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Modulo 1

This document outlines the mathematics training module for Aircraft Maintenance Licence categories A, B1, B2, and B3, focusing on arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. It specifies knowledge levels required for each category and includes objectives for applicants to understand theoretical fundamentals, apply mathematical formulae, and interpret results. The document also provides a detailed table of contents covering various mathematical concepts and their applications.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

274 views447 pages

Modulo 1

Uploaded by

Guilherme Macedo

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Module

Mathematics
Licence Category B1, B2 & B3 / Issue number: 2

1.1: Arithmetic
1.2: Algebra
1.3: Geometry
Licence Category A, B1, B2 and B3

1.1 Arithmetic
Copyright notice Objectives:
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may  The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by fundamentals of the subject.
any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical  The applicant should be able to give a general description of the
recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
Training Support Ltd.  The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in
conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
Knowledge levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft  The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches,
Maintenance Licence drawings and schematics describing the subject.
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the  The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical
allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each manner using detailed procedures.
applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category
B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. LEVEL 3
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:  A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of
the subject.
LEVEL 1  A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of
 A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject. knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.

Objectives: Objectives:
 The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the  The applicant should know the theory of the subject and
subject. interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the  The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the
whole subject, using common words and examples. subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.  The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical
formulae related to the subject.
LEVEL 2  The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
subject.  The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical
 An ability to apply that knowledge. manner using manufacturer’s instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various
sources and measurements and apply corrective action where
appropriate.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Enabling objectives and certification
statement
Certification statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation
(EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and the
associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Part-66 Knowledge Levels

Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Arithmetic 1.1 1 2 2 2
Arithmetical terms and
signs, methods of
multiplication and
division, fractions and
decimals, factors and
multiples, weights,
measures and
conversion factors, ratio
and proportion,
averages and
percentages, areas and
volumes, squares,
cubes, square and cube
roots.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Table of Content
Arithmetic terms and signs ___________________________ 8 Converting volumes _____________________________________ 52
Basic maths terms and signs ______________________________ 8 Converting from one metric unit to another ___________________ 54
Types of numbers _______________________________________ 9 Converting units of mass and capacity ______________________ 54
Geometry terms and signs _______________________________ 10 Converting between metric and imperial units ________________ 54
Algebra terms and signs _________________________________ 11 Conversion factors______________________________________ 55
Worksheet ____________________________________________ 58
Methods of multiplication and division ________________ 12
Multiplication __________________________________________ 12 Ratio and proportion _______________________________ 62
Division ______________________________________________ 14 Ratio ________________________________________________ 62
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 16 Proportion ____________________________________________ 64
Worksheet ____________________________________________ 66
Fractions and decimals _____________________________ 20
Types of fractions ______________________________________ 20 Averages (mean, median, mode and range) ____________ 70
Working with fractions __________________________________ 20 Definitions ____________________________________________ 70
Multiplying fractions ____________________________________ 21 Calculating mean _______________________________________ 70
Dividing fractions ______________________________________ 21 Calculating median _____________________________________ 70
Mixed multiplication and division __________________________ 22 Calculating mode _______________________________________ 71
Adding fractions _______________________________________ 22 Calculating range_______________________________________ 71
Subtracting fractions ____________________________________ 23 Worksheet ____________________________________________ 72
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 24
Percentages ______________________________________ 76
Decimals _____________________________________________ 28
Definition _____________________________________________ 76
Working with decimals __________________________________ 28
Changing a fraction to a percentage ________________________ 76
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 30
Changing a percentage to a fraction ________________________ 76
Convert a decimal to a fraction ____________________________ 34
Changing a percentage to a decimal________________________ 76
Convert a fraction to a decimal____________________________ 34
Changing a decimal to a percentage________________________ 76
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 36
Values of a percentage of a quantity ________________________ 77
Factors and multiples ______________________________ 40 Expressing one quantity as a percentage of another ___________ 77
Factors ______________________________________________ 40 Worksheet ____________________________________________ 78
Multiples _____________________________________________ 40
Areas and volumes ________________________________ 82
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 42
2-dimensional (polygons) ________________________________ 82
Weights, measures and conversions __________________ 46 3-dimensional (solids) ___________________________________ 88
Introduction ___________________________________________ 46 Worksheet ____________________________________________ 92
Measuring length ______________________________________ 46
Squares and cubes ________________________________ 95
Measuring mass _______________________________________ 46
General ______________________________________________ 96
Measuring capacity ____________________________________ 48
Exponent (or ‘indices’) form _______________________________ 96
Converting lengths _____________________________________ 50
Worksheet ____________________________________________ 98
Converting areas ______________________________________ 50

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Square and cube roots ____________________________ 102
Square root __________________________________________ 102
Cube root ___________________________________________ 102
Worksheet __________________________________________ 104

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Symbol Symbol Meaning/definition Example Symbol Symbol Meaning/definition Example

Name Name

= equals sign equality 5=2+3 both minus and plus

∓ minus - plus 3 ∓ 5 = -2 and 8
operations
not equal
≠ inequality 5≠4
sign * asterisk multiplication 2*3=6

strict × times sign multiplication 2×3=6

> greater than 5>4
inequality
multiplicatio
∙ multiplication 2∙3=6
strict n dot
< less than 4<5
inequality
division
÷ division 6÷2=3
greater than or sign/obelus
≥ inequality 5≥4
equal to
division 6
/ division /2=3
≤ inequality less than or equal to 4≤5 slash

parenthese calculate expression horizontal

() 2 × (3 + 5) = 16 – division / fraction
s inside first line

calculate expression [(1 + 2)*(1 + 5)] remainder

[] brackets mod modulo 7 mod 2 = 1
inside first = 18 calculation

+ plus sign addition 1+1=2 decimal point, 2.56 =

. period
decimal separator 2 + 56 / 100
− minus sign subtraction 2−1=1
ab power exponent 23 = 8
both plus and minus
operations or a^b caret exponent 2^3=8
± plus - minus 3 ± 5 = 8 and -2
tolerance on a
dimension √a square root √a · √a = a √9 = ±3

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Symbol Symbol Meaning/definition Example Types of numbers
Name
 Natural numbers: The counting numbers {1, 2, 3, …}, are
3
√a cube root 3 3 3
√a · √a · √a = a 3
√8 = 2 called natural numbers. Some authors include 0, so that the
natural numbers are {0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
4
4 √a · 4√a · 4√a · 4√a 4
√a fourth root √16 = ±2  Whole numbers: The numbers {0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
=a

n-th root  Integers: Positive and negative counting numbers, as well as

n
√a for n = 3, n√8 = 2
(radical) zero: {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}.

% percent 1% = 1/100 10% × 30 = 3  Rational numbers: Numbers that can be expressed as a ratio
of an integer to a non-zero integer. All integers are rational, but
parts-per- 10ppm × 30 = the converse is not true.
ppm 1ppm = 1/1,000,000
million 0.0003
 Real numbers: Numbers that have decimal representations
parts-per- 1 10ppb × 30 = that have a finite or infinite sequence of digits to the right of the
ppb 1ppb = /1,000,000,000
billion 3×10-7 decimal point. They can be positive, negative, or zero. All
rational numbers are real, but the converse is not true.

 Irrational numbers: Real numbers that are not rational.

 Imaginary numbers: Numbers that equal the product of a real

number and the square root of -1. The number 0 is both real
and imaginary.

 Complex numbers: Includes real numbers, imaginary

numbers, and sums and differences of real and imaginary
numbers.

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Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

∠ABC = same shapes, not ∆ABC ~

∠ angle formed by two rays ~ similarity
30º same size ∆XYZ

⦨ABC = ΔABC ≅
⦨ measured angle Δ triangle triangle shape
30° ΔBCD

∟ right angle = 90° α = 90° distance between

| x-y | distance | x-y | = 5
points x and y
° degree 1 full turn = 360° α = 60°
π = 3.141592654...
' arcminute 1° = 60' α = 60°59' is the ratio between c = πd =
π pi constant
the circumference and 2πr
α= diameter of a circle
" arcsecond 1' = 60"
60°59'59''
360º = 2π
line from point A to rad radians radians angle unit
AB line segment rad
point B

⟶ line that start from

ray
AB point A

⌒ arc from point A to ⌒

arc
AB point B AB = 60°

perpendicular lines
⏊ perpendicular AC ⏊ BC
(90° angle)

∥ parallel parallel lines AB ∥ CD

equivalence of
∆ABC ≅
≅ congruent to geometric shapes and
∆XYZ
size

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Symbol Symbol Meaning / Example Symbol Symbol Meaning / Example

Name definition Name definition

unknown value to when 2x = 4, rounds number to

x x variable ⌊x⌋ floor brackets ⌊4.3⌋ = 4
find then x = 2 lower integer

≡ equivalence identical to ceiling rounds number to

⌈x⌉ ⌈4.3⌉ = 5
brackets upper integer
approximately weak
~ 11 ~ 10 exclamation
equal approximation
x! factorial 4! = 1*2*3*4 = 24
mark
approximately
≈ approximation sin(0.01) ≈ 0.01 single vertical
equal
|x| absolute value | -5 | = 5
bar
y ∝ x when y =
∝ proportional to proportional to maps values of x
kx, k constant f (x) function of x f (x) = 3x + 5
to f(x)
∞ lemniscate infinity symbol
change /
much less ∆ delta ∆t = t1 – t0
≪ much less than 1 ≪ 1000000 difference
than
summation - sum
much greater ∑ xi =
≫ much greater than 1000000 ≫ 1 ∑ sigma of all values in
than x1 + x2 + ... + xn
range of series

calculate
() parentheses expression inside 2 * (3 + 5) = 16
first Basic math ESL vocabulary lesson
https://youtu.be/4AOW3B1RKD4
calculate
[(1 + 2)*(1 + 5)] A Math Lesson in Algebra Vocabulary
[] brackets expression inside
= 18 https://youtu.be/4P308Elhuks
first

{} braces set Math Antics - What Is Arithmetic?

https://youtu.be/IwW0GJWKH98

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Methods of multiplication and division
Math Antics - Integer Multiplication & Division Now multiply by 6:
https://youtu.be/K_tPbVPfHgk
158
Multiplication x 67
For both long multiplication and long division, there is an alternative 1106
to the traditional method. You can use whichever you prefer. 9480

Long multiplication Now add your two rows together, and write your answer.
There are two main methods for long multiplication:
158
 ‘traditional’ method x 67
 boxes method 1106
9480
Traditional method 10586
This is where we multiply by the units and the tens separately, then
add the two rows together. So the answer is 10586.
To calculate 158 × 67: Math Antics - Multi-Digit Multiplication Pt 1
https://youtu.be/FJ5qLWP3Fqo
First, multiply by 7 (units):
Math Antics - Multi-Digit Multiplication Pt 2
158 https://youtu.be/RVYwunbpMHA
x 67
1106

Then add a zero on the right-hand side of the next row. This is
because we want to multiply by 60 (6 tens), which is the same as
multiplying by 10 and by 6.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Boxes method
This is where we split each number into its parts.

To calculate 158 × 67:

158 is 100, 50 and 8.

67 is 60 and 7.

We arrange these in a rectangle and multiply each part by the

others. You need to be able to understand multiplying with powers
of 10 to know how many zeros to put on the end.

We have worked out 100 × 60, 100 × 7, 50 × 60, 50 ×7, 8 × 60 and

8 × 7.

When this has all been done, you have to write out all the answers
and add them together:

6000
3000
480
700
350
+ 56
10586

So the answer is 10,586.

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Math Antics - Basic Division We now bring down the next digit (8) and write it on the end of
https://youtu.be/KGMf314LUc0 the 23.

Long division
As with long multiplication, you do not have to use the traditional
method here. The two methods are:

 Traditional method
 Repeated subtraction (chunking) We now work out 238 divided by 51, and write the answer (4)
above the 8. You use estimation skills here: 51 is roughly 50 and
Traditional method 4 × 50 = 200. You can work out 51 × 4 = 204 separately.
This is a similar method to ‘short’ division, but, rather than writing
the remainder at the top each time, we work it out underneath. We write 204 underneath the 238 and subtract to find the
remainder. There are no more digits to bring down, so we have our
To calculate 748 divided by 51, answer:

First, set the sum out as shown:

We work out 74 divided by 51, and write the answer (1) above
the 4.

1 × 51 = 51, so we write this underneath 74. So the answer is 14 remainder 34.

Subtract 51 from 74 to get the remainder (23). Math Antics - Long Division
https://youtu.be/LGqBQrUYua4

Math Antics - Long Division with 2-Digit Divisors

https://youtu.be/HdU_rf7eMTI

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Repeated subtraction
In this method, to calculate 748 divided by 51, we keep subtracting
multiples of 51 until we cannot take any more away. We keep a
note of how many lots of 51 we have taken away. This gives us our
final answer.

To make life easier, we can begin by working out two easy sums.
These should both be easy enough to do in your head:

10 × 51 = 510

2 × 51 = 102

We have 748, so we are able to subtract 510 from this. Notice that
we write 10 × 51 on the side.

748
– 510
10 x 51 238

We are left with 238, so we cannot subtract 510 again. But we can
subtract 102. Notice we write 2 x 51 on the side.

238
– 102
2 x 51 136

This leaves us with 136, so we can subtract another 102, writing 2 ×

51 on the side:

136
– 102
2 x 51 34

This leaves 34. We cannot subtract any more lots of 51, so we have
reached the end. The numbers we wrote at the side were 10, 2 and
2. Add these together to get 14. So our answer is: 14 remainder 34.

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1. Use long multiplication to calculate the following: 2. Use long division to calculate the following:

a) 47 × 39 a) 325 ÷ 25
b) 88 × 56 b) 525 ÷ 15
c) 69 × 96 c) 984 ÷ 24
d) 123 × 79 d) 833 ÷ 17
e) 871 × 48 e) 968 ÷ 22
f) 473 × 84 f) 666 ÷ 18
g) 156 × 247 g) 309 ÷ 3
h) 283 × 249 h) 2,505 ÷ 5
i) 471 × 395 i) 8,064 ÷ 16
j) 621 × 578

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1. a) 1,833 2. a) 13

b) 4,928 a) 35

c) 6,624 b) 41

d) 9,717 c) 49

e) 41,808 d) 44

f) 39,732 e) 37

g) 38,532 f) 103

h) 70,467 g) 501

i) 186,045 h) 504

j) 358,938

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Fractions and decimals
Types of fractions Math Antics - Fractions Are Parts
For all fractions, the number above the bar is called the numerator https://youtu.be/CA9XLJpQp3c
and the number below the bar is called the denominator.
Math Antics - Types of Fractions
Simplest form. The simplest form of is https://youtu.be/17IgK9b6P2M

Fractions can be expressed in simplest form by dividing numerator Math Antics - Fractions Are Division
and denominator by equal numbers until they will not divide further. https://youtu.be/3xwDryouw6o

For example: Math Antics - Comparing Fractions

https://youtu.be/KNdUJQ_qd4U

Working with fractions

 Proper fractions - Proper fractions may be defined as

fractions less than 1. For example:  Cancelling - The process of dividing numerator and
denominator by equal values is called cancelling. For
example:

 Improper fractions - These are fractions which are greater

than 1. Also known as ‘vulgar’ fractions. For example:
Cancelling improper fractions involves exactly the same
process as cancelling vulgar fractions. For example:

 Mixed numbers - These include whole numbers and vulgar

fractions. For example:
 Converting - To convert mixed numbers to improper
fractions, multiply the whole number by the denominator and
add to the numerator. For example:

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
To convert improper fractions to mixed numbers, divide the Dividing fractions
numerator by the denominator to give a whole number - the
remainder gives a new numerator. For example:  Convert all mixed numbers to improper fractions.
 Invert the fraction you are dividing by (i.e. convert to its
‘reciprocal’).
 Proceed as for multiplication.
Math Antics - Simplifying Fractions Examples:
https://youtu.be/AtBUQH8Tkqc

Multiplying fractions

 Express all mixed numbers as improper fractions.

 Cancel vertically if possible.
 Cancel across the multiplication sign if possible.
 Multiply numerators together, multiply denominators
together.
 If the result is an improper fraction, convert to a mixed
number.
 Check that your answer is in the simplest form.

Examples:
Math Antics - Dividing Fractions
https://youtu.be/4lkq3DgvmJo

Math Antics - Multiplying Fractions

https://youtu.be/qmfXyR7Z6Lk

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 Invert all the fractions preceded by a division sign.

 Treat the calculations as multiplication only.

Example:

Note: If your addition of fractions results in an improper fraction,

Adding fractions you must convert this to a mixed number.

 Express all fractions as mixed numbers in lowest terms. Math Antics - Adding and Subtracting Fractions
 Add the whole numbers together. https://youtu.be/5juto2ze8Lg
 To add the vulgar fractions, you must convert each fraction
so that their denominators are all the same. This is done by
finding the lowest common multiple (LCM) of the
denominators.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Subtracting fractions
The same basic procedure should be used for subtraction as for Mixed addition and subtraction can be carried out exactly as above.
addition.
Examples:
Examples:

Remember that your final step in any calculation must be to simplify

(cancel fractions).

Example:

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1. Convert the following mixed numbers to improper fractions: 7. Subtract the following:

2. Convert the following improper fractions to mixed numbers:

8. Evaluate the following:

3. Multiply and simplify the following:

4. Divide and simplify the following:

5. Evaluate the following:

6. Add the following fractions and mixed numbers:

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Decimals
Decimals are a very important and particular set of fractions. They Math Antics - Fractions and Decimals
are fractions whose denominators are powers of 10, i.e. 10, 100, https://youtu.be/Mst8iZjIpFE
1000, 10000 etc. Decimals are not written in the usual fraction form,
but in shorthand using a decimal point. Working with decimals
The number of digits after the decimal point is called decimal
Examples: places.

Examples:

 27.6 has one decimal place

 27.16 has two decimal places

 27.026 has three decimal places

 101.2032 has four decimal places

In addition of decimals, particular care must be taken to ensure

that decimal points are in line.

Example:

If you have difficulty in relating decimals to fractions, the following

table may help.

Similarly, in subtraction, ensure that decimal points are in line.

Example:

The number in the table is 5346.792; it consists of 5 thousands,

3 hundreds, 4 tens, 6 units, 7 tenths, 9 hundredths and
2 thousandths.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
When multiplying decimals, ignore the decimal point until the final In division, it is easier to divide by a whole number than by a
answer is obtained, then count the number of decimal places in decimal. To make the divisor (the number you are dividing by) into a
both the numbers being multiplied. This is the number of decimal whole number, move the decimal point a specific number of places
places in the answer. to the right. You must then also move the decimal point in the
dividend (the number you are dividing into) to the right by the same
Example: number of decimal places.

