the bulk liquid temperature

• Boiling is said to be subcooled (or local) when the temperature of the main
body of the liquid is below the saturation temperature Tsat (i.e., the bulk of the
liquid is subcooled) and saturated (or bulk) when the temperature of the
liquid is equal to Tsat (i.e., the bulk of the liquid is saturated).
Classification Based on Bulk Fluid Temperature
Pool Boiling: Boiling Regimes and The Boiling
Curve
• The pioneering work on boiling was done in 1934 by S. Nukiyama, who used
electrically heated nichrome and platinum wires immersed in liquids in his
experiments. Nukiyama noticed that boiling takes different forms, depending
on the value of the excess temperature ∆Texcess.

• Four different boiling regimes are observed: natural convection boiling,

nucleate boiling, transition boiling, and film boiling
Pool Boiling: Boiling Regimes and The Boiling
Curve
Pool Boiling: Boiling Regimes and The Boiling
Curve
Pool Boiling: Boiling Regimes and The Boiling
Curve
• The specific shape of the curve depends on the fluid–heating surface mate-
rial combination and the fluid pressure, but it is practically independent of
the geometry of the heating surface.
Natural Convection Boiling (to pt A)
• No bubble formation on the heating surface

• The fluid motion in this mode of boiling is governed by natural convection

currents, and heat transfer from the heating surface to the fluid is by natural
convection

• Ends at an excess temp of about 5°C

Nucleate Boiling (A to C)
• First bubbles start forming at A of the boiling curve at various preferential
sites on the heating surface

• Point A is referred to as the onset of nucleate boiling (ONB).

• The bubbles form at an increasing rate at an increasing number of nucleation

sites as we move along the boiling curve toward point C

• Ranges from about an excess temp of about 5°C to about 30°C

• Can be separated into two distinct regions: Region A-B and Region B-C
Nucleate Boiling (Region A to B)
• Isolated bubbles are formed at various preferential nucleation sites on the
heated surface.
• But these bubbles are dissipated in the liquid shortly after they separate from
the surface.
• The space vacated by the rising bubbles is filled by the liquid in the vicinity of
the heater surface, and the process is repeated.
• The stirring and agitation caused by the entrainment of the liquid to the
heater surface is primarily responsible for the increased heat transfer
coefficient and heat flux in this region of nucleate boiling.
Nucleate Boiling (Region B to C)
• The heater temperature is further increased, and bubbles form at such great
rates at such a large number of nucleation sites that they form numerous
continuous columns of vapor in the liquid.

• These bubbles move all the way up to the free surface, where they break up
and release their vapor content.

• The large heat fluxes obtainable in this region are caused by the combined
effect of liquid entrainment and evaporation.
Nucleate Boiling (Region B to C)
• At large values of ∆Texcess, the rate of evaporation at the heater surface
reaches such high values that a large fraction of the heater surface is covered
by bubbles, making it difficult for the liquid to reach the heater surface and
wet it.

• Consequently, the heat flux increases at a lower rate with increasing ∆Texcess,
and reaches a maximum at point C. The heat flux at this point is called the
critical (or maximum) heat flux (CHF), 𝑞ሶ max.
Nucleate Boiling (Region B to C)
• Nucleate boiling is the most desirable boiling regime in practice because high
heat transfer rates can be achieved in this regime with relatively small values
of ∆Texcess, typically under 30°C for water
Transition Boiling (C to D)
• As the heater temperature and thus the ∆Texcess is increased past point C, the
heat flux decreases

• This is because a large fraction of the heater surface is covered by a vapor

film, which acts as an insulation due to the low thermal conductivity of the
vapor relative to that of the liquid

• In the transition boiling regime, both nucleate and film boiling partially occur.
Nucleate boiling at point C is completely replaced by film boiling at point D.
Film Boiling (beyond point D)
• In this region the heater surface is completely covered by a continuous stable
vapor film.

• Point D, where the heat flux reaches a minimum, is called the Leidenfrost
point

• The presence of a vapor film between the heater surface and the liquid is
responsible for the low heat transfer rates in the film boiling region.

• The heat transfer rate increases with increasing excess temperature as a

result of heat transfer from the heated surface to the liquid through the vapor
film by radiation, which becomes significant at high temperatures
Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool Boiling
• Nucleate Boiling

• Peak Heat Flux

Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool Boiling
• Minimum Heat Flux

• Film Boiling
Flow Boiling
• In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move by an external source such as a
pump as it undergoes a phase-change process.

• The boiling in this case exhibits the combined effects of convection and pool
boiling.

• The flow boiling is also classified as either external or internal flow boiling
depending on whether the fluid is forced to flow over a heated surface or
inside a heated tube
Condensation Heat Transfer
• Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced below its
saturation temperature Tsat. This is usually done by bringing the vapor into
contact with a solid surface whose temperature Ts is below the saturation
temperature Tsat of the vapor.

• Two distinct forms of condensation are observed: film condensation and

dropwise condensation
Condensation Heat Transfer
• In film condensation, the condensate wets the surface and forms a liquid
film on the surface that slides down under the influence of gravity.

• The thickness of the liquid film increases in the flow direction as more vapor
condenses on the film.

• This is how condensation normally occurs in practice.

• In dropwise condensation, the condensed vapor forms droplets on the

surface instead of a continuous film, and the surface is covered by countless
droplets of varying diameters
Condensation Heat Transfer