Example:

Note: It does not matter which you multiply first (i.e. the 9, the 3 or
the 1) providing ‘00’ is placed before the answer when
multiplying out the 100’s (in this case the 9) and ‘0’ is placed
before the answer when multiplying out the 10’s (in this case
the 3). So the above calculation could have looked like this:

Math Antics - Decimal Arithmetic

https://youtu.be/kwh4SD1ToFc

The answer is the same

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1. Calculate the sum of the following:

2. Evaluate:

3. Find the product of:

4. Calculate:

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Convert a decimal to a fraction Convert a fraction to a decimal
Write the number over the appropriate power of 10 and, if possible, Divide the numerator by the denominator.
cancel to lowest terms.
Examples:
Examples:






Math Antics - Converting Base-10 Fractions

https://youtu.be/_jcW-ZgpRbM

Math Antics - Convert any Fraction to a Decimal

https://youtu.be/do_IbHId2Os

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1. Convert the following decimals to proper fractions in their

simplest form:

2. Convert the following decimals to proper fractions in their

simplest form:

3. Place in ascending order of magnitude:

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Factors and multiples
Factors are numbers that divide exactly into another number, whilst Multiples
you can think of multiples as extended times tables. Multiples are what we get after multiplying the number by an integer
(not a fraction).
Factors
Factors are what we can multiply to get the number. Multiples are really just extended times tables.

Factors are numbers that divide exactly into another number.  The multiples of 2 are all the numbers in the 2 times table:

The factors of 12, for example, are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and so on.

Factors can be shown in pairs. The factors of 12 can be shown: Multiples of 2 always end with a 2, 4, 6, 8 or 0. You can tell
2286, for example, is a multiple of 2 because it ends with
 1 and 12; 1 x 12 = 12 a 6.

 2 and 6; 2 x 6 = 12  The multiples of 5 are all the numbers in the 5 times table:

 3 and 4; 3 x 4 = 12 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and so on.

Each pair multiplies to make 12. Multiples of 5 always end with a 5 or a 0. You can tell 465,
for example, is a multiple of 5 because it ends with a 5.
Math Antics – Factoring
https://youtu.be/0NvLtTwnUHs  The multiples of 10 are all the numbers in the 10 times table:
The greatest common factor (GCF) is the largest of the common 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and so on.
factors of 2 or more numbers (where there are more than one
common factors). Multiples of 10 always end with a 0. You can tell 3780, for
example, is a multiple of 10 because it ends with a 0.
Other names for greatest common factor are ‘greatest common
divisor (GCD)’, ‘highest common factor (HCF)’ and ‘largest common The least common multiple (LCM) is the smallest of common
factor (LCF)’. multiples. This is sometimes known as lowest common multiple
(LCM).

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Worksheet

1. What is the greatest common factor of the following? 2. What is the least common multiple of the following?

a) 6 and 15 a) 6 and 8
b) 45 and 105 b) 9 and 12
c) 24 and 40 c) 6, 8 and 9
d) 27 and 126 d) 8, 12 and 15
e) 81 and 180 e) 4, 6 and 7
f) 60 and 225 f) 12, 15 and 18
g) 126 and 196 g) 9, 12 and 24
h) 180, 225 and 270 h) 16, 24 and 30
i) 72 and 252 i) 6, 9, 10 and 15
j) 196 and 462 j) 8, 9, 12 and 16

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1. a) 3 2. a) 24

b) 15 b) 36

c) 8 c) 72

d) 9 d) 120

e) 9 e) 48

f) 15 f) 180

g) 14 g) 72

h) 45 h) 240

i) 36 i) 90

j) 14 j) 144

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Weights, measures and conversions
Introduction Imperial measurements
There are different units of measurement for length, mass and Miles, feet and inches are old units of length. These are known as
capacity. These units can be measured in metric or imperial. ‘imperial units’ of length but are not now commonly used in maths
except in the USA.
In this section we will study:
 There are 12 inches in a foot.
 Measuring length  An inch is roughly equal to 2.5 centimetres.
 Measuring mass  A foot is roughly equal to 30 centimetres.
 Measuring capacity  A mile is roughly equal to 1.5 kilometres.
 Reading measurement scales
Measuring mass
Measuring length Mass is a measure of how heavy something is. Scales can be used
Length is a measure of how long or wide something is. Rulers and to measure mass.
tape measures can be used to measure length.
Metric units of mass
Metric measurements Mass is measured in grams (g), kilograms (kg) and tonnes. These
Length is measured in millimetres (mm), centimetres (cm), are known as metric units of mass.
metres (m) or kilometres (km). These are known as metric units of
length.  1 kg = 1000 g
 1 tonne = 1000 kg
Note: In the USA, ‘metre’ is spelled ‘meter’. This applies to all
denominations such as ‘centimeter’, ‘kilometer’, etc. Remember when estimating mass:

 1 cm = 10 mm  100 g is about the mass of a small apple.

 1 m = 100 cm  1 kg is the mass of a bag of sugar or a litre of water.
 1 km = 1000 m
Imperial units of mass
Remember the following to help you estimate lengths: Ounces and pounds are old units of mass. These are known as
imperial units but are not now commonly used in maths.
 1 cm is about the width of a staple.
 1 m is about the width of a single bed.  There are 16 ounces in a pound.
 An ounce is roughly equal to 25 grams.
 A pound (454 g) is equal to just under half a kilogram
(500 g).

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A rule indicating ‘mm’ and ‘inches’

Weighing scales indicating ‘lb’ and ‘kg’

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Measuring capacity
Capacity or volume is a measure of how much space something
takes up. Measuring spoons or measuring jugs can be used to
measure capacity.

Metric units of capacity

Capacity is measured in millilitres (ml) and litres (l or L).

 1l = 1000 ml

Use these tips to estimate capacity:

 5 ml is about the capacity of a teaspoon.

 1l is about the capacity of a large carton of fruit juice.

Imperial units of capacity

Pints and gallons are imperial units of capacity.

 There are 8 pints in a gallon.

 A pint is equal to just over half a litre.
 A gallon is roughly equal to 4.5 litres

Weights and Measures Part I

https://youtu.be/2qX8bwkfvlc

Weights and Measures Part II

https://youtu.be/d1heafV1UvY

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Measuring jug indicating ‘litres’, ‘pints’ and ‘fluid ounces (oz)’

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Conversions
Converting lengths Converting areas
To convert length from one unit to another: multiply by the correct To convert area, simply remember that area is length by width:
number.

Follow these steps:

1. Find the correct conversion number (see Conversion Charts) So, you need to convert once for the length and once again for the
2. Multiply by that number width. Just do the length conversion twice. This is known as
‘mensuration’.
Example 1:
Convert 3 feet into metres. Example 3:
Convert 1 square yard into square feet.
When we put a 1-meter ruler next to a 1-foot ruler, they look like as
shown below. We know that three feet make a yard:

Look closely and we see that the 1-foot ruler comes to exactly 1 yd = 3 ft
0.3048 on the meter ruler.
And so the Area conversion must be to multiply by 3, and multiply
So, the conversion for feet to metres is: by 3 again.

1 ft = 0.3048 metres. Result is 3 × 3 = 9.

To convert feet to metres, multiply by 0.3048. There are 9 square feet in a square yard.

Example 2: Example 4:
Convert 5 kilometres into miles. Convert 30 square feet into square metres (30 ft2 to m2).

The conversion for kilometres into miles is: The conversion for feet to metres is:

1 km = 0.6214 mile (to 4 digits of accuracy) 1 ft = 0.3048 m

So, the length conversion is “multiply by 0.6214”: And so the Area conversion must be to multiply by 0.3048 and
multiply by 0.3048 again:
5 × 0.6214 = 3.107.
30 × 0.3048 × 0.3048 = 2.79.
So: 5 km = 3.107 miles (to 3 decimal places)
So, 30 ft2 = 2.79 m2
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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Example 1

Example 3
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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Converting volumes
Volume is length by width by height Example 6:
Convert 30 cubic feet into cubic metres (30 ft3 to m3)
To convert volume, remember that volume is length by width by
height: The conversion for feet to metres is:

1 ft = 0.3048 m

So, the length conversion is to multiply by 0.3048.

So, you need to convert once for the length and once again for the
width and once more for the height. And the volume conversion must be to multiply by 0.3048, and
multiply by 0.3048 and multiply by 0.3048 again:
Just do the length conversion three times. This is known as
‘mensuration’. 30 × 0.3048 × 0.3048 × 0.3048 = 0.85
Example 5: So, 30 ft3 = 0.85 m3
Convert 1 cubic yard (yd3) into cubic feet (ft3).
Unit Conversions with Area and Volume
Now, we know that three feet make a yard: https://youtu.be/aFAk8JA4-d8
1 yd = 3 ft

So, the Length conversion is “multiply by 3”.

And so the volume conversion must be to multiply by 3 and multiply

by 3 again and then multiply by 3 once again (i.e. once each for
length, width and height)

The result is:

3 × 3 × 3 = 27 ft3

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Example 5

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Converting from one metric unit to another
Perhaps the most common metric conversions are between mm, Some of the common conversions between metric and imperial
cm, m and km. units are shown below

 1 cm = 10 mm  1 km = 5/8 mile
 1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm  1 m = 39.37 inches
 1 km = 1000 m = 100,000 cm = 1,000,000 mm  1 foot = 30.5 cm
 1 inch = 2.54 cm
 ‘kilo’ means 1000, so 1 km = 1000 m  1 kg = 2.2 lb
 ‘centi’ means 1/100, so 1 cm = 1/100 m  1 gallon = 4.5 litres
 ‘milli’ means 1/1000, so 1 mm = 1/1000 m  1 litre = 1¾ pints

Converting units of mass and capacity It is easy to get confused over whether to multiply or divide, so here
Once you are confident with conversions between mm, cm, m and is a way to check your answers:
km, converting units of mass and capacity is easier.
After doing the conversion, always think about whether your answer
Example 1: should be bigger or smaller than the original number.

 1 km = 1000 m, so 1 kg = 1000 g Example 2:

 1 m = 100 cm, so 1 l (litre) = 100 cl (centilitres) A cup has a circumference of 10 inches. What is it in cm?
 1 m = 1000 mm, so 1 g = 1000 mg (milligrams)
We know that
Converting between metric and imperial units
Here are some examples of metric and imperial measures of length, 1 inch = 2.54 cm.
mass and capacity:
We are converting from inches to cm, so we multiply by 2.54
Metric Imperial 10 × 2.54 = 25.4 cm.

Length mm, cm, m, km inch, foot, yard, mile In the above question, which involves converting inches into cms,
we know that cms are smaller than inches, so you should end up
Mass mg, g, kg ounce (oz), pound (lb), stone with a bigger number than the one you started with. You therefore
need to multiply.
Capacity ml, cl, l pint, gallon

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Length Volume

Area

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Understanding Conversion Factors

https://youtu.be/HZ9weUkSdoY

Converting Units with Conversion Factors

https://youtu.be/7N0lRJLwpPI

Converting Metric Units of Volume

https://youtu.be/Ynp6rG45RZA

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1. Convert the following lengths: 6. The surface area of a snooker table is 10,368 square inches.
Use the conversion chart to convert the area to square
a) 5 feet into metres centimetres, correct to the nearest cm2.
b) 8 kilometres into miles
c) 12 centimetres into inches 7. Convert the following volumes:
d) 7 nautical miles into kilometres
e) 800 centimetres to yards a) 70 cubic feet into cubic metres
f) 440 yards to metres b) 260 litres into US pints
g) 8½ inches to centimetres c) 600 cubic centimetres into cubic inches
h) 20 km to nautical miles d) 35 US fluid ounces into litres
e) 45 cubic metres to cubic yards.
2. Mount Everest is 5½ miles high. f) 30 US gallons to UK gallons
g) ¼ cubic inch to cubic centimetres
Use the conversion chart to convert the height of Mount h) 5 litres to Imperial pints
Everest to metres correct to the nearest metre.
8. The volume of an Olympic-sized swimming pool is 88,000 ft3.
3. The distance of the Marathon race is 42.1955 kilometres. Use the conversion chart to convert the volume to litres.
Use the conversion chart to convert the distance to yards
correct to the nearest yard. 9. One barrel of oil holds 159 litres. Use the conversion chart to
convert the volume to cubic feet correct to the nearest 0.01 ft3
4. Convert the following areas:

a) 50 square feet into square metres

b) 18 square centimetres into square inches
c) 9 square miles into square kilometres
d) 20 square metres to square yards
e) 0.2 acre to square metres
f) 720 square inches to square metres
g) 5 square kilometres to acres

5. The area of a Football field is 5,351 square metres.

Use the conversion chart to convert the area to acres correct
to the nearest 0.01 acre.

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1. a) 1.524 m 5. 1.32 acres

b) 5 miles 6. 66,890 cm2

c) 4.7244 inches 7. a) 1.9824 m3

d) 7 nautical miles into kilometres b) 549.38 pints

e) 12.971 km c) 36.6 in3

f) 8.7488 yards d) 1.03509 litres

g) 402.336 m e) 58.86 yd3

h) 21.59 cm f) 24.981 UK gallons

i) 10.793 nautical miles g) 4.09675 cm3

2. 8,851 m (to nearest metre) h) 8.799 Imperial pints

3. 46,145 yards 8. 2,492,160 litres

4. a) 4.645 m2 9. 5.61 ft3

b) 2.79 in2

c) 23.31 km2

d) 23.92 yd2

e) 809.38 m2

f) 0.4645 m2

g) 1,235.5 acres

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Ratio and proportion
Ratio Example 4:
A ratio compares values. An epoxy resin and hardener mix for a composite structure repair
uses 3 parts of resin and 2 parts of hardener.
A ratio says how much of one thing there is compared to another
thing. So the ratio of resin to hardener is 3:2

Example 1: To mix the resin and hardener for a large repair we might need 4
The figur below (left) shows 3 blue squares to 1 yellow square times the quantity, so we multiply the numbers by 4:

Ratios can be shown in different ways: 3×4 : 2×4 = 12:8

 3:1 In other words, 12 parts resin and 8 parts hardener.

 3 to 1
 3
/1 The ratio is still the same, so the finished repair should be just as
strong.
A ratio can be scaled up:
“Part-to-part” and “part-to-whole” ratios
Example 2: The examples so far have been “part-to-part” (comparing one part
The figure below (left) shows the ratio is also 3 blue squares to 1 to another part).
yellow square, even though there are more squares.
But a ratio can also show a part compared to the whole lot.
The trick with ratios is to always multiply or divide the numbers by
the same value. Part-to-part:
 The ratio of boys to girls is 2:3 or 2/3
Example 3:
4:5 is the same as 4×2:5×2 = 8:10  The ratio of girls to boys is 3:2 or 3/2

4 : 5 Part-to-whole:
↓ : ↓  The ratio of boys to all pupils is 2:5 or 2/5
x2 : x2
↓ : ↓  The ratio of girls to all pupils is 3:5 or 3/5
8 : 10
Math Antics - Ratios And Rates
https://youtu.be/RQ2nYUBVvqI

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Epoxy hardener and resin

Example 2

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Proportion Using proportions to solve percentages
Proportion says that two ratios (or fractions) are equal. A percentage is actually a ratio! Saying “25%” is actually saying
“25 per 100”:
Example 1:
So 1-out-of-3 is equal to 2-out-of-6

The ratios are the same, so they are in proportion.

We can use proportions to solve questions involving percentages.
Example 2:
A ropes’ length and weight are in proportion. First, put what we know into this form:

 When 20m of rope weighs 1kg, then:

 40m of that rope weighs 2kg
 200m of that rope weighs 10kg
Example 3:
 etc. What is 25% of 160?
So: The percentage is 25, the whole is 160, and we want to find the
“part”:

Sizes
When shapes are “in proportion” their relative sizes are the same.
Math Antics - Proportions
https://youtu.be/USmit5zUGas
Here we see that the ratios of head length to body length are the
same in both drawings.

So they are proportional.

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When shapes are “in proportion” their

relative sizes are the same.

Example 2

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1. What fraction of the squares are red? 4. The ratio of black cars to coloured cars in the car park is 3:7.

What fraction of the cars in the car park are black?

5. A coin is tossed several times and the ratio of heads to tails

is 24:26.

What fraction of the tosses are tails?

2. What is the ratio of yellow triangles to all triangles? 6. Maggie and her little sister Minnie are in proportion.

What is Minnie's height?

3. What fraction of the apples are orange?

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
7. The two glasses are in proportion. 9. The two triangles are in proportion - they are similar triangles.

What is the width of the larger glass? What is the value of b?

10. The two trapezoids are in proportion - they are similar.

What is the value of x?

8. The two guitars are in proportion.

What is the length of the fretboard of the larger guitar?

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6. 24 cm

7. 3 inches

8. 40 cm

9. 2.25

10. 3.2

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Averages (mean, median, mode and range)
Definitions Calculating median
The mean, median and mode of a set of numbers are three types of To find the median, you need to put the values in order, then find
“average” of the set. However, the “mean” is the term most the middle value. If there are two values in the middle, then you find
commonly taken as the average. the mean of these two values.

Mean: The sum of a set of data divided by the number of data Example 1: Find the median of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8

Median: The middle value or the mean of the middle two values, The numbers in order: 2, 2, 3, (5), 5, 7, 8
when the data is arranged in numerical order.
The middle value is marked in brackets, and it is 5.
Mode: The value (number) that appears the most. It is
possible to have more than one mode, and it is So the median is 5.
possible to have no mode.
Example 2: Find the median of 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7
Calculating mean
To find the mean, you need to add up all the data, and then divide The numbers in order: 2, 3, (3, 4), 6, 7
this total by the number of values in the data.
This time there are two values in the middle. They have been put in
Example 1: Find the mean of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8 brackets. The median is found by calculating the mean of these two
values: (3 + 4) ÷ 2 = 3.5
Adding the numbers up gives: 2 + 2 + 3 + 5 + 5 + 7 + 8 = 32
So the median is 3.5.
There are 7 values, so you divide the total by 7: 32 ÷ 7 = 4.57…

So the mean is 4.57 (2 decimal places)

Example 2: Find the mean of: 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7

Adding the numbers up gives: 2 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 7 = 25

There are 6 values, so you divide the total by 6: 25 ÷ 6 = 4.33…

So the mean is 4.33 (2 decimal places).

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Calculating mode Calculating range
The mode is the value which appears the most often in the data. It To find the range, you first need to find the lowest and highest
is possible to have more than one mode if there is more than one values in the data. The range is found by subtracting the lowest
value which appears the most. value from the highest value.

Example 1: Find the mode of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8 Example 1: Find the range of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8

The data values: 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8 The data values: 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8

The values which appear most often are 2 and 5. They both appear The lowest value is 2 and the highest value is 8. Subtracting the
more time than any of the other data values. lowest from the highest gives: 8 – 2 = 6

So the modes are 2 and 5. So the range is 6

Example 2: Find the mode of 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7 Example 2: Find the range of 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7

The data values: 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7 The data values: 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7

This time there is only one value which appears most often - the The lowest value is 2 and the highest value is 7. Subtracting the
number 3. It appears more times than any of the other data values. lowest from the highest gives: 7 – 2 = 5

So the mode is 3. So the range is 5.

What Is Mean, Median & Mode in Mathematics? : Math Tutoring

https://youtu.be/onSebaCChTg

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1. A data set contains these 12 values:

3, 5, 9, 4, 5, 11, 10, 5, 7, 7, 8, 10

a) What is the mean?

b) What is the median?

c) What is the mode?

d) What is the range?

2. Calculate the mean, median, mode and range for each set of
data below:

a) 3, 6, 3, 7, 4, 3, 9

b) 11, 10, 12, 12, 9, 10, 14, 12, 9

c) 2, 9, 7, 3, 5, 5, 6, 5, 4, 9

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Percentages
Definition Changing a percentage to a decimal
A percentage is a fraction whose denominator is 100. To convert a percentage to a decimal firstly, convert the percentage
to a fraction, then convert the fraction to a decimal.
Example:
Examples:

Changing a fraction to a percentage

To change a fraction to a percentage, multiply by 100%.

Example:

Changing a decimal to a percentage

To convert a decimal to a percentage, firstly, convert the decimal to
Changing a percentage to a fraction a fraction, then convert the fraction to a percentage.
To change a percentage to a fraction, divide by 100%.
Examples:
Examples:

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Values of a percentage of a quantity
To find the value of a percentage of a quantity, express the Math Antics - What Are Percentages?
percentage as a fraction and multiply by the quantity. https://youtu.be/JeVSmq1Nrpw

Examples: Math Antics - Percents And Equivalent Fractions

https://youtu.be/kmVfZ9o-2gg

Math Antics - Finding A Percent Of A Number

https://youtu.be/rR95Cbcjzus

Math Antics - What Percent Is It?

https://youtu.be/Uf-Rl1e2I4Q

Math Antics - Percents Missing Total

https://youtu.be/HxEQxS0QSwg

Expressing one quantity as a percentage of another

To express one quantity as a percentage of another, make a
fraction of the 2 quantities and multiply by 100.

Examples:

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1. Calculate:

2. Express:

a) 30 as a percentage of 50

b) 24 as a percentage of 16

c) 0.5 as a percentage of 12.5

d) 3.2 as a percentage of 2.4

e) 0.08 as a percentage of 0.72

3. Express as a proper fraction:

4. Express as a percentage:

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Rectangle
The area A of any rectangle is equal to the product of the length l
and the width w.

Formula: A = lw

Square
The area A of any square is equal to the square of the length s of a
side.

Formula: A = s2

Triangle
The area A of any triangle is equal to one-half the product of any
base b and corresponding height h.

Formula: A = ½ bh

Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a four-sided shape with the two opposing sides
parallel to each other.

The area A of any parallelogram is equal to the product of any base

b and the corresponding height h.

Formula: A = bh

Math Antics – Area

https://youtu.be/xCdxURXMdFY

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Square

Triangle

Parallelogram
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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Rhombus Sector area theorem
A rhombus is a parallelogram with all four sides equal length. The The area A of any sector with an arc that has degree measure n
diagonals bisect the interior angles equally and the diagonals and with radius r is equal to the product of the arc’s measure
intersect each other at right angles. divided by 360 multiplied by π times the square of the radius.

The area A of any rhombus is equal to one-half the product of the Formula: A = (n/360) (π r2)
lengths d1 and d2 of its diagonals.
Math Antics – Quadrilaterals
Formula: A = ½ d1d2 https://youtu.be/yiREqzDsMP8
or

Formula: A = bh as in the parallelogram

Trapezium
A trapezium has only two sides parallel. (UK definition)

The area A of any trapezium is equal to one-half the product of the

height h and the sum of the bases, b1 and b2.

Formula: A = ½ h (b1 + b2)

Kite
A kite shape has no sides parallel. The area can be found by

Formula: A = ½ d1d2

Circle
The area A of any circle is equal to the product of π and the square
of the radius r.

Formula: A = π r2

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Circle sector area

Circle

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Other regular polygons
Regular polygons are any polygons that are equilateral and
equiangular.

The area A of any regular polygon with perimeter P and apothem of

measure a is equal to one-half the product of the perimeter and the
apothem.

This formula can be derived if you make five triangles inside the
shape. The area of each triangle is ½ Sa (½ base x height).

The total area is therefore 5 x ½ Sa (in the case of the pentagon

shown – the 5 only represents the number of sides). But 5 x S is the
total perimeter of the shape, so:

Formula: A = ½ aP

The angle shown θ is one equal portion of 360 degrees. In the case
of the pentagon, it is 360/5 = 72°. Hence the internal angle of any
polygon can be found by calculating the supplement of the external
angle.

Math Antics - Polygons

https://youtu.be/IaoZhhx_I9s

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3-dimensional (solids)
There are special formulas that deal with solids, but they only deal A regular pyramid is a pyramid that has a base that is a regular
with right prisms. Right prisms are prisms that have two special polygon and with lateral faces that are all congruent isosceles
characteristics - all lateral edges are perpendicular to the bases, triangles.
and lateral faces are rectangular. The figure below depicts a right
prism.

Right prism area

The lateral area L (area of the vertical sides only) of any right prism
is equal to the perimeter P of the base times the height h of the
prism

L = Ph

The total area T of any right prism is equal to two times the area of
the base plus the lateral area.

Formula: T = 2B + Ph

Right prism volume

The volume V of any right prism is the product of B, the area of the
base, and the height h of the prism.

Formula: V = Bh

Pyramid volume
A pyramid is a polyhedron with a single base and lateral faces that
are all triangular. All lateral edges of a pyramid meet at a single
point, or vertex.

The volume V of any pyramid with height h and a base with area B
is equal to one-third the product of the height and the area of the
base. This applies even if the prism is not a ‘right-prism’ i.e. the axis
is not perpendicular to the base. The height however, is still
measured perpendicular to the base as shown below.

Formula: V = ⅓ Bh

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Pyramid

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Cylinder volume Math Antics – Volume
The volume V of any cylinder with radius r and height h is equal to https://youtu.be/qJwecTgce6c
the product of the area of a base and the height.

Formula: V = π r2h

Cylinder surface area

For any right circular cylinder with radius r and height h, the total
surface area T is two times the area of the base (2π r2) plus the
curved surface area (2π r h).

Formula: T = 2π r h + 2π r2

Cone volume
The volume V of any cone with radius r and height h is equal to
one-third the product of the height and the area of the base.

Formula: V = ⅓ π r2h

Cone surface area

The total surface area T of a cone with radius r and slant height l is
equal to the area of the base (π r2) plus π times the product of the
radius and the slant height.

Formula: T = π r l + π r2

Sphere volume and surface area

The volume V for any sphere with radius r is equal to four-thirds
times the product of π and the cube of the radius. The area A of
any sphere with radius r is equal to 4π times the square of the
radius.

Volume formula: V = 4⁄3 π r3

Surface area formula: A = 4π r2

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Cone

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1. A grave is dug 2 m x 1 m x 1 m deep. The earth removed is

piled into a pyramid of circular base 2 m diameter. Find the
height of the pyramid (in terms of π).

Give the answer in m, cm and mm.

2. A right prism has ends 10 cm x 10 cm and is 50 cm long. It is

drilled lengthwise with an 8 cm drill through its full length.
Find:

a) the remaining volume of the prism material. Give the

answer in terms of π and in mm3

b) the surface area of the inside of the hole. Give the

answer in terms of π and in mm2

3. Find the surface area of a right cone with base radius

3 inches and perpendicular height of 4 inches. Leave the
answer in terms of π and include the base area.

4. Find the ratio of the ‘surface area to volume’ of spheres of the

following diameters:

a) 2 m

b) 4 m

c) 8 m

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1. 6/π m, 600/π cm, 6000/π mm

2. a) (5 x 106) – π (8 x 105) mm3

b) 400π cm2, 40,000π mm2

3. 24π in2

4. a) 3 : 1

b) 1½ : 1

c) ¾ : 1

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Squares and cubes
General Exponent (or ‘indices’) form
Squaring, cubing and higher powers are shown by small digits The notation 32 and 23 is known as index form. The small digit is
called indices, like 102 and 53. called the index number or power.

The opposite of squaring a number is finding the square root, and You have already seen that 32 = 3 × 3 = 9,
the same is true for cubing and cube roots. and that 23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8.

Examples: Similarly, 54 (five to the power of 4) = 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 625

and 35 (three to the power of 5) = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 243.

9 is a square number.
The index number tells you how many times to multiply the
 3×3=9 numbers together.

 3 × 3 can also be written as 32.  When the index number is two, the number has been
This is pronounced “3 squared”. ‘squared’.

 When the index number is three, the number has been

‘cubed’.
8 is a cube number.
When the index number is greater than three you say that it is has
 2×2×2=8 been multiplied ‘to the power of’.

 2 × 2 × 2 can also be written as 23 Examples:

This is pronounced “2 cubed”.

Math Antics - Intro To Exponents (aka Indices)  72 is ‘seven squared’,

https://youtu.be/ZJDb7E6aCrA
 33 is ‘three cubed’,

 37 is ‘three to the power of seven’,

 45 is ‘four to the power of five’.

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2-cubed = 8

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1. Find the squares of the following numbers: 2. Find the cubes of the following numbers:

a) 1 a) 1
b) 2 b) 2
c) 3 c) 3
d) 4 d) 4
e) 5 e) 5
f) -1 f) -1
g) -2 g) -2
h) -3 h) -3

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1. a) 1 2. a) 1

b) 4 b) 8

c) 9 c) 27

d) 16 d) 64

e) 25 e) 125

f) 1 f) -1

g) 4 g) -8

h) 9 h) -27

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.1 Arithmetic Issue 2 – September 2016
Square and cube roots
Square root Cube root
The opposite of squaring a number is called finding the square root. The opposite of cubing a number is called finding the cube root.

Examples: Examples:

 The square root of 16 is 4  The cube root of 27 is 3

(because 42 = 4 × 4 = 16) (because 3 × 3 × 3 = 27)
 The square root of 25 is 5  The cube root of 1000 is 10
(because 52 = 5 × 5 = 25) (because 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000)
 The square root of 100 is 10
(because 102 = 10 × 10 = 100)
It is possible to find the cube root of a negative number. The cube
The symbol ‘√’ means square root, so root will always be negative.

 √36 means ‘the square root of 36’, and Examples:

 √81 means ‘the square root of 81’
 The cube root of -27 is -3
It is not possible to find the square root of a negative number (because -3 × -3 × -3 = -27)
(unless ‘complex numbers’ are used).  The cube root of -1000 is -10
(because -10 × -10 × -10 = -1000)
Every number has two square roots, one root is positive, the other
is negative. The reason for this is that the square of a negative Math Antics - Exponents & Square Roots
number is always positive (since ‘-’ x ‘-’ = ‘+’) https://youtu.be/C_iKTTI1E34

Examples:

 The square roots of 16 is ±4

(because 42 = 4 × 4 = 16 and -42 = -4 × -4 = 16)
 The square roots of 25 is ±5
(because 52 = 5 × 5 = 25 and -52 = -5 × -5 = 25)
 The square roots of 100 is ±10
(because 102 = 10 × 10 = 100 and -102 = -10 × -10 = 100)

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1. a) What is the square root of 196? 2. a) What is the cube root of -64?

b) Between which pair of whole numbers does the square b) What is the cube root of 729?
root of 20 lie?
c) What is the cube root of -4,096?
c) Estimate the square root of 50 to one decimal place.
d) What is the cube root of 216?
d) Between which pair of whole numbers does the square
root of 45 lie? e) What is the value of

e) Estimate the square root of 75 to one decimal place. f) What is the value of
f) What is the square root of 56.25?
g) What is the value of
g) What is
h) What is the value of

i) What is the value of

j) What is the value of

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1. a) 14 2. a) -4

b) Between 4 and 5 b) 9

c) 7.1 c) -16

d) Between 6 and 7 d) 6

e) 8.7 e) -1

f) 7.5 f) -9

g) 2.9 g) 2.5

h) 0

i) 4

j) 2

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1.2 Algebra
Copyright notice Objectives:
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may  The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by fundamentals of the subject.
any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical  The applicant should be able to give a general description of the
recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
Training Support Ltd.  The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in
conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
Knowledge levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft  The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches,
Maintenance Licence drawings and schematics describing the subject.
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the  The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical
allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each manner using detailed procedures.
applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category
B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. LEVEL 3
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:  A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of
the subject.
LEVEL 1  A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of
 A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject. knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Enabling objectives and certification
statement
Certification statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation
(EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and the
associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Part-66 Knowledge Levels

Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Algebra 1.2
Evaluating simple
algebraic expressions,
addition, subtraction, (a)
1 2 2 2
multiplication and
division, use of brackets,
simple algebraic fractions;
Linear equations and (b) - 1 1 1
their solutions
Indices and powers,
negative and fractional
indices
Binary and other
applicable numbering
systems
Simultaneous equations
and second degree
equations with one
unknown
Logarithms

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Table of Content
Evaluating simple algebraic expressions _______________ 8
Numbering Systems _______________________________ 72
What is algebra?________________________________________ 8
Counting and arithmetic__________________________________ 72
What is an equation? ____________________________________ 8
Positional notation ______________________________________ 74
Parts of an equation _____________________________________ 8
Base_________________________________________________ 74
Powers (exponents) _____________________________________ 9
Binary________________________________________________ 78
Like terms _____________________________________________ 9
Unit and number _______________________________________ 78
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 10
Binary conversion ______________________________________ 80
Addition, subtraction, multiplication ________________________ 14
Addition and subtraction of binary numbers __________________ 81
Use of brackets________________________________________ 14
Octal ________________________________________________ 88
Simple algebraic fractions _______________________________ 16
Octal to decimal ________________________________________ 88
Substitution ___________________________________________ 20
Base (radix) ___________________________________________ 89
Operations and BODMAS _______________________________ 21
Positional notation ______________________________________ 89
Factorising algebraic expressions _________________________ 22
Most significant digit (MSD) and least significant digit (LSD) _____ 89
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 24
Decimal to octal ________________________________________ 90
Transposition _____________________________________ 28 Worksheet ____________________________________________ 92
Basic rules ___________________________________________ 28 Hexadecimal (hex)______________________________________ 96
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 30 Unit and number _______________________________________ 96
Common factors _______________________________________ 34 Base (radix) ___________________________________________ 96
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 36 Positional notation ______________________________________ 97
Powers and roots ______________________________________ 40 Most significant digit (MSD) and least significant digit (LSD) _____ 97
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 42 Decimal to hexadecimal _________________________________ 98
Complex formulae _____________________________________ 46 Worksheet ___________________________________________ 100
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 48 The conversion possibilities _____________________________ 104
Binary to decimal ______________________________________ 106
Linear equations and their solutions __________________ 52 Octal to decimal _______________________________________ 106
What is a linear equation? _______________________________ 52 Hexadecimal to decimal ________________________________ 107
Types of linear equations ________________________________ 52 Decimal to binary ______________________________________ 107
Solving linear equations _________________________________ 56 Octal to binary ________________________________________ 108
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 60 Hexadecimal to binary __________________________________ 108
Indices and powers ________________________________ 64 Decimal to octal _______________________________________ 109
General ______________________________________________ 64 Decimal to hexadecimal ________________________________ 109
Negative and fractional indices ___________________________ 66 Binary to octal ________________________________________ 110
More complicated fractions ______________________________ 67 Binary to hexadecimal __________________________________ 110
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 68 Octal to hexadecimal ___________________________________ 111
Hexadecimal to octal ___________________________________ 111
Conversion exercise ___________________________________ 112
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 114

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Binary-coded decimal __________________________________ 118 Simultaneous equations ___________________________ 166
BCD conversion ______________________________________ 120 Solution by substitution _________________________________ 168
BCD addition ________________________________________ 120 Solution by elimination__________________________________ 169
Worksheet __________________________________________ 122 Worksheet ___________________________________________ 170
Summary ___________________________________________ 126
Quadratic (second degree) equations ________________ 174
Standard form____________________________________ 128 Solution by the Quadratic Formula ________________________ 174
Background _________________________________________ 128 Solution by Factorising _________________________________ 180
Method _____________________________________________ 128 Worksheet ___________________________________________ 182
Powers of ten in common use (decimal prefixes) ____________ 129
Worksheet __________________________________________ 130 Logarithms ______________________________________ 186
What is a logarithm? ___________________________________ 186
Complex numbers ________________________________ 134 How to write it ________________________________________ 187
The number i ________________________________________ 134 Some definition _______________________________________ 188
The complex plane ____________________________________ 136 Exponents and logarithms _______________________________ 190
Complex arithmetic ____________________________________ 138 Common logarithms ___________________________________ 192
Worksheet __________________________________________ 140 Natural logarithms _____________________________________ 192
Hours, minutes, seconds __________________________ 144 Rules of logarithms ____________________________________ 193
Adding hours and minutes ______________________________ 144 Further logarithms _____________________________________ 194
Subtracting hours and minutes___________________________ 144 Some special properties of logarithms _____________________ 195
Adding hours, minutes and seconds ______________________ 145 Worksheet ___________________________________________ 196
Subtracting hours, minutes and seconds ___________________ 145
Worksheet __________________________________________ 146
Degrees, minutes, seconds_________________________ 150
Converting decimal to minutes and seconds ________________ 150
Converting minutes and seconds to decimal ________________ 150
Adding degrees, minutes, seconds _______________________ 151
Subtracting degrees, minutes, seconds ____________________ 151
Latitude and longitude _________________________________ 152
Worksheet __________________________________________ 154
Rounding, significant figures, and decimal places _____ 158
Rounding ___________________________________________ 158
Significant figures _____________________________________ 159
Decimal places _______________________________________ 160
Worksheet __________________________________________ 162

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Evaluating simple algebraic expressions
What is algebra?
Algebra is a branch of mathematics dealing with symbols and the
rules for manipulating those symbols. In elementary algebra, those
symbols (today written as Latin and Greek letters) represent
quantities without fixed values, known as variables. Just as
sentences describe relationships between specific words, in
algebra, equations describe relationships between variables. Take
the following example:

What is algebra?
https://youtu.be/GaXytZ9crU0 Here is an equation that says 4x − 7 equals 5, and all its parts:
Algebra Basics: What Is Algebra? - Math Antics A variable is a symbol for a number we do not know yet. It is
https://youtu.be/NybHckSEQBI usually a letter like x or y.
What is an equation? A number on its own is called a constant.
An equation says that two things are equal. It will have an equals
sign “=” like this: A coefficient is a number used to multiply a variable (4x means
4 times x, so 4 is a coefficient).
x+2=6
Sometimes a letter stands in for the number:
That equation says: what is on the left (x + 2) is equal to what is on
the right (6). Example:
So an equation is like a statement “this equals that”. ax2 + bx + c
Parts of an equation  x is a variable
There are names for different parts of an equation.  a and b are coefficients
 c is a constant

An operator is a symbol (such as +, ×, etc.) that shows an

operation (i.e. we want to do something with the values).

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
A term is either a single number or a variable, or numbers and Examples:
variables multiplied together.
82 = 8 × 8 = 64
An expression is a group of terms (the terms are separated by + or
− signs). y3 = y × y × y

y2z = y × y × z

Exponents make it easier to write and use many multiplications.

Example: y4z2 is easier than y × y × y × y × z × z, or even yyyyzz.

Like terms
Like terms are terms whose variables (and their exponents such as
the 2 in x2) are the same.

In other words, terms that are “like” each other.

Powers (exponents) (Note: the coefficients can be different).
The power (such as the 2 in x2) tells you how many times to use the
value in a multiplication. Example:

(⅓)xy2 -2xy2 6xy2

These are all like terms because the variables are all xy2

Basic Algebraic Vocabulary

https://youtu.be/yHqGxeU4oyM

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12x + 4 = 3

Which term is the variable?

What is the coefficient of x?
What is/are the constant(s)?

ax2 – bx + 1 = 0

What is the coefficient of x2?

What is the coefficient of x?
What is the constant of the expression?
What is the variable in the expression?

For each of the following, state the exponent

a) 93
b) x5
c) a½
d) xy

For each of the following, state the base.

a) 23
b) y5
c) b½
d) xy

What are the like terms in the following?

a) 12ab 8ab xab

b) 3xy2 xy2 2y2
c) xy3 y2 2xy2
d) y4 2xy 3xy2

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12x + 4 = 3

Variable = x
Coefficient of x = 12
Constants = 4 and 3

ax2 – bx + 1 = 0

Coefficient of x2 = a
Coefficient of x = b
Constant of the expression = 1
Variable in the expression = x

a) 3
b) 5
c) ½
d) y

a) 2
b) y
c) b
d) x

a) ab
b) y2
c) y2
d) y

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Addition, subtraction, multiplication Use of brackets
In this section, you’ll learn how to identify the properties of Brackets are symbols used in pairs to group things together.
multiplication and addition and how you can use these to help solve
mathematical problems. Types of brackets include:

To solve complex problems without using a calculator you have to  parentheses or “round brackets” ( )
identify all expressions that have the same operation.  “square brackets” or “box brackets” [ ]
 braces or “curly brackets” { }
Example:
When we see things inside brackets we do them first.
58 + 69 + 91 = ?
Example 1:
In this example, you can add in any order you prefer. The sum of
the expression will not change if you prefer to add the numbers in a (3 + 2) × (6 − 4)
different order.
The bracketed group are 3 and 2 together, and 6 and 4 are
91 + 58 + 69 = 218 together, so they get done first:
58 + 69 + 91 = 218
(3 + 2) × (6 − 4)
The same will apply for subtraction as it does for addition. = (5) × (2)
=5×2
The same is true for multiplication: = 10
5 x 4 x 30 = 600 Without the parentheses the multiplication is done first:
4 x 30 x 5 = 600
3+2×6–4
Identify properties = 3 + 12 – 4
https://youtu.be/BNGKzTRghQg = 11 (not 10)

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
With more complicated grouping it is good to use different types of Example:
brackets:
Multiply out the brackets in 3(2a + 1)
Example 2:
3(2a + 1) = 6a + 3
[(3 + 2) × (6 - 4) + 2] × 4
This is because 3 x 2a = 6a and 3 x 1 = 3
The bracketed group 3 and 2 are together, and 6 and 4 are
together, and the square brackets tell us to do all the calculations
inside them before multiplying by 4:

[(3 + 2) × (6 − 4) + 2] × 4
= [(5) × (2) + 2] × 4
= [10 + 2] × 4
= 12 × 4
= 48

Multiplying out brackets

To remove brackets, we multiply them out.

Look at the expression 4(y - 5).

This expression means everything inside the brackets is multiplied

by 4.

4(y - 5)
=4xy-4x5
= 4y - 20

Therefore 4(y - 5) becomes 4y - 20 when the brackets are removed.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Simple algebraic fractions Different denominators – the LCM
We can add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions in algebra in the To add fractions with different denominators, we must learn how to
same way we do in simple arithmetic. construct the lowest common multiple of a series of terms.

Adding algebraic fractions The lowest common multiple (LCM) of a series of terms is the
There is one rule for adding or subtracting fractions: The smallest product that contains every factor from every term.
denominators must be the same – just as in arithmetic.
For example, consider this series of three terms:

pq pr ps

We will now construct their LCM – factor by factor.

To begin, it will have the factors of the first term:

Add the numerators, and place their sum over the common
denominator. LCM = pq

Example 1: Moving on to the second term, the LCM must have the factors pr.
But it already has the factor p – therefore, we need add only the
factor r:

LCM = pqr

The denominators are the same. Add the numerators as like terms. Finally, moving on to the last term, the LCM must contain the
factors ps. But again it has the factor p, so we need add only the
factor s:

Example 2: LCM = pqrs

That product is the lowest common multiple of pq, pr, ps. It is the
smallest product that contains each of them as factors.
To subtract, change the signs of the subtrahend, and add.

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Construct the LCM of these three terms: x, x2, x3. Add:

Solution. The LCM must have the factor x.

To add fractions, the denominators must be the same. Therefore,
LCM = x as a common denominator choose the LCM of the original
denominators. Choose abcd. Then, convert each fraction to an
But it also must have the factors of x2 – which are x ·x. Therefore, equivalent fraction with denominator abcd.
we must add one more factor of x
It is necessary to write the common denominator only once:
LCM = x2

Finally, the LCM must have the factors of x3, which are x· x· x.
Therefore,

LCM = x3 To change into an equivalent fraction with denominator abcd,

x3 is the smallest product that contains x, x2, and x3 as factors. simply multiply ab by the factors it is missing, namely cd. Therefore,
we must also multiply 3 by cd. That accounts for the first term in the
We see that when the terms are powers of a variable x, x2, x3 then
numerator.
their LCM is the highest power.
To change into equivalent fraction and denominator abcd,
We will now see what this has to do with adding fractions.
multiply bc by the factors it is missing, namely ad. Therefore, we
must also multiply 4 by ad. That accounts for the second term in the
numerator.

To change into an equivalent fraction with denominator abcd,

multiply cd by the factors it is missing, namely ab. Therefore, we

must also multiply 5 by ab. That accounts for the last term in the
numerator.

That is how to add fractions with different denominators.

Each factor of the original denominators must be a factor of

the common denominator.
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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Denominators with no common factors Equations with fractions
To solve an equation with fractions, we transform it into an equation
without fractions – which we know how to solve. The technique is
Example 1: called clearing of fractions.

Example 1:

Solve for x:
When the denominators have no common factors, their LCM is
simply their product, mn.

Clear of fractions as follows:

Multiply both sides of the equation – every term – by the LCM

The numerator then appears as the result of “cross-multiplying”: of denominators. Each denominator will then divide into its
multiple. We will then have an equation without fractions.
an + bm
The LCM of 3 and 5 is 15. Therefore, multiply every term on both
However, that technique will work only when adding to fractions, sides by 15:
and the denominators have no common factors.

Example 2:

Each denominator will now divide into 15 – that is the point – and
we have the following simple equation that has been “cleared” of
fractions:
These denominators have no common factors – x is not a factor of
x – 1. It is a term. Therefore, the LCM of the denominators is their 5x + 3(x – 2) = 90
product.
It is easily solved as follows:

5x + 3x – 6 = 90

Note: the entire x – 1 is being subtracted. Therefore, we write it in 8x = 90 + 6

parenthesis – and its signs change.

= 12

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
We say “multiply” both sides of the equation, yet we take advantage Here is the cleared equation followed by its solution:
of the fact that the order in which we multiply or divide does not
matter. Therefore, we divide the LCM by each denominator first, 9x – 15x = 2
and in that way clear of fractions.
-6x = 2
(We choose a multiple of each denominator, because each
denominator will then be a divisor of it.)

Example 1:

Clear of fractions and solve for x:

Example 2:

Solve for x:
The LCM of 2, 6, and 9 is 18. Multiply each term by 18 – and
cancel. ½(5x – 2) = 2x + 4

9x -15 x = 2 This is an equation with a fraction. Clear fractions by multiplying

every term by two:
It should not be necessary to actually write 18. The student should
5x – 2 = 4x + 8
simply look at , and see that 2 will go into 18 nine times. That
5x – 4x = 8 + 2
term therefore becomes 9x.
x = 10
Next, look at , and see that 6 will go into 18 three times. That
term therefore becomes 3 x -5x = -15x.

Finally, look at , and see that 9 will go into 18 two times. That
term therefore becomes 2x 1 = 2.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Substitution
A variable is a letter, for example x, y or z, that represents an Example 2:
unspecified number.
Suppose you want to figure out how many hours a person works in
6 + x = 12 two days assuming that they work 4 hours before lunch and 3 hours
after lunch each day. First, work out how many hours the person
To evaluate an algebraic expression, you have to substitute a works each day:
number for each variable and perform the arithmetic operations. In
the example above, the variable x is equal to 6 since 6 + 6 = 12. 4+3 =7

If we know the value of our variables, we can replace the variables and then multiply that by the number of days the person worked:
with their values and then evaluate the expression.
7 x 2 = 14
Example 1:
If we were to write this example as one expression, we would need
Calculate the following expression for x = 3 and z = 2 to use parentheses to make sure that people calculate the addition
first:
6z + 4x = ?
(4 + 3) x 2 = 14
Replace x with 3 and z with 2 to evaluate the expression.
Operations in the right order
6z + 4x = ? https://youtu.be/5V6asBVx11g
6(2) +4(3) = ?

12 + 12 = 24

Evaluate expressions
https://youtu.be/KY-2QeFIldI

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Operations and BODMAS
When you are faced with a mathematical expression that has The rules are as follows:
several operations or brackets, the solution may be affected by the
order in which you tackle the operations. For example, take the Do things inside brackets first.
expression
Example:
4x7−2
6 × (5 + 3) = 6 × 8 = 48
If we do the multiplication first, we arrive at the following answer:
Exponents (powers, roots) before multiply, divide, add or
28 – 2 = 26 subtract.

If instead we begin by subtracting, we get: Example:

4 x 5 = 20 5 × 22 = 5×4 = 20

In order to avoid confusion and to ensure that everyone always Multiply or divide before you add or subtract.
arrives at the same result, mathematicians established a standard
order of operations for calculations that involve more than one Example:
arithmetic operation. Arithmetic operations should always be carried
out in the following order: 2+5×3 = 2 + 15 = 17

Otherwise just go left to right.

 Simplify the expressions inside brackets ()
 Evaluate all powers Example:
 Do all multiplications and divisions from left to right
 Do all additions and subtractions from left to right. 30 ÷ 5 × 3 = 6 × 3 = 18

“Operations” mean add, subtract, multiply, divide, squaring, etc. If it To help you remember the order in which you do the operations,
is not a number, it is probably an operation. remember the term BODMAS.

For example: B Brackets first

O Orders (i.e. powers and square roots, etc.)
7 + (6 × 52 + 3) DM Division and Multiplication (left-to-right)
AS Addition and Subtraction (left-to-right)
...what part should you calculate first?
Divide and multiply rank equally (and go left to right).
Add and subtract rank equally (and go left to right).

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Example 1: Factorising algebraic expressions
The largest factor of the expression 10 + 4x is 2, because 2 is the
3+6×2 largest number that divides exactly into both 10 and 4x.
Multiplication before addition:

First 6 × 2 = 12, then 3 + 12 = 15 = 5 and = 2x

Example 2: Therefore, 10 + 4x = 2(5 + 2x).

(3 + 6) × 2 We say the expression 10 + 4x has been factorised (the factors
being 2 and 5 + 2x).
Brackets first:
If you have revised multiplying out brackets, you can check that the
First (3 + 6) = 9, then 9 × 2 = 18 answer is correct:

2(5 + 2x) = 10 + 4x
Example 3: Example:

Factorise 6a – 9.
Multiplication and division rank equally, so just go left to right: = 2a and =3
First = 2, then 2 × 3 = 6, then =3 Therefore, 6a - 9 becomes 3(2a - 3) when factorised.
BODMAS (Order of Operations) The largest number dividing 6a and 9 exactly is 3.
https://youtu.be/5Qk4-iAOwi8
Check your answer by multiplying out 3(2a – 3).

You should return to 6a – 9.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Algebra Basics: Solving Basic Equations Part 1 - Math Antics
https://youtu.be/l3XzepN03KQ

Algebra Basics: Solving Basic Equations Part 2 - Math Antics

https://youtu.be/Qyd_v3DGzTM

Algebra Basics: Solving 2-Step Equations - Math Antics

https://youtu.be/LDIiYKYvvdA

Algebra Basics: What Are Polynomials? - Math Antics

https://youtu.be/ffLLmV4mZwU

Algebra Basics: Exponents In Algebra - Math Antics

https://youtu.be/S3IEeCyUWWA

Algebra Basics: Simplifying Polynomials - Math Antics

https://youtu.be/DKC74YKJpNY

Math Antics - Order Of Operations

https://youtu.be/dAgfnK528RA

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Simplify the following: Use BODMAS to determine the following

a) 5a + 4b - a + b a) 3+6÷3×2
b) 4x - y - x + 2x b) 5 × 3 - 12 ÷ 4 + 8
c) 3m + n - m + 4n - 2m c) 5 × 4 - 2 × 3 + 16 ÷ 4
d) 30 - (5 × 23 - 15)
a) Multiply out the brackets in 5(3 - y) e) (3 + 2)2 - 5 × 3 + 23
b) Multiply out the expression 2(6 - 4y) f) (15 ÷ 3 + 4) - (32 - 7 × 2)
c) Remove the brackets from 4(3w - 2y) g) (42 - 6 + 5) / (32 + 8 - 7 × 2)
h) (33 - 2 × 7) + (5 × 3 - 22)
Simplify the following: i) (7 - √9) × (42 - 3 + 1)
a) 2(x + 7) + 3x + 2 j)
b) 4(2a + 3b) - 6a – b
c) 2(m + 5) - 4 + m
d) 3(x + y) + 2(3x - y) Factorise the following:
Find x in the following: a) 15 + 10x
b) 3 - 12a
a) ½(5x − 2) = 2x + 4 c) 20y – 6

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a) 4a + 5b
b) 5x – y
c) 5n

a) 15 - 5y
b) 12 - 8y
c) 12w - 8y

a) 5x + 16
b) 2a + 11b
c) 3m + 6
d) 9x + y

a) x = 10
b) x=2
c) x = 7/3

a) 7
b) 20
c) 18
d) 5
e) 18
f) 14
g) 5
h) 24
i) 56
j) 4

a) 5(3 + 2x)
b) 3(1 - 4a)
c) 2(10y - 3)

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Most formulae are remembered in a standard form, but for the Examples:
purpose of solving a particular problem, it is often necessary to
express a formula differently. This involves changing the subject of  If A = LB, transpose this formula to make L the subject.
the formula and this process is called transposition.
Divide both sides by B: =L
Note:
Reverse the formula:
 In the formula, A = LB, A is the subject

 In the formula, C = πd, C is the subject  If Y = transpose the formula to make X the subject.

 In the formula, S = ut + ½ at2, S is the subject Multiply both sides by Z: YZ = X

The basic rules of algebra apply equally to transposition of formulae
as to solution of equations. The most important concept being that ∴
whatever we do to the left hand side, we must also do the right
 If a = transpose this formula to make c the subject:
hand side.

Transposition (Rearranging Equations) – Intro Multiply both sides by c: ac = b

https://youtu.be/KdWrmclXj4c
Divide both sides by a: c =
Transposition (Rearranging Equations) – 1
https://youtu.be/0oq4arfe-SM

Transposition (Rearranging Equations) – 2

https://youtu.be/yT_Z4OzPRaY

Transposition (Rearranging Equations) – 3

https://youtu.be/J1NAcToXYjE

Transposition (Rearranging Equations) – 4

https://youtu.be/HZ5kHTLeuMU

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
 If y = x + c, transpose this formula to make x the subject.

Subtract c from both sides: y–c =x

∴ x =y–c

 If p = , transpose this formula to make q the subject.

Multiply both sides by r: pr = q – m

Add m to both sides: pr + m = q

∴ q = pr + m

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Transpose the following formulae to make the letter in the brackets

the subject.

y=x+z (x) v = u + at (u)

a=b–c (b) y=m+c (c)

p=q+s (s) V = E – IR (I)

l=m–n (n) v = u + at (t)

y = zx (x)
P= (T)
y = mx (m)

s = ut + ½ at2 (u)
y= (z)

(P)
a= (c)

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x=y–z u = v – at

b=a+c c=y–m

s=p–q
I=
n=m–l

x= t=

m=
T=
z = yx

c= u=

P=R

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Common factors
When the subject exists in 2 or more terms the formulae can only  If x = , make c the subject.
be transposed correctly when the subject is taken out as a
common factor. Multiply both sides by (a + c):

Examples: x(a + c) = ab + c

 Transpose the formula bc + c = a to make c the subject. Remove brackets:

Take out c as a common factor: ax + cx = ab + c

c(b + 1) = a Collect terms containing c onto one side:

c = cx – c = ab – ax

c(x – 1) = ab – ax
 If 2r = pq + rs, make r the subject.

Subtract rs from both sides: c =

2r – rs = pq
c =
Take out r as a common factor:

r(2 – s) = pq

r =

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Transpose the following formulae to make the letter in the brackets

the subject.

If XY + X = 7 (X)

If ab - b = c (b)

If p = st – pq (p)

If x = (y)

If =c (a)

If d = (u)

If = + (b) (Hint: Take the to the left side of the

equation then find the common multiple
of ‘a’ and ‘c’)

If = + (R) (Hint: find the common multiple

of R1 and R2)

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Square roots Instead of writing or saying ‘cube root’, we write

The square root of a given number is such that, when the square
root is multiplied by itself, the original number is again obtained. Examples:

Examples:  simply means the cube root of 27

 The cube root of 64 can be written
 The square root of 4 is 2 because 22 = 4
 The square root of 9 is 3 because 32 = 9 nth root
 The square root of 25 is 5 because 52 = 25 It follows from the above the nth root of a given number is such that
when it is raised to the power n, the original number is obtained.
Instead of writing or saying ‘square root’, we write
Examples:
Examples:
 If = y, then x = yn
 The square root of 16 can be written
 If x = yn, then =y
 simply means the square root of 36
Manipulating powers and roots
Cube roots You should remember that, providing we add or subtract equal
The cube root of a given number is such that, when it is cubed, the numbers or letters to both sides of equations or formulae, or
original number is again obtained. multiply or divide both sides of equations or formulae by the same
number or letter, the truth of the equation or formula is unaffected.
Examples:
We can now extend this concept to include powers and roots.
 The cube root of 8 is 2, because 23 = 8
Examples:
 The cube root of 125 is 5, because 53 = 125
 x2 = 9

Taking square roots of both sides: =

x = 3

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
 If = y, make x the subject. You should note that can be either +2 or -2 because both (+2)2
and (-2)2 = +4.
Squaring both sides: = y2
Similarly, =  3 and, in general, =x
so: x =y

 If x2 = y, make x the subject.

Square rooting both sides: =

so x = y2

 If a = b , make c the subject.

Squaring both sides: a2 = (b )2

a2 = b2( )2

a2 = b2c

divide through b2: =c

reverse: c =

so: c =

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Transpose the following formulae to make the letter in brackets the

subject:

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Complex formulae
Complex formulae are those formulae that combine several types of
operation, such as add, subtract, multiply, divide and powers and
roots. These basic types are often combined into a single problem.
Such problems can be treated in a variety of ways, but, if you are in
any doubt at all, the following sequence should be followed:

These 3 steps may be

1. Remove root signs carried out in a different
order for certain problems,
2. Remove fractions but all roots, fractions and
brackets should be
removed before carrying
3. Remove brackets out the fourth step.

4. Rearrange formula - collecting all terms

containing the required letter
on one side of the equation
and all other terms on the
other side.

5. Take the subject out as a common factor

6. Divide through by the coefficient of the subject

7. Take roots (if necessary).

It may not always be necessary to use all the above steps, but,
nevertheless, the sequence should be followed.

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 Transpose v2 = u2 + 2fs to make u the subject.

There are no root signs, fractions or brackets, therefore

rearrange:

u2 = v2 – 2fs

There are no common factors or coefficients, therefore

take roots:

u =

 Transpose T = 2 to make g the subject.

Square both sides: T2 = (2)2

= 42

Multiply through by g: T2g = 42L

Divide through by coefficient T2: g =

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Transpose the following formulae to make the letter in the brackets

the subject.

c = d (d)

v2 = 2gh (v)

I= (R)

v= (h)

Q= (C)

= (u)

T = 2 (L)

S = ut + ½ft2 (f)

X= (s)

I= (R)

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Linear equations and their solutions
What is a linear equation? But the variables (like “x” or “y”) in linear equations do not have:
A linear equation is an equation for a straight line.
 Exponents or powers (like the 2 in x2)
These are all linear equations:  Square roots, cube roots, etc.
y
y = 2x + 1 5x = 6 + 3y ⁄2 = 3 – x Examples: These are not linear equations:

For example, with y = 2x + 1  y2 - 2 = 0

3
 √x - y = 6
 When x increases, y increases twice as fast, hence 2x  x3/2 = 16
 When x is 0, y is already 1. Hence +1 is also needed
 So: y = 2x + 1 Slope-intercept form
The most common form is the slope-intercept equation of a straight
Types of linear equations line:
There are many ways of writing linear equations, but they usually
have constants (like “2” or “c”) and must have simple variables (like
“x” or “y”).

Examples: These are linear equations:

 y = 3x - 6
 y - 2 = 3(x + 1)
 y + 2x - 2 = 0
 5x = 6 Example:
y
 ⁄2 = 3
y = 2x + 1

 Slope: m = 2
 Intercept: b = 1

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The graph of y = 2x + 1 is a straight line Slope-intercept form of a linear equation

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Point-slope form
Another common one is the point-slope form of the equation of a
straight line:

y - y1 = m(x - x1)

Example:

y - 3 = ¼(x - 2)

 x1 = 2
 y1 = 3
 m=¼

General form
And there is also the general form of the equation of a straight line:

Ax + By + C = 0

(A and B cannot both be 0)

Example:

3x + 2y - 4 = 0

 A=3
 B=2
 C = -4

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Point-slope form of a linear equation

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Solving linear equations Example 1:
Any statement of equality between two quantities is an equation.
This chapter is concerned with the solution of equations that can be Solve 2x – 4 = 10
rearranged into the form
We want to find the numerical value of x that satisfies this equation.
ax + b = 0 By moving -4 to the R.H.S. of the equation, remembering that we
must change the sign (i.e. by adding + 4 to both sides of the
where x is the unknown (variable), and a and b are constants. equation) we obtain

To solve equations of this form (variable) in the equation, we may 2x = 10 + 4

first need to manipulate the equation so that all the terms involving 2x = 14
the unknown (variable) appear on one side of the equation, and
only constants appear on the other side. Now, by dividing both sides of the equation by 2, we obtain

Note. When manipulating the terms of an equation it must x =7

remembered that whatever arithmetic operation is
performed to one side of the equation must also be Hence x = 7 is the solution to the equation 2x – 4 = 10.
performed to the other side.
We can check our answer by substituting it back into the original
equation

i.e. 2x – 4 = 10
2(7) – 4 = 10
14 – 4 = 10

Since this is true, our solution is correct.

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Solve 3x – 2 = 2x + 4
Solve =1
We aim to get the terms in x on one side of the equation and the
constants on the other. By multiplying both sides of the equation by 5, we obtain

Now, by moving -2 to the R.H.S. of the equation (i.e. by adding + 2

to both sides of the equation), we obtain 5 = 5 (1)

3x = 2x + 4 + 2 4x = 5
3x = 2x + 6
by dividing both sides of the equation by 4, we obtain
Now by moving 2x to the L.H.S. of the equation (i.e. by subtracting
2x from both sides of the equation), we obtain x = 1¼

3x – 2x = 6 We can check this answer by substituting it back into the original

x =6 equation

This is the solution and we can check it by substituting back into the i.e. =1
original equation.

i.e. 3x – 2 = 2x + 4 (1¼) = 1
3(6) – 2 = 2(6) + 4
18 – 2 = 12 + 4
16 = 16 =1

Since this is true, our solution is correct.

Since this is true our solution is correct.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Example 4: Example 5:
2
Solve ½ (3x – 1) = 7 Solve ⁄3(x – 1) = 4⁄5(2x – 3)

This equation can be written as This equation can he written as

=7 =

multiplying both sides of the equation by 2, we obtain using the process of cross-multiplication, we obtain

5[2(x – 1)] = 3[4(2x – 3)]

2 = 2(7)
10(x – l) = 12(2x – 3)

3x – 1 =14 eliminating the brackets, we obtain

by moving -I to the R.H.S. of the equation (i.e. by adding +1 to both 10x – 10 = 24x – 36
sides of the equation), we obtain
rearranging the equation so that the terms in x are on the RHS of
3x = 14 + 1 the equation, and the constants are on the LHS, we obtain
3x = 15
-10 + 36 = 24x – 10x
by dividing both sides of the equation by 3, we obtain
26 = 14x
x =5
dividing both sides of the equation by 14, we obtain
This is the solution.

x = 16⁄7

This is the solution.

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Solve 9 = + 3(x – 1)

In order to first simplify this equation, we can multiply both sides of

the equation by 10, thus eliminating the denominators.

We then have:

10 = 10

Expanding the brackets, we have:

9(x + 3) + 35 = 25x + 30(x – 1)

9x + 27 + 35 = 25x + 30x – 30

9x + 62 = 55x – 30

Rearranging the equation so that the terms in x are on the RHS of

the equation, we have:

30 + 62 = 55x – 9x

92 = 46x

x = 2

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Determine x in each of the following

a) x–3=4 a) 2(3x – 1) = 28

b) 3x – 5 = 7 b) 5(3 – 2x) = 35

c) 2–x=1 c) 3(2x +1) = -15

d) 14 – 5x = -6 d) -4(1 – x) = 24

e) -3 + 4x = 5 e) ¾(5 – 3x) = 15

2
a) 4x + 1 = 3x + 2 a) ⁄3(x – 3) = ½(x – 1)

b) 2 – x = 7x – 6 b) 1¼(4 – 2x) = 5⁄14(6x + 1)

3
c) 4 + 2x = 5x – 8 c) ⁄2(x – 2) = 4⁄3(3 – 2x)

d) -4 – 3x = -7 – 2x d) -2⁄3(x – 3) = 4x

e) 5x – 2 = -12x – 36 e) 22⁄5(x – 3) =

a) = 16 a) 3x = x – 7

b) 1¾ x = -7 b) 2(3 – 2x) = -2

c) = -6 c) x – 2 = 7 – 2x

d) -3½ x = 4 d) = -2

e) = -1
e) + 3 = 2½

f) –¼= +1

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h) 2(3a – 1) = 5(a + 7)

i) =5

j) = 1⁄6

k) =

l) =3

m) =

n) =

o) 3(67⁄6 – 5x) = +7

p) 2(3t + 7) + 4(8 – t) = 8(t + 2)

q) 3⁄4 + 2(3 – z) = ½(2 – 6z)

r) ½[(2x) + ⅓(x – 3)] = +7

s) =2

t) 3 = 5(x – 2) + +3

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a) x=7 a) x=5

b) x=4 b) x = -2

c) x=1 c) x = -3

d) x=4 d) x=7

e) x=2 e) x = -5

a) x=1 a) x=9

b) x=1 b) x=1

c) x=4 c) x = 117⁄25

d) x=3 d) x = 3⁄7

e) x = -2 e) x = 26⁄21

a) x=6 a) x = -3½

b) x = -4 b) x=2

c) x=9 c) x=3

d) x = - 8⁄7 d) x = -10

e) x = - 5⁄7 e) x = -2

f) x = -5

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h) a = 37

i) y = 1⁄5

j) x=4

k) k=7

l) x = 2⅓

m) x=1

n) x = -3

o) x=2

p) t=5

q) z = -5¾

r) x = -45

s) x=3

t) x = 42⁄3

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Indices and powers
General
In the section we will be looking at indices or powers (am)n = amn [III]
Either name can be used, and both names mean the same thing. For example (a3)5 = a3x5 = a15
Basically, they are a shorthand way of writing multiplications of the
same number.
am/n = [IV]
So, suppose we have
For example a7/2 =
4x4x4
a-n = [V]
We write this as ‘4 to the power 3’:
For example a-3 =
3
4

The number 3 is called the power or index. and expressing a4 x a-7 with a positive index gives
Note that the plural of index is indices. a4-7 = a-3 (by law [I])
The laws are shown below in algebraic form, where a, m and n are
= (by law [V])
any number.

am = a x a x a x …….to m terms A0 = 1 [VI]

an = a x a x a x …….to n terms

Laws:

aman = am+n [I]

For example a3a5 = a3+5 = a8

= am-n [II]

For example a6-2 = a4

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Example 1: = (by law [I]) Intro To Exponents (aka Indices)
https://youtu.be/ZJDb7E6aCrA

= (by law [II]) Indices: Multiplication Rule

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d1Wudo32XAo
= a0
Indices: Division Rule
=1 (by law [VI]) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nDYm30FYc5k

Example 2:

Simplify a2b3c x ab2c3 and evaluate when a = 1, b = ½ and c = 2

Grouping like terms this becomes a2 x a x b3 x b2 x c x c3 and since

a = a1 and c = c1, using law [I] this becomes

a(2+1) x b(3+2) x c(1+3) = a3 x b5 x c4

= a3b5c4

When a = 1, b = ½ and c = 2, a3b5c4 =(1)3(½)5(2)4 = ½

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Negative indices Fractional indices

Negative indices mean how many times to divide by the number.
An exponent of ½ is actually square root
Examples:

 8-1 = 1 ÷ 8 = 1/8 = 0.125 And an exponent of ⅓ is cube root

 5-3 = 1 ÷ 5 ÷ 5 ÷ 5 = 0.008
An exponent of ¼ is 4th root
5-3 could also be calculated like this:

1 ÷ (5 × 5 × 5) = 1/53 = 1/125 = 0.008 And so on!

That last example showed an easier way to handle negative Example:

exponents:
What is 9½ × 9½?
n
Calculate the positive exponent (a )
Then take the reciprocal (i.e. 1/an) 9½ × 9½ = 9(½+½) = 9(1) = 9

So 9½ times itself gives 9.

This is the definition of the square root!

Indices and negative powers i.e.

https://youtu.be/WSoqLMaF2fo
√9 × √9 = 9
Indices (Exponents) - Negative types
https://youtu.be/SW9nb-13V6E And:

9½ × 9½ = 9

So 9½ is the same as √9

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x¼

x¼ × x¼ × x¼ × x¼ = x(¼+¼+¼+¼) = x(1) = x
The order does not matter, so it also works for m/n = (1/n) × m:
So x¼, when used 4 times in a multiplication gives x, and so
x¼ is the 4th root of x.

The general rule is this:

x1/n = The n-th root of x This is the derivation of Rule [IV].

Example: Indices - Fractional Powers

https://youtu.be/AB3ARY9V0Cw
What is 271/3 ?

271/3 = 27 = 3

More complicated fractions

What about a fractional exponent like 43/2?

That is really saying to do a cube (3) and a square root (½), in any
order.

A fraction (like m/n) can be broken into two parts:

 a whole number part (m), and

 a fraction (1/n) part

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Simplify p2q3r x pq2r5

and evaluate when p = 3, q = 2 and r = ½

Simplify 8.

and evaluate when x = 2, y = 2 and z = 9

Simplify a1/4 b2 c-2 x b –3/2 c3

and evaluate when a = 16, b = 1⁄9 and c = 6

Simplify the following:

a2 b3 c x a-3 b -5 c2,

expressing the answer with positive indices only

(x-2/3 y1/2 z3) x (x2/3 y2 z1/3)1/3

expressing the answer with positive indices only

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p3 q5 r6 13½

x1/2 y1/2 z1/2 6

a1/4 b1/2 c 4

q11/6 r-4/5

a19/12 b-3/4 c-3/4

k2 2/3 l2 m2 1/2

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Numbering Systems
Counting and arithmetic
Decimal, or base 10, number system’s origin comes from counting Consider the oranges shown below. The quantity can be described
on the fingers. “Digit” from the Latin word digitus meaning “finger”. in different numerals, but the same number of oranges.

Base: the number of different digits including zero in the number  Cave dweller: 11111
system  Roman: V
 Arabic: 5
Examples:
The quantity can be described in different bases, but the same
 Base 10 has 10 digits, 0 through 9 number of oranges.
 Binary or base 2 has 2 digits, 0 and 1  510
 1012
 Octal or base 8 has 8 digits, 0 through 7  123
 Hexadecimal or base 16 has 16 digits, 0 through F Roman: position independent
Modern: based on positional notation (place value)
Examples:

1010 = A16 and 1110 = B16  Decimal system: system of positional notation based on
powers of 10.
Bits commonly stored and manipulated in groups  Binary system: system of positional notation based
powers of 2
 8 bits = 1 byte  Octal system: system of positional notation based on
 4 bytes = 1 word (in many systems) powers of 8
 Hexadecimal system: system of positional notation based
Number of bits used in calculations affects accuracy of results and powers of 16
limits size of numbers manipulated by the computer

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Positional notation
The standard shorthand form of writing numbers is known as For example, the decimal number 3121 is equal to
positional notation. The value of a particular digit depends not only
on the digit value, but also on the position of the digit within the (3 x 103) + (7 x 102) + (2 x 101) + (1 x 100).
number.

For example, the decimal number 3721 is standard shorthand form

for the quantity three thousand seven hundred twenty-one. Each
position has a ‘value’ or ‘weight’.

Starting at the right is the units position, next the tens, then
hundreds, and at the left is the thousands position. The digit at the
far right is called the least significant digit (LSD) and the digit at the
far left is called the most significant digit - (MSD).

Base
Every numbering system has a base which is equal to the number
of digits. A subscript is often added to a number to indicate its
base. An example of this is 1012, which indicates the number 101 is
a base 2 or binary number. The value of the largest digit of a
numbering system is one less than the base and the value of the
smallest digit of a numbering system is zero. Each digit is multiplied
by the base raised to the appropriate power for the digit position.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
The decimal number system (base 10) is the most familiar, and is
used for everyday counting and mathematical calculations. This
numbering system contains ten digits from 0 to 9, with 9 being the
largest digit.

Binary Numbers and Base Systems

https://youtu.be/LpuPe81bc2w

Number Bases
https://youtu.be/Mdadm5nsz7I

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Binary
The simplest possible number system is the binary, or base 2, The base ten number 1110 is eleven, but the base two number 112
system. You will be able to use the information just covered about is only equal to three in base ten. There will be occasions when
the decimal system to easily relate the same terms to the binary more than one number system will be discussed at the same time,
system. so you must use the proper subscript.

Unit and number The tables below show the construction of a binary number with its
The base, or radix, is the number of symbols used in the number decimal equivalent. Note the weighted values.
system. Since this is the base 2 system, only two symbols, 0 and 1,
are used. The base is indicated by a subscript, as shown in the
following example:

When you are working with the decimal system, you normally do
not use the subscript. Now that you will be working with number
systems other than the decimal system, it is important that you use
the subscript so that you are sure of the system being referred to.

Consider the following two numbers:

11 11

With no subscript you would assume both values were the same. If
you add subscripts to indicate their base system, as shown below,
then their values are quite different:

1110 112

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Binary conversion

Technique
Divide by two, keep track of the remainder Another way of finding a solution is

First remainder is bit 0 (LSB, least-significant bit)

Second remainder is bit 1, etc.

Decimal to Binary
https://youtu.be/K_IlGAgmzog

Note: the solution is always read from the most significant bit
(MSB) to the least significant bit (LSB).

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Addition and subtraction of binary numbers
It is possible to add and subtract binary numbers in a similar way to Subtraction
base 10 numbers.
Key subtraction results for binary numbers
Addition
For example, 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 in base 10 becomes 1 + 1 + 1 = 11 in
binary.

In the same way, 3 – 1 = 2 in base 10 becomes 11 – 1 = 10 in

binary.

When you add and subtract binary numbers you will need to be We will subtract 1112 - 1012
careful when ‘carrying’ or ‘borrowing’ as these will take place more
This is fairly straight forward as the lower line no numbers are
often.
higher than the upper.
Key addition results for binary numbers

Look at this subtraction however:

We will see how this is achieved:

This is a little trickier. From the right again 1 from 1 = 0

1 from 0 however cannot be done so we need to borrow. This
means we must subtract 12 from 102. This results in 1 but
We will add 1012 + 1112 remember because we have borrowed from the second column we
must repay that meaning the second column becomes 1-1 =0
Starting from the right the two 1’s must equal 10 therefore the 0
goes down and the 1 is carried over. That gives rise to two 1’s
being added again, so again the 0 goes down and the 1 gets
carried over. That then leaves three 1’s to be added together which
give 11 (note this is not “eleven”, but “one one”).

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Example 1 Digital Electronics – Binary Numbering Systems
https://youtu.be/lKdPklqCLjM

Example 2

Calculate, using binary numbers:

Calculate, the binary numbers:

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Convert the following binary numbers to decimal:

(a) 1101.1 (b) 1001110.11

Convert the following decimal numbers to binary:

(a) 62 (b) 1,024

(c) 42.25 (d) 51.125

Add the following binary numbers:

(a) 111 and 100 (b) 10010 and 1101

(c) 10110001 and 1100010

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1. (a) 13.5 (b) 78.75

2. (a) 111110 (b) 10000000000

(c) 101010.01 (d) 110011.001

3. (a) 1011 (b) 11111

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Octal
The octal, or base 8, number system is a common system used Look closely at the comparison of binary and octal number systems
with computers. Because of its relationship with the binary system, in table below. You can see that one octal digit is the equivalent
it is useful in programming some types of computers. value of three binary digits. The following examples of the
conversion of octal 2258 to binary and back again further illustrate
Octal to decimal this comparison:

Technique
Multiply each bit by 8n, where n is the “weight” of the bit
The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right

Add the results

Unit and number
The terms that you learned in the decimal and binary sections are
also used with the octal system.

The unit remains a single object, and the number is still a symbol
used to represent one or more units.

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Base (radix) Most significant digit (MSD) and least significant digit (LSD)
As with the other systems, the radix, or base, is the number of When determining the most and least significant digits in an octal
symbols used in the system. The octal system uses eight symbols - number, use the same rules that you used with the other number
0 through 7. The base, or radix, is indicated by the subscript 8. systems. The digit farthest to the left of the radix point is the MSD,
and the one farthest right of the radix point is the LSD.
Positional notation
The octal number system is a positional notation number system. Example:
Just as the decimal system uses powers of 10 and the binary
system uses powers of 2, the octal system uses power of 8 to
determine the value of a number’s position. The following shows
the positions and the power of the base:

If the number is a whole number, the MSD is the nonzero digit

Remember, that the power, or exponent, indicates the number of farthest to the left of the radix point and the LSD is the digit
times the base is multiplied by itself. The value of this multiplication immediately to the left of the radix point. Conversely, if the number
is expressed in base 10 as shown below: is a fraction only, the nonzero digit closest to the radix point is the
MSD and the LSD is the nonzero digit farthest to the right of the
radix point.

All numbers to the left of the radix point are whole numbers, and
those to the right are fractional numbers.

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Technique Another way of finding a solution is

Divide by 8

Keep track of the remainder

Digital Electronics – Octal Numbering Systems

https://youtu.be/c8A_v_hKC7U

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Convert the following octal numbers to decimal:

(a) 548

(b) 2018

Convert the following decimal numbers to octal:

(a) 35710

(b) 99910

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1. (a) 441010

(b) 12910

2. (a) 5458

(b) 17478

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Hexadecimal (hex) Base (radix)
The hex number system is a more complex system in use with The base, or radix, of this system is 16, which represents the
computers. The name is derived from the fact the system uses 16 number of symbols used in the system. A quantity expressed in
symbols. It is beneficial in computer programming because of its hex will be annotated by the subscript 16, as shown below:
relationship to the binary system. Since 16 in the decimal system is
the fourth power of 2 (or 24); one hex digit has a value equal to four A3EF16
binary digits.

Unit and number

As in each of the previous number systems, a unit stands for a
single object.

A number in the hex system is the symbol used to represent a unit

or quantity. The Arabic numerals 0 through 9 are used along with
the first six letters of the alphabet. You have probably used letters
in math problems to represent unknown quantities, but in the hex
system A, B, C, D, E, and F, each have a definite value as shown
below:

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Positional notation Most significant digit (MSD) and least significant digit (LSD)
Like the binary, octal, and decimal systems, the hex system is a The most significant and least significant digits will be determined
positional notation system. Powers of 16 are used for the positional in the same manner as the other number systems. The following
values of a number. The following shows the positions: examples show the MSD and LSD of whole, fractional, and mixed
hex numbers:

Multiplying the base times itself the number of times indicated by

the exponent will show the equivalent decimal value:

You can see from the positional values that usually fewer symbol
positions are required to express a number in hex than in decimal.
The following example shows this comparison:

62516 is equal to 157310

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Decimal to hexadecimal Digital Electronics – Hexadecimal Numbering Systems
https://youtu.be/N4PQxjwBJ80
Technique
Divide by 16.

Keep track of the remainder.

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Convert the following Hexadecimal codes to Decimal:

(a) 2D

(b) 1AF

(d) 1AE

Convert the following Decimal numbers to Hexadecimal

codes:

(a) 1632

(b) 494

(d) 67

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1. (a) 45

(b) 431

(d) 430

2. (a) 660

(b) 1EE

(d) 43

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
The conversion possibilities
Any number system can be converted into another number system.

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Technique Technique
Multiply each bit by 2n, where n is the “weight” of the bit. Multiply each bit by 8n, where n is the “weight” of the bit.

The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right. The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right.

Add the results. Add the results.

Binary to Decimal
https://youtu.be/xZ4MmCKt1M0

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Technique Technique
Multiply each bit by 16n, where n is the “weight” of the bit. Divide by two, keep track of the remainder

The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right. First remainder is bit 0 (LSB, least-significant bit)

Add the results. Second remainder is bit 1, etc.

Hexadecimal to Decimal

https://youtu.be/UNRhaSDgaLA

Decimal to Binary
https://youtu.be/K_IlGAgmzog

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Technique Technique
Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit equivalent binary representation. Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-bit equivalent binary
representation.

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Technique Technique
Divide by 8. Divide by 16.

Keep track of the remainder. Keep track of the remainder.

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Technique Technique
Group bits in threes, starting on right. Group bits in fours, starting on right.

Convert to octal digits. Convert to hexadecimal digits.

Binary to Hexadecimal
https://youtu.be/1UfD5KxVC1s

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Technique Technique
Use binary as an intermediary. Use binary as an intermediary.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Conversion exercise
Convert the following numbers into decimal, binary, octal or
hexadecimal, as required, to fill the blank spaces.

Do not use a calculator!

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Convert the following binary numbers to octal:

(a) 101010100 (b) 011110100000

Convert the following octal numbers to binary:

(a) 1263 (b) 65217

(c) 426 (d) 5625

Convert the following binary bits to hexadecimal code:

(a) 11100001 (b) 101110001111

Convert the following hexadecimal codes to binary bits:

(a) 4F (b) 1AC

(c) 67 (c) 2A8

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1. (a) 524 (b) 3640

2. (a) 001010110011 (b) 0110101010001111

(c) 000100010110 (d) 101110010101

3. (a) E1 (b) B8F

4. (a) 1001111 (b) 110101100

(c) 1100111 (d) 1010101000

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Binary-coded decimal
In today’s technology, you hear a great deal about microprocessors. Numbers larger than 9, having two or more digits in the decimal
A microprocessor is an integrated circuit designed for two purposes: system, are expressed digit by digit. For example, the BCD
data processing and control. rendition of the base-10 number 1895 is

Computers and microprocessors both operate on a series of 0001 1000 1001 0101
electrical pulses called words. A word can be represented by a
binary number such as 101100112. The word length is described by The binary equivalents of 1, 8, 9, and 5, always in a four-digit
the number of digits or bits in the series. A series of four digits format, go from left to right.
would be called a 4-bit word and so forth. The most common are 4-,
8-, and 16-bit words. Quite often, these words must use binary- The BCD representation of a number is not the same, in general, as
coded decimal inputs. its simple binary representation. In binary form, for example, the
decimal quantity 1895 appears as
Binary coded decimal (BCD) is a system of writing numerals that
assigns a four-digit binary code to each digit 0 through 9 in a 11101100111
decimal (base-10) numeral. The four-bit BCD code for any
particular single base-10 digit is its representation in binary Other bit patterns are sometimes used in BCD format to represent
notation, as follows: special characters relevant to a particular system, such as sign
(positive or negative), error condition, or overflow condition.
0 = 0000
1 = 0001 The BCD system offers relative ease of conversion between
2 = 0010 machine-readable and human-readable numerals. As compared to
3 = 0011 the simple binary system, however, BCD increases the circuit
4 = 0100 complexity. The BCD system is not as widely used today as it was a
5 = 0101 few decades ago, although some systems still employ BCD in
6 = 0110 financial applications.
7 = 0111
Note:
8 = 1000
A 12-bit word can represent (binary) decimal 0 – 4095
9 = 1001
A 12-bit (BCD) can only represent decimal 0 – 999

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 Convert 1234 in decimal (123410) to binary coded decimal

1 2 3 4
0001 0010 0011 0100

 Convert 6579 in decimal (657910) to binary coded decimal

6 5 7 9
0110 0101 0111 1001

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BCD conversion BCD addition
Conversion of decimal to BCD or BCD to decimal is similar to the The procedures followed in adding BCD are the same as those
conversion of hexadecimal to binary and vice versa. used in binary. There is, however, the possibility that addition of
BCD values will result in invalid totals. The following example
For example, we will go through the conversion of 26410 to BCD. shows this:
We’ll use the block format that you used in earlier conversions.
First, write out the decimal number to be converted; then, below Add 9 and 6 in BCD:
each digit write the BCD equivalent of that digit:

The sum 11112 is the binary equivalent of 1510; however, 1111 is

not a valid BCD number. You cannot exceed 1001 in BCD, so a
The BCD equivalent of 26410 is 001001100100BCD. To convert from correction factor must be made. To do this, you add 610 (0110BCD) to
BCD to decimal, simply reverse the process as shown: the sum of the two numbers. The “add 6” correction factor is added
to any BCD group larger than 10012. Remember, there is no 10102,
10112, 11002, 11012, 11102, or 11112 in BCD:

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
The sum plus the add 6 correction factor can then be converted Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
back to decimal to check the answer. Put any carries that were https://youtu.be/cxDO-ymKfOo
developed in the add 6 process into a new 4-bit word:

Now observe the addition of 6010 and 5510 in BCD:

In this case, the higher order group is invalid, but the lower order
group is valid. Therefore, the correction factor is added only to the
higher order group as shown:

Convert this total to decimal to check your answer:

Remember that the correction factor is added only to groups that

exceed 910 (1001BCD).

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Convert the following decimal numbers to BCD:

(a) 94

(b) 429

(d) 1736

Convert the following BCD numbers to decimal:

(a) 10000101

(b) 011100001001

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1. (a) 10010100

(b) 010000101001

(d) 0001011100110110

2. (a) 85

(b) 709

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Summary
The following tables show the decimal numbers 1 to 15, converted
to hex, binary, BCD and octal.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Standard form
Background Method
To multiply a decimal fraction by 10 the decimal point is moved one To write 43.7 in standard form, for example, it is first divided by 10
place to the right, by 100 two places to the right and so on. To by moving the decimal point one place to the left to give 4.37. But it
divide a decimal fraction by 10, the decimal point is moved one must now be multiplied by 10 to retain the value of the original
place to the left and to divide by 100, two places to the left. The number. So, 43.7 = 4.37 x 10 when written in standard form.
value of a number is unaltered if the number is both multiplied and
divided by the same number. For example, the number 3 is not Again, to write 0.0437 in standard form, it is multiplied by 100 or 102
altered if multiplied by 1000 and divided by 1000, for by moving the decimal point two places to the right and then divided
by 100 (or multiplied by 10–2) to retain its original value.
3 x 103 ÷ 103 = 3
Thus 0.0437 = 4.37 x 10–2 when written in standard form.
When solving problems containing decimal or other fractions, the
fractions can be expressed in decimal fraction form with one figure When a number is written in standard form, the number is called the
only in front of the decimal point by multiplying or dividing the mantissa and the factor by which it is multiplied the exponent.
number by 10 raised to some power. When this way of writing a
number is used it is said to be written in standard form. Thus a Thus 4.3 x 105 has a mantissa of 4.3 and an exponent of 105.
number written in standard form is a number between 1 and 10 Addition and subtraction of numbers in standard form can be
multiplied by 10 raised to a power. achieved by adding the mantissae provided the exponent is the
same for each of the numbers being added. For example:
Writing a number in standard form enables a quick check to be
made on the approximate value of a calculation to make sure an 4 x 102 + 5.6 x 102 = 9.6 x 102
error in the position of the decimal point has not occurred. Also a
similar principle is used to denote the size of certain physical this can be verified by writing the numbers as integers, for
quantities. The SI system of units has adopted the metre as its
basic unit of linear measure (length or distance). To measure the 4 x 102 + 5.6 x 102 = 400 + 560 = 960
distance between two towns, thousands or tens of thousands of
metres would be required, whereas the length of a small insect also 9.6 x 102 = 960
such as an ant would be expressed in thousandths of a metre.
Since length and distance can vary so much, large distances are hence 4 x 102 + 5.6 x 102 = 9.6 x 102
measured in kilometres or metres x 103. The Table below gives
some of the powers of 10 used to express numbers as a When the exponents are not the same it is usually better to write
reasonable size, together with the abbreviations used for these the numbers in decimal fraction form before adding or subtracting.
powers of 10 and the name given to them.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
The laws of indices are used when multiplying or dividing numbers Powers of ten in common use (decimal prefixes)
given in standard form. For example:

(3 x 103) x (5 x 102) = (3 x 5) x (103+2) = 15 x 105 = 1.5 x 106

similarly, x (105-3) = 4 x 102

To measure the power output from a large modern alternator in a

power station, megawatts (MW) are used, but the power to drive a
small transistor radio would be measured in milliwatts (mW). The
distance between London and Birmingham would be stated in
kilometres (km) but the distance between the ends of a pencil would
be measured in centimetres (cm). These units are selected to keep
numbers to a reasonable size. Other units used such as velocity,
whose SI unit is metres per second, will be written as ms-1 or m/s
and acceleration, having an SI unit of metres per second squared,
will be written as ms-2 or m/s2.

How to write numbers in standard form

https://youtu.be/ceneATH5EZ8

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Express the following numbers in standard form:

1. (a) 47.44 (b) 83.6 9. Change the following numbers from standard form to proper
or improper fractions:
(c) 91.274 (d) 387.7
(a) 9.375 x 10-2 (b) 1.8735 x 102
2. (a) 563 (b) 7210
(c) 5.625 x 10-1 (d) 3.2475 x 102
(c) 630 000 000 (d) 76271.85
10. Evaluate and express the answer in standard form:
3. (a) 0.375 (b) 0.14
(a) 3.774 x 10-2 + 7.28 x 10-2
(c) 0.6 (d) 0.0026 (e) 0.00302
(b) 6.3 x 103 + 5.381 x 103
4. (a) 0.0000017 (b) 0.0001015
(c) 1.476 x 10-6 – 1.471 x 10-6
(c) 0.10002 (d) 0.07073
(d) 3.576 x 104 – 4.211 x 104
7 3
5. (a) 63 ⁄8 (b) ⁄20

(c) 4864⁄5 (d) 1

⁄500

In the following problems, change the numbers from standard form

to integers or decimal fractions:

6. (a) 3.72 x 102 (b) 6.2174 x 10-2

(c) 1.1004 x 103 (d) 3.27 x 104 (e) 8.27 x 10-1

7. (a) 5.21 x 100 (b) 3 x 10-6

(c) 1.4771 x 10-3 (d) 5.87 x 10

8. (a) 7.176 x 106 (b) 9.98 x 10-4 (c) 4 x 10-5

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11. Find the value of the following, giving the answer in standard
form:

(a) 1.874 x 10-2 + 2.227 x 10-3

(b) 5.27 x 10-10 + 8.37142 x 10-10

(c) 7.2873 x 10-4 – 3.8771 x 10-4

(d) 9.71 x 102 – 9.998 x 102

12. Rewrite the following statements without using powers of 10:

(a) the freezing temperature of copper is

1.3576 x 103 Kelvin

(b) one kilowatt hour has the same energy as

3.6 x 106 joules

(c) the reciprocal of 1.609 x 103 is 6.214 x 10-4

(d) the volume of one fluid ounce is

2.841 x 10-5 cubic metres

(e) the square root of 4 x 10-4 is  2 x 10-2

13. In these problems, evaluate giving the answers in standard

form:

(a) (4.75 x 102)(8 x 103) (b) 3 x (4.4 x 103)

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1. (a) 4.744 x 10 (b) 8.36 x 10

3 3747
9. (a) ⁄32 (b) ⁄20
(c) 9.127 4 x 10 (d) 3.877 x 102
9 1299
(c) ⁄16 (d) ⁄4

2. (a) 5.63 x 102 (b) 7.21 x 103

10. (a) 1.1054 x 10-1 (b) 1.1681 x 104
(c) 6.3 x 108 (d) 7.627185 x 104
(c) 5 x 10-9 (d) -6.35 x 103

3. (a) 3.75 x 10-1 (b) 1.4 x 10-1

11. (a) 2.0967 x 10-2 (b) 1.364142 x 10-9
(c) 6 x 10-1 (d) 2.6 x 10-3 (e) 3.02 x 10-3
(c) 3.4102 x 10-4 (d) -9.027 x 103

4. (a) 1.7 x 10-6 (b) 1.015 x 10-4

12. (a) 1357.6 K (b) 3 600 000 joules
(c) 1.0002 x 10-1 (d) 7.073 x 10-2
(c) 1609; 0.0006214 (d) 0.00002841 m3

5. (a) 6.3875 x 10 (b) 1.5 x 10-1 (e) 0.0004;  0.02

(c) 4.688 x 102 (d) 2 x 10-3

13. (a) 3.8 x 106 (b) 1.32 x 104

6. (a) 372 (b) 0.062174 (c) 1.6 x 102 (d) 5 x 10-3

(c) 1100.4 (d) 32700 (e) 0.827

7. (a) 5.21 (b) 0.000003

(c) 0.0014771 (d) 58.7

8. (a) 7 176 000 (b) 0.000998 (c) 0.00004

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Complex numbers
The number i
Consider the equations 1 and 2 below. However, (-i)2 can be simplified.
(-i)2 = (-1 x i)2 = (-1)2 x i 2 = 1 x (-1) = -1.
Equation 1 Equation 2
x2 – 1 = 0 x2 + 1 = 0 Because i 2 and (-i)2 are both equal to - 1, they are both solutions
x2 = 1 x2 = -1 for equation 2 above.
Equation 1 has solutions because the number 1 has two square
roots, 1 and -1. Equation 2 has no solutions because -1 does not
have a square root. In other words, there is no number such that if
we multiply it by itself we get -1. If Equation 2 is to be given
solutions, then we must create a square root of -1.

Definition: The imaginary unit i is defined by

The definition of i tells us that i 2 = -1. We can use this fact to find
other powers of i.

Examples:

i 3 = i 2 x i = -1 x i = - i.

i 4 = i 2 x i 2 = (-1) x (-1) = 1.

We treat i like other numbers in that we can multiply it by numbers,

we can add it to other numbers, etc. The difference is that many of
these quantities cannot be simplified to a pure real number.

For example, 3i just means 3 times i, but we cannot rewrite this

product in a simpler form, because it is not a real number. The
quantity 5 + 3i also cannot be simplified to a real number.

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Definition: A complex number is one of the form a + bi, where ‘a’

and ‘b’ are real numbers. ‘a’ is called the real part of the complex
number, and ‘b’ is called the imaginary part.

Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are
equal and their imaginary parts are equal. i.e., a+bi = c+di if and
only if a = c, and b = d.

Examples:

2 – 5i
6 + 4i
0 + 2i = 2i
4 + 0i = 4

The last example above illustrates the fact that every real number is
a complex number (with imaginary part 0). Another example: the
real number - 3.87 is equal to the complex number - 3.87 + 0i.

It is often useful to think of real numbers as points on a number line.

For example, you can define the order relation c < d, where c and d
are real numbers, by saying that it means c is to the left of d on the
number line.

We can visualize complex numbers by associating them with points

in the plane. We do this by letting the number a + bi correspond to
the point (a, b).

Complex Numbers : Introduction

https://youtu.be/Vk78-7bUbzo

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Complex arithmetic
When a number system is extended the arithmetic operations must Multiplication
be defined for the new numbers, and the important properties of the The formula for multiplying two complex numbers is
operations should still hold. For example, addition of whole
numbers is commutative. This means that we can change the order (a + bi) x (c + di) = (ac – bd) + (ad + bc)i
in which two whole numbers are added and the sum is the same:
3 + 5 = 8 and 5 + 3 = 8. You do not have to memorize this formula, because you can arrive
at the same result by treating the complex numbers like
We need to define the three arithmetic operations on complex expressions with a variable, multiply them as usual, then simplify.
numbers. The only difference is that powers of i do simplify, while powers
of x do not.
Addition and subtraction
To add or subtract two complex numbers, you add or subtract the Example:
real parts and the imaginary parts.
(2 + 3i) (4 + 7i) = 2x4 + 2x7i + 4x3i + 3x7x i 2
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i.
= 8 + 14i + 12i + 21x(- 1)
(a + bi) – (c + di) = (a – c) + (b – d)i.
= (8 – 21) + (14 + 12)i
Example:
= - 13 + 26i.
(3 – 5i) + (6 + 7i) = (3 + 6) + (- 5 + 7)i = 9 + 2i.
Notice that in the second line of the example, the i 2 has been
(3 – 5i) – (6 + 7i) = (3 – 6) + (- 5 – 7)i = - 3 – 12i. replaced by - 1.
Note: These operations are the same as combining similar terms Using the formula for multiplication, we would have gone directly to
in expressions that have a variable. For example, if we were the third line.
to simplify the expression (3 – 5x) + (6 + 7x) by combining
similar terms, then the constants 3 and 6 would be
combined, and the terms - 5x and 7x would be combined to
yield 9 + 2x.

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Division
Definition: The conjugate (or complex conjugate) of the complex Notice that the quotient on the right consists of the conjugate of the
number ‘a + bi’ is ‘a – bi’. denominator over itself. This choice was made so that when we
multiply the two denominators, the result is a real number.
Conjugates are important because of the fact that a complex
number times its conjugate is real; i.e., its imaginary part is zero. Here is the complete division problem, with the result written in
standard form.
(a + bi) (a – bi) = (a2 + b2) + 0i = a2 + b2

Example:

Number Conjugate Product

2 + 3i 2 - 3i 4 + 9 = 13
3 - 5i 3 + 5i 9 + 25 = 34
4i -4i 16

Suppose we want to do the division problem (3 + 2i) ÷ (2 + 5i).

First, we want to rewrite this as a fractional expression

Even though we have not defined division, it must satisfy the

properties of ordinary division. So, a number divided by itself will be
1, where 1 is the multiplicative identity; i.e., 1 times any number is
that number.

So, when we multiply by , we are multiplying by 1 and

the number is not changed.

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Evaluate the following complex expressions:

a) (8 – 7i) + (2 + 3i)

b) (3 – 4i) - (6 + 5i)

Perform the following operations:

a) (-3 + 4i) + (2 – 5i)

b) 3 i – (2 – 4i)

c) (2 – 7i)(3 + 4i)

d) (1 + i)(2 – 3 i)

Write (2 – i) ÷ (3 + 2i) in standard form.

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(a) 10 – 4i

(b) -3 – 9i

(a) -1 – i

(b) -2 + 7i

(d) 5 – i

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Hours, minutes, seconds
Add or subtract the hours, minutes and seconds separately. Example 2:
But you may need to do some adjusting if the minutes and/or
seconds end up 60 or more, or less than zero. What is 2:45 + 1:20?

 1 day = 24 hours  Add the Hours: 2 + 1 = 3

 1 hour = 60 minutes  Add the Minutes: 45 + 20 = 65
 1 minute = 60 seconds
The minutes are 60 or more, so
 1 day = 24 x 60 minutes
 1 day = 1440 minutes  subtract 60 from minutes (65−60 = 5 Minutes)
 1 day = 24×60×60 seconds and add 1 to Hours (3+1 = 4 Hours)
 1 day = 86400 seconds The answer is 4:05
 1 hour = 60 x 60 seconds Subtracting hours and minutes
 1 hour = 3600 seconds Follow these steps:
Adding hours and minutes  Subtract the hours
Follow these steps:  Subtract the minutes
 If the minutes are negative, add 60 to the minutes and
 Add the hours subtract 1 from hours.
 If the hours are 24 or more, subtract 24 from the hours and
add 1 to the days Example 3:
 Add the minutes
 If the minutes are 60 or more, subtract 60 from the minutes What is 4:10 – 1:05?
and add 1 to hours
 Subtract the Hours: 4 − 1 = 3
Example 1:  Subtract the Minutes: 10 − 5 = 5
What is 2:45 + 1:10? The minutes are OK, so the answer is 3:05
 Add the Hours: 2 + 1 = 3
 Add the Minutes: 45 + 10 = 55

The minutes are OK, so the answer is 3:55

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Example 4: Subtracting hours, minutes and seconds
Do the same to the seconds, that you previously did for the
What is 4:10 – 1:35? minutes.

 Subtract the Hours: 4 − 1 = 3 Follow these steps:

 Subtract the Minutes: 10 − 35 = -25
 Subtract the hours
The minutes are less than 0, so:  Subtract the seconds
 If the seconds are negative, add 60 to the seconds and
 add 60 to minutes (-25 + 60 = 60 − 25 = 35 minutes) subtract 1 from minutes
and subtract 1 from hours (3 − 1 = 2 hours)  Subtract the minutes
 If the minutes are negative, add 60 to the minutes and
The answer is 2:35 subtract 1 from hours.

(Note: We changed "−25 + 60" to "60 − 25" ... that is perfectly OK How to add and subtract Time
and makes the calculation easier.) https://youtu.be/xG4gcw-9yYU

Adding hours, minutes and seconds

Do the same to the seconds, that you previously did for the
minutes.

Follow these steps:

 Add the hours

 If the hours are 24 or more, subtract 24 from the hours and
add 1 to the days
 Add the seconds
 If the seconds are 60 or more, subtract 60 from the seconds
and add 1 to minutes
 Add the minutes
 If the minutes are 60 or more, subtract 60 from the minutes
and add 1 to hours

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Calculate the following additions / subtractions of hours and

minutes

a) 3:25 + 2:15
b) 8:07 + 3:42
c) 1:25 + 3:50
d) 4:37 + 5:29
e) 6:40 - 1:35
f) 10:27 - 7:18
g) 5:20 - 2:55
h) 9:43 - 3:58

If you go to sleep at 6:36 and wake up 4 hours and 38

minutes later.

What time do you wake up?

Tina was very late for her appointment. She arrived at

10:15, but should have arrived 1 hour 35 minutes earlier.

What time was her appointment?

Calculate the following time additions/subtractions.

a) 5 hours, 17 minutes and 13 seconds + 12 hours, 10

minutes and 25 seconds
b) 14 hours, 59 minutes and 6 seconds + 2 hours, 12
minutes and 5 seconds
c) 29 hours, 35 minutes and 5 seconds + 15 hours, 8
minutes and 25 seconds
d) 7 hours, 8 minutes and 45 seconds - 2 hours, 5 minutes
and 14 seconds
e) 14 hours, 29 minutes and 5 seconds - 8 hours, 45
minutes and 3 seconds
f) 8 hours, 12 minutes and 12 seconds - 7 hours, 15
minutes and 17 seconds
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Intentionally Blank

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1. a) 5:40
b) 11.49
c) 5:15
d) 10:06
e) 5.05
f) 3.09
g) 2:25
h) 5:45

2. 11.14

3. 8:40

4. a) 17 hours, 27 minutes and 38 seconds

b) 17 hours, 11 minutes and 11 seconds
c) 1 day, 20 hours 43 minutes and 30 seconds
d) 5 hours, 3 minutes and 31 seconds
e) 5 hours, 44 minutes and 2 seconds
f) 56 minutes and 55 seconds

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Degrees, minutes, seconds
The units of angle are the basic degree (0), minutes (') and Converting minutes and seconds to decimal
seconds ("). Consider decimal units of minutes and seconds as quite separate
from the whole units of degrees, and convert them separately by
 1 degree = 60 minutes ==> 1° = 60' dividing by 60.
 1 minute = 60 seconds ==> 1' = 60"
Thus:
NOTE: The minutes and seconds in this angle measurement units
are not the same as the time measurement units. They are One degree is equal to 60 minutes and equal to 3600 seconds:
totally different in nature although they are meant for
measurement and have the same spelling. 1º = 60' = 3600"

Converting decimal to minutes and seconds One minute is equal to 1/60 degrees:
Consider decimal units of degrees as quite separate from the whole
units, and convert them separately by multiplying by 60. 1' = 1/60º = 0.01666667º

Example 1: One second is equal to 1/3600 degrees:

Convert 45.7° to degrees and minutes. 1" = 1/3600º = 0.000277778º

45.7° = 45° (0.7 x 60)' = 45° 42' For angle with d degrees, m minutes and s seconds:

Example 2: dº m' s"

Convert 45.78° to degrees, minutes and seconds The decimal degrees (dd) is equal to:

45.78° = 450 46.8' = 450 46' (0.8 x 60)" = 45° 46' 48" dd = d + M/60 + S/3600

Example 3:

Convert 30 degrees 15 minutes and 50 seconds to decimal

degrees:

30º 15' 50"

The decimal degrees (dd) is equal to:

dd = d + M/60 + S/3600 = 30º + 15'/60 + 50"/3600 = 30.263888889º

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Example 4: Example 6:

Convert 40° 20’ 50” into decimal What is 20° 45’ 12” + 12° 20’ 10”?

40 + (20 x 1/60) + (50 x 1/3600)  Add the degrees: 20+12 = 32

 Add the minutes: 45+20 = 65
40 + 0.333 + 0.01389 = 40.3469°  Add the seconds: 12+10 = 22
Converting between decimals and degrees minutes and seconds The minutes are 60 or more, so
https://youtu.be/h6KPvkyuO5g
 subtract 60 from minutes (65−60 = 05 minutes)
Adding degrees, minutes, seconds
and add 1 to degrees (32+01 = 33 degrees)
The method to add degrees, minutes and seconds is similar to the
method used to add time (hours and minutes). The seconds are OK (not 60 or over),
so the answer is 33° 05’ 22”
Follow these steps:
Subtracting degrees, minutes, seconds
 Add the degrees Follow these steps:
 Add the minutes
 If the minutes are 60 or more, subtract 60 from the minutes  Subtract the degrees
and add 1 to degrees  Subtract the minutes
 Add the seconds  If the minutes are negative, add 60 to the minutes and
 If the seconds are 60 or more, subtract 60 from the seconds subtract 1 from degrees
and add 1 to the minutes  Subtract the seconds
 If the seconds are negative, add 60 to the seconds and
Example 5:
subtract 1 from the minutes
What is 02° 04’ 05” + 01° 01’ 05”?
Example 7:
 Add the degrees: 02+01 = 03 What is 04° 10’ 12” - 01° 08’ 05”?
 Add the minutes: 04+01 = 05
 Add the seconds: 05+05 = 10  Subtract the degrees: 04−01 = 03
 Subtract the minutes: 10−08 = 02
The minutes and seconds are OK (not 60 or over),  Subtract the seconds: 12−05 = 07
so the answer is 03° 05’ 10”
The minutes and seconds are OK (not negative), so the answer is
03° 02’ 07”

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What is 34° 10’ 16” - 20° 18’ 15”? Eiffel Tower (Paris):
48° 51' 29'' N, 02° 17' 41'' E
 Subtract the degrees: 34−20 = 14
 Subtract the minutes: 10−18 = -08 St. Paul’s Cathedral (London):
 Subtract the seconds: 16−15 = 01 51° 30' 50” N, 00° 05' 54" W

The minutes are negative, so Copenhagen Airport Stand C37 (Denmark):

N 55 37 34.29, E 012 38 38.43
 add 60 to minutes (-08+60 = 52)
Note: There is no smaller unit of angle than ‘seconds’. Thus if a
and subtract 1 from degrees (14-01 = 13)
higher resolution of location is required (as in the airport
The seconds are OK (not negative), stand), then the seconds are decimalized.

so the answer is 13° 52’ 01” Note: The arc length of 1’ of latitude is equal to 1 nautical mile.

Add and subtract in degrees-minutes-seconds How to read Latitude and Longitude coordinates
https://youtu.be/m_C-B_G3eug https://youtu.be/lUMlmRzkuuY

Latitude and longitude

Latitude and longitude are angles that uniquely define points on a
sphere. Together, the angles comprise a coordinate scheme that
can locate or identify geographic positions on the surfaces of
planets such as the earth.

Latitude is represented by a numerical system using degrees (°),

minutes (‘) and seconds (“), from the equator, with the letters N and
S denoting whether the measurement is North from the equator, or
South from the equator, respectively.

Longitude is also represented by a numerical system using degrees

(°), minutes (‘) and seconds (“), from the Prime Meridian, with the
letters E and W denoting whether the measurement is East from the
Prime Meridian, or West from the Prime Meridian, respectively.

Thus, any point on the Earth’s surface can be represented by a

latitude and longitude coordinate.
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Eiffel Tower (Paris): 48° 51' 29'' N, 02° 17' 41'' E
St. Paul’s Cathedral (London): 51° 30' 50” N, 00° 05' 54" W
Copenhagen Airport Stand C37 (Denmark): N 55 37 34.29, E 012 38 38.43

Latitude and longitude

The arc distance of 1 minute on the surface of

the Earth (latitude) is 1852 m = 1 nautical mile
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Worksheet

Convert these degree, minutes, seconds to the decimal

degree (DD) format. Round off to four decimal places.

a) 89° 11' 15"

b) 12° 15' 0"
c) 33° 30'
d) 71° 0' 30"
e) 42° 24' 53"
f) 38° 42' 25"
g) 29° 30' 30"
h) 0° 49' 49"

Convert these decimal degrees (DD) to degree, minutes,

seconds format.

a) 75.25°
b) 43.375°
c) 9.5625°
d) 33.9645°
e) 13.12345°
f) 21.5°
g) 59.7892°
h) 65.1836°

Add the following angles:

a) 56º 20' 40" + 37º 42' 15"

b) 125º 15' 30" + 24º 50' 40"
c) 33º 33' 33" + 17º 43' 34"

Subtract the following angles:

a) 56º 20' 40" - 37º 42' 15"

b) 125º 15' 30" - 24º 50' 40"
c) 33º 33' 33" - 17º 43' 34"

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1. a) 89.1875°
b) 12.25°
c) 33.5°
d) 71.0083°
e) 42.4147°
f) 38.7069°
g) 29.5083°
h) 0.8303°

2. a) 75° 15' 0"

b) 43° 22' 30"
c) 9° 33' 45"
d) 33° 57' 52.2"
e) 13° 7' 24.42"
f) 21° 30' 0"
g) 59° 47' 21.12"
h) 65° 11' 0.96"

3. a) 94° 2' 55''

b) 150° 6' 10''
c) 51° 17' 7''

4. a) 18° 38' 25''

b) 100° 24' 50''
c) 15° 49' 59''

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Rounding, significant figures, and
decimal places
Rounding
Rounding is the process of reducing the number of significant digits For negative numbers the absolute value is rounded.
in a number. The result of rounding is a “shorter” number having
fewer non-zero digits yet similar in magnitude. The result is less Examples:
precise but easier to use.
 −2.1349 rounded to hundredths is −2.13
For example: 73 rounded to the nearest ten is 70, because 73 is  −2.1350 rounded to hundredths is −2.14
closer to 70 than to 80.
Round to even method: This method is also known as unbiased
Methods of rounding rounding, convergent rounding, statistician’s rounding or bankers’
rounding. It is identical to the common method of rounding except
Common method: This method is commonly used in when the digit(s) following the rounding digit start with a five and
mathematical applications, for example in accounting. It is the one have no non-zero digits after it. The new algorithm is:
generally taught in elementary mathematics classes. This method is
also known as symmetric arithmetic rounding or round-half-up  Decide which is the last digit to keep.
(symmetric implementation)  Increase it by 1 if the next digit is 6 or more, or a 5 followed
by one or more non-zero digits.
 Decide which is the last digit to keep.  Leave it the same if the next digit is 4 or less.
 Increase it by 1 if the next digit is 5 or more  Otherwise, all that follows the last digit is a 5 and possibly
(this is called rounding up). trailing zeroes; then change the last digit to the nearest even
 Leave it the same if the next digit is 4 or less digit. That is, increase the rounded digit if it is currently odd;
(this is called rounding down). leave it if it is already even.
Examples: With all rounding schemes there are two possible outcomes:
increasing the rounding digit by one or leaving it alone. With
 3.044 rounded to hundredths is 3.04 traditional rounding, if the number has a value less than the half-
(because the next digit, 4, is less than 5). way mark between the possible outcomes, it is rounded down; if the
 3.045 rounded to hundredths is 3.05 number has a value exactly half-way or greater than half-way
(because the next digit, 5, is 5 or more). between the possible outcomes, it is rounded up. The round-to-
 3.0447 rounded to hundredths is 3.04 even method is the same except that numbers exactly half-way
(because the next digit, 4, is less than 5). between the possible outcomes are sometimes rounded up -
sometimes down.

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Although it is customary to round the number 4.5 up to 5, in fact 4.5 Significant figures
is no nearer to 5 than it is to 4 (it is 0.5 away from both). Rounding to n significant figures is a form of rounding. Significant
figures (also called significant digits) can also refer to a crude form
When dealing with large sets of scientific or statistical data, where of error representation based around significant figure rounding.
trends are important, traditional rounding on average biases the
data upwards slightly. Over a large set of data, or when many Rounding to n significant figures is a more general-purpose
subsequent rounding operations are performed as in digital signal technique than rounding to n decimal places, since it handles
processing, the round-to-even rule tends to reduce the total numbers of different scales in a uniform way.
rounding error, with (on average) an equal portion of numbers
rounding up as rounding down. This generally reduces the upwards Rules of significant figures
skewing of the result.
 All non-zero digits are significant.
Round-to-even is used rather than round-to-odd as the latter rule
would prevent rounding to a result of zero. Example: ‘123.45’ has five significant figures: 1,2,3,4 and 5.

Examples:  Zeros appearing in between two non-zero digits are significant.

 3.016 rounded to hundredths is 3.02 Example: ‘101.12’ has five significant figures: 1,0,1,1,2.
(because the next digit (6) is 6 or more).
 3.013 rounded to hundredths is 3.01  All zeros appearing to the right of an understood decimal point
(because the next digit (3) is 4 or less). or non-zeros appearing to the right of a decimal after the
 3.015 rounded to hundredths is 3.02 decimal point are significant.
(because the next digit is 5, and the hundredths digit (1) is
Example: ‘12.2300’ has six significant figures: 1,2,2,3,0 and 0.
odd).
The number ‘0.00122300’ still only has six significant figures
 3.045 rounded to hundredths is 3.04 (the zeros before the ‘1’ are not significant). In addition, ‘12.00’
(because the next digit is 5, and the hundredths digit (4) is has four significant figures.
even).
 3.04501 rounded to hundredths is 3.05  All zeros appearing in a number without a decimal point and to
(because the next digit is 5, but it is followed by non-zero the right of the last non-zero digit are not significant unless
digits). indicated by a bar.
Math Antics – Rounding Example: ‘1300’ has two significant figures: 1 and 3. The zeros
https://youtu.be/fd-E18EqSVk are not considered significant because they do not have a bar.
However, 1300.0 has five significant figures.

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However, this last convention is not universally used; it is often Scientific notation could be used to reduce the ambiguity, as in
necessary to determine from context whether trailing zeros in a (2.0 × 104). As always, the best approach is to state the uncertainty
number without a decimal point are intended to be significant. separately and explicitly, as in 20,000 ± 1%, so that significant-
figures rules do not apply.
Digits may be important without being ‘significant’ in this usage. For
instance, the zeros in ‘1300’ or ‘0.005’ are not considered significant A less common method of presenting ambiguous significant figures
digits, but are still important as placeholders that establish the is underlining the last significant figure of a number, for example
number’s magnitude. A number with all zero digits (e.g. ‘0.000’) has “20,000”
no significant digits, because the uncertainty is larger than the
actual measurement. Decimal places
The precision of a value describes the number of digits that are
Examples: used to express that value. In a scientific setting this would be the
total number of digits (sometimes called the significant digits) or,
Rounding to 2 significant figures: less commonly, the number of fractional digits or places (the
number of digits following the point). This second definition is useful
 12,300 becomes 12,000 in financial and engineering applications where the number of digits
 13 stays as 13 in the fractional part has particular importance.
 0.00123 becomes 0.0012
 0.10045 becomes 0.10 In both cases, the term precision can be used to describe the
(the trailing zero indicates that we are rounding to 2 significant position at which an inexact result will be rounded. For example, in
figures) floating-point arithmetic, a result is rounded to a given or fixed
 0.02084 becomes 0.021 precision, which is the length of the resulting significand. In financial
 0.0125 becomes 0.012 in unbiased rounding, while it is 0.013 in calculations, a number is often rounded to a given number of places
biased. (for example, to two places after the point for many world
currencies).
One issue with rounding to n significant figures is that the value of n
is not always clear. This occurs when the last significant figure is a As an illustration, the decimal quantity 12.345 can be expressed
zero to the left of the decimal point. For example, in the final with various numbers of significant digits or decimal places. If
example above, when 19,800 is rounded to 20,000, it is not clear insufficient precision is available, then the number is rounded in
from the rounded value what n was used – n could be anything from some manner to fit the available precision. The following table
1 to 5. The level of rounding can be specified explicitly. The shows the results for various total precisions and decimal places,
abbreviation sf is sometimes used, for example “20,000 to 2 with the results rounded to nearest where ties round up or to an
significant figures.” even digit (the most common rounding modes).

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Note that it is often not appropriate to display a figure with more
digits than that which can be measured. For instance, if a device
measures to the nearest gram and gives a reading of 12.345 kg, it
would create false precision if you were to express this
measurement as 12.34500 kg.

How to - round to the nearest ten or hundred

https://youtu.be/2tK4hghgbNA

How to - round numbers to 1, two or three decimal places

https://youtu.be/o4arVhoqu2k

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Round 63 to the nearest 10

Round 95 to the nearest 10

Round 12.78 to the nearest tenth

Round 3.8439 to the nearest hundredth

Round 12.6257 to three decimal places

Round 106.5 to the nearest whole number

Round 239.456 to the nearest hundred

Round 78.546 to two decimal places

Round 24.56 to 3 significant digits

Round 3.995 to 2 significant digits

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12.8

3.84

12.626

107

200

78.55

24.6

4.0

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Simultaneous equations
Simultaneous equations are two equations with two unknowns.
They are called simultaneous because they must both be solved at
the same time.

Each equation is an equation of a straight line, both of which can be

plotted on a graph as shown below. The ‘solution of the
simultaneous equation’ means finding a single value of x and y that
satisfy both equations at the same time. These values of x and y
are the point at which the two lines cross, on the graph.

There are two methods of solving simultaneous equations:

 Solving by substitution
 Solving by elimination

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Solution by substitution

Example: Substituting in equation (1) gives

If 2x + 3y = 11 (1) 2x + 3(3) = 11

and 4x + 2y = 10 (2) Therefore; 2x + 9 = 11

Then from equation (1), x = 2x = 11 – 9

Let this expression for x be substituted into equation (2). Thus 2x = 2

Hence x =1
+ 2y = 10
Therefore, the solution of the simultaneous equations 2x + 3y = 11
and 4x + 2y = 10 is x = 1 and y = 3. This is the only pair of values
This is now a simple equation in y and may be solved. Multiplying that satisfies both equations.
both sides of the equation by 2 gives
Solving Systems of Equations... Substitution Method
4(11 – 3y) + 4y = 20 https://youtu.be/kf-o_CcTKH8

Removing brackets gives Simultaneous Equations : Substitution Method : Example 1

https://youtu.be/PgARVIawA5U
44 – 12y + 4y = 20
Simultaneous Equations : Substitution Method : Example 2
Rearranging gives https://youtu.be/xee7Qqqd2eU

44 – 20 = 12y – 4y

24 = 8y

Hence y =3

This value of y may be substituted into either equation (1) or

equation (2). (The result should be the same in both cases.)

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Example: Solving Systems of Equations... Elimination Method

https://youtu.be/8kRG7jlBMAY
If 2x + 3y = 11 (1)
Simultaneous Equations - Elimination method Example 1
and 4x + 2y = 10 (2) https://youtu.be/O-rrOPPmFgM
If equation (1) is multiplied throughout by 2 the resulting equation
will be

4x + 6y = 22 (3)

The reason that equation (1) is multiplied by 2 is that the

coefficient of x (i.e. the number multiplying x) in equation (2) and
equation (3) is now the same. Sometimes it is necessary to multiply
both equations by constants chosen so that the coefficients of x or y
in each equation become the same.

Equation (2) can now be subtracted from equation (3). Thus

4x + 6y = 22 (3)

4x + 2y = 10 (2)

Subtracting 0 + 4y = 12

Hence 4y = 12

Therefore; y =3

This value of y may now be substituted in equation (1) or equation

(2) exactly as in method 1 to find the value of x.

It will be found from experience that in many cases method 1, that

of substitution is unnecessarily cumbersome, so that method 2, the
elimination procedure will be employed.

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Solve the following equations for the unknowns:

x+y=5 d+e=3
x–y=2 3d + 2e = 7

2s + 3t = 5 x + 3y = 11
s+t=2 x + 2y = 8

3g – 2h = 7 3m – 2n = -4.5
g + 2h = 5 4m + 3n = 2.5

4x – 3y = 18 3x = 2y
x + 2y = -1 4x + y = -11

7a – 4b = 37 4x – 3y = 3
6a + 3b = 51 3x + 5y = 111

4c = 2 – 5d 6m – 19 = 3n
3d + c + 3 = 0 13 = 5m + 6n

3a + 4b – 5 = 0 4a – 6b + 2.5 = 0
12 = 5b – 2a 7a – 5b + 0.25 = 0

a–b=8 s + t = 15
a + b = 12
=1
4

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= 9 – 3a

p – 2q =

p+ q=6

1.2a – 1.8b = -21

2.5a + 0.6b = 65

2.5x + 0.45 – 3y = 0
1.6x + 0.8y – 0.8 = 0

1.2p + q = 1.8
p – 1.2q = 3.94

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x = 3½, y = 1½ x = -2, y = -3

s = 1, t = 1 x = 12, y = 15

g = 3, h = 1 m = 3, n = - ⅓

x = 3, y = -2 a = ½, b = ¾

a = 7, b = 3 s = 8, t = 7

c = 3, d = -2 a = 2, b = 5

a= -1, b=2 p = 3, q = 2

a = 10, b = 2 a = 20, b = 25

d = 1, e = 2 x = 0.30, y = 0.40

x = 2, y = 3 p = 2.50, q = -1.20

m = - ½, n = 1½

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Quadratic (second degree) equations
In elementary algebra, a quadratic equation (from the Latin Example 1:
quadratus for “square”) is any equation having the form
Solve x2 – 4x + 3 = 0

Comparing this equation with (2) we see that

where x represents an unknown, and a, b, and c represent known a = 1; b = -4; c=3

numbers such that a is not equal to 0. If a = 0, then the equation is
linear, not quadratic. The numbers a, b, and c are the coefficients of (a is the coefficient of x2; b is the coefficient of x; and c is the
the equation, and may be distinguished by calling them, respectively, constant term)
the quadratic coefficient, the linear coefficient and the constant.
Using the formula, we obtain:
Because the quadratic equation involves only one unknown, it is
called “univariate”. The quadratic equation only contains powers of
x that are non-negative integers, and therefore it is a polynomial
x= =
equation, and in particular it is a second degree polynomial
equation since the greatest power is two.

Quadratic equations can be solved by a process known as

Factorising (or factoring), or by using the Quadratic Formula

Solution by the Quadratic Formula x = 3 and 1

The solution of the quadratic equation is given by the formula:
The solution of x2 – 4x + 3 = 0 is x = 1 and x = 3

This can be verified by looking at the graph below (i.e. the solution
occurs where the curve y = x2 – 4x + 3 cuts the x axis).

Note: The derivation of formula (3) is not considered here.

It should be noted that if b2 – 4ac < 0 then the process involves

taking the square root of a negative number. This is not possible in
terms of real numbers and such cases are not considered here.
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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Example 2:

Solve -x2 + 6x – 8 = 0

Using the formula, we obtain

x= =

x = 4 and 2

This can be verified by looking at the graph below.

Alternatively, using the method of factorisation described in

example 1, we have:

-x2 + 6x – 8 = 0
x2 – 6x + 8 = 0
(x – 4) (x – 2) = 0

x = 4 and 2

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Example 3: Example 4:

Solve 4x2 – 14x + 12 = 0 Solve 3x2 – 48 = 0

Here we have
The calculations can be made simpler here if the equation is first
divided through (on both sides) by 2. a = 3; b = 0; c = -48

Hence we obtain and hence

2x2 – 7x + 6 = 0 x= =

In this case we have

a = 2; b = -7; c = 6;

and hence
x=4
x= =
This example is a special case because b = 0. Whenever this case
arises it is not necessary to employ the quadratic formula given by
the formula. Instead we could have treated this example as follows:

3x2 – 48 = 0
x = 2 and 1½
Moving -48 to the RHS of the equation (i.e. by adding 48 to both
sides of the equation) we obtain

3x2 = 48

dividing through by 3 we obtain

x2 = 48⁄3 = 16

x2 = 16

Hence x = ±4

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Solve x2 – 8x = 0 Solve (x – 2) (x – 3) = 2x – 6

Here we have The first step is to expand the brackets and we have:

a = 1; b = -8; c=0 (x – 2) (x – 3) = 2x – 6
x2 – 5x + 6 = 2x – 6
Hence
Rearranging this equation we have

X2 – 7x + 12 = 0

We can now solve in the usual way, we have

a = 1; b = -7; c = 12
x = 8 and 0 and hence
This example is a special case because c = 0. Whenever this case
arises it is not necessary to employ the quadratic formula given in
(3). Instead we could have treated this example as follows:

x2 – 8x = 0

Because both terms on the LHS contain x, we can write this x = 4 and 3
equation as
Solve Quadratic Equations using Quadratic Formula
x(x – 8) = 0 https://youtu.be/3ayhvAI3IeY
That is x = 0 or (x – 8) = 0

Hence the solution is x = 0 and 8

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Solution by Factorising
An alternative method of solving a quadratic equation is
factorisation. However, this method is only easily applied to some
quadratic equations.

Example:

x2 – 4x + 3 = 0

To factorise the left hand side of this equation we require two

numbers the sum of which is - 4 (the coefficient of x) and the
product of which is 3 (the constant term). These numbers are - 3
and - 1, and the factors are (x – 3) and (x – 1). We now have:

x2 – 4x + 3 = 0
(x – 3) (x – 1) = 0

The two terms (x – 3) and (x – 1) have a product of zero if either

one of the terms equals zero. Therefore, the solution of our
quadratic equation is

(x – 3) = 0 or (x – 1) = 0

x = 3 or x = 1

Solving quadratic equations by factoring

https://youtu.be/g6RnAY_VkMs

How to Solve Quadratic Equations By Factoring

https://youtu.be/IKyUuvulIbk

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Solve the following Solve the following

a) x2 – 5x + 4 = 0 a) x2 – 8x + 7 = 0

b) x2 – 3x = 10 b) 3x2 – 14x + 8 = 0

c) 6x2 = 1 – x c) -8x2 – 6x – 1=0

d) x2 – 4x + 4 = 0 d) 3x2 – 300 = 0

Solve the following e) l0x2 – x = 0

a) x2 – 25 =0 f) 42x2 = 13x – 1

b) x2 = 49 g) (x – 8)(x – 4) + 3 = 0

c) 4x2 – 576 = 0 h) -2z2 + 19z – 24 = 0

d) x2 – 1=0 i) y2 – l0y + 25 = 0

e) 16x2 – 1=0 j) -4x2 = 3x

Solve the following

a) x2 – 6x = 0

b) -3x2 + 6 = 0

c) 4x2 – 12x = 0

d) 3x2 – x = 0

e) 7x2 = -x

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1. a) x = 1, 4 4. a) x = 1, 7

b) x = -2, 5 b) x = 2⁄3, 4

c) x = -1⁄2, 1⁄3 c) x = -1⁄2, -1⁄4

d) x=2 d) x = ±10

e) x = 0, 1⁄10
2. a) x = ±5
f) x = 1⁄6, 1⁄7
b) x = ±7
g) x = 5, 7
c) x = ±12
h) z = 11⁄2, 8
d) x = ±1
i) y=5
e) x = ±1⁄4
j) x = 0, -3⁄4

3. a) x = 0, 6

b) x = ±1.41

c) x = 0, 3

d) x = 0, 1⁄3

e) x = 0, -1⁄7

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Logarithms
What is a logarithm?
In the discussion of indices, it was noted that whenever a number is Logarithms are – at the most basic level – invented to answer the
“raised” to a power then we write that in exponential notation. The more general question of how does one extract the base or
meaning of it is that the number appearing in the base is being exponent of an algebraic power when one of these is an unknown.
multiplied by itself the number of times that is indicated by the
exponent. The notation used was such that if we write 53, what we
actually mean is “5 multiplied by itself 3 times”.

Logarithms are mathematical inventions in order to answer a

slightly different question (notice the word “invention”; logarithms
make certain operations easier to handle and that is all they do, so
you should think of them as a definition). In order to motivate why
logarithms are introduced in the first place, let us invent a scenario.
Suppose someone asked you the following question:

What number do I have to raise to the power of 3 in order to get

1,000? Well… this might seem pretty simple and obvious. If you
multiply 10 × 10 you get 100, and if you multiply 100 × 10 you get
1,000. So, you would say that 10 multiplied by itself 3 times – or, in
our power notation, 103 – is equal to 1,000.

Now, this is easy to answer by thinking about powers because the

above example is simple powers and simple number, and once can
reason it out relatively quickly. However, things can get more
complicated. Suppose now that you were asked “what number do I
have to raise 10 to in order to get 735”. All of a sudden the answer
is not very obvious. What is so different about this question?

There is actually nothing different about this question. You still can
try doing the same process, but now the number isn’t that pretty
and it’s not exactly obvious how many times you should multiply 10
by itself to get 735. If you multiply it by itself 2 times you get 100,
but 3 times gives 1,000, and you have already exceeded 735! How
do we “get out” this power that we need?

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
How to write it
We write “the number of 2s we need to multiply to get 8 is 3” as:

So these two things are the same:

The number we are multiplying is called the “base”, so we can say:

 “the logarithm of 8 with base 2 is 3”

 or “log base 2 of 8 is 3”
 or “the base-2 log of 8 is 3”

Notice we are dealing with three numbers:

 the base: the number we are multiplying (a “2” in the

example above)
 how many times to use it in a multiplication (3 times, which
is the logarithm)
 The number we want to get (an “8”)

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Some definition
Continuing on the above reasoning, let us take our simple example Thus it can be seen that
again: what number raised to the power of 3 gives 1,000? If we
invent an unknown variable – call it ‘y’ and try to write out our  Log101 = 0
question in terms of the notation of algebraic powers, we have the  Log1010 = 1
following situation:  Log10100 = 2
 Log101000 = 3
10y = 1,000  Log1010,000 = 4
The question is: what is ‘y’ in the above formula? How do we solve etc.
for ‘y’? We invent an operation called the logarithm – abbreviated to
Log – and we apply this operation to the above relation. And the log of anything between 10 and 100 is between 1 and 2
(but not on a linear relationship).
Thus:
It can be said then, that Log10150 = 2.xxx, where the x’s are any
If by = x then logb(x) = y numbers after the decimal point. The ‘2’ is known as the
characteristic of the Log, and the decimals are known as the
This is the definition of a log. mantissa. Hence, the characteristic of the Log of any number
between 100 and 999 is 2. (The ‘characteristic’ is in fact ‘n – 1’
How does this help us with anything? It seems like we went in a big
where ‘n’ is the quantity of digits you are taking a log of).
loop, and we knew the answer to begin with anyway! But ... now
consider the slightly more complicated question that we had above:
“what number do I raise 10 to, in order to get 735?”. Let us apply
the logarithmic process to this situation:

10y = 735

Log10735 = y

If you take the Log of 735 on your calculator you get, 2.866...! So,
10 raised to the power of 2.866... gives you 735, and the question is
answered. Recall that algebraic powers need not be integers, and
here we have a clear example of a non-integer power.

A series of logs can be drawn on a graph as shown below.

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Exponents and logarithms
Exponents and Logarithms are related, In that example the “base” is 2 and the “exponent” is 3:

The exponent says how many times to use the number in a

multiplication.
So the logarithm answers the question:
In this example: 23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8
What exponent do we need
(2 is used 3 times in a multiplication to get 8) (for one number to become another number)?

So a logarithm answers a question like this: The general case is:

In this way:

The logarithm tells us what the exponent is!

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What is log10(100) ... ?

102 = 100

So an exponent of 2 is needed to make 10 into 100, and:

log10(100) = 2

Example 2:

What is log3(81) ... ?

34 = 81

So an exponent of 4 is needed to make 3 into 81, and:

log3(81) = 4

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Common logarithms Natural logarithms
There are two basic types of logarithms that are important to know. There is another logarithm that is also useful (and in fact more
In the previous section, where logarithms were defined, you already common in natural processes). Many natural phenomena are seen
saw the definition of one kind of logarithms; that was the so called to exhibit changes that are either exponentially decaying
“log base 10”. (radioactive decay for instance) or exponentially increasing
(population growth for example). These exponentially changing
The logarithmic operation that we have introduced serves the main functions are written as ex, where x represents the rate of the
purpose of extracting the exponents in an algebraic power. This is exponential.
true of the operation of “taking the logarithm”.
In such cases where exponential changes are involved we usually
The logarithm of base 10 is most often useful when powers of 10 use another kind of logarithm called natural logarithm. The natural
are involved, but not necessarily. It can be used in many other log can be thought of as logarithm base-e. What this means is that
situations. For instance, suppose you were asked the following it is a logarithmic operation that when carried out on ‘e’ raised to
question: 3 raised to what power gives 16.8? Again, applying our some power gives us the power itself. This logarithm is labelled with
definition of logarithm of base 10 — as defined in the previous Ln (for “natural log”) and its definition is: Ln(ex) = x
section — we can answer this question… but, in order to do this, we
need to define some rules of operation for logarithms (this is Logarithms having a base of e (where ‘e’ is a mathematical
outlined in the next few pages). constant approximately equal to 2.7183) are called hyperbolic or
natural logarithms, and loge is often abbreviated to ‘ln’.
Logarithms having a base of 10 are called common logarithms and
log10 is often abbreviated to ‘lg’.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.2 Algebra Issue 2 – September 2016
Rules of logarithms
There are three rules of logarithms, which apply to any base.

Rule 1. To multiply two numbers: Rule 3. To raise a number to a power:

The following may be checked by using a calculator: The following may be checked by using a calculator:

lg 10 = 1 lg52 = lg 25 = 1.39794

Also lg 5 + lg 2 = 0.69897 + 0.301029 = 1 Also 2 lg 5 = 2(0.69897) = 1.39794

Hence lg(5 x 2) = lg 10 = lg 5 + lg 2 Hence lg 52 = 2 lg 5

Rule 2. To divide two numbers:

The following may be checked by using a calculator:

In = ln 2.5 = 0.91629

Also ln 5 – ln 2 = In 2.5 = 1.60943 – 0.69314 = 0.91629

Hence ln = ln 5 – ln 2

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Example 1: Example 2:

Solve the equation 3 x+1 = 2 2x–3 Solve the equation x 2.5 = 37.5

Taking logarithms to base 10 of both sides gives Taking logarithms to base 10 of both sides gives

log10 3 x+1 = log10 2 2x–3 log10 x 2.5 = log10 37.5

(x + 1) log10 3 = (2x – 3) log10 2 2.5 log10 x = log10 37.5

x log10 3 + log10 3 = 2x log10 2 – 3 log10 2 log10 x = log10 37.5 ÷ 2.5

A calculator or log tables are required for the next line. It is given A calculator or log tables are required for the next line. It is given
here as an example only. However, the exam question may give here as an example only. However, the exam question may give
you the values of log103 and log102 you the values of log1037.5

x(0.4771) + 0.4771 = 2x(0.3010) – 3(0.3010) log10x = 0.6296

x = 11.05 x = antilog 0.6296 = 4.262

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(i)

Let logb 1 = x then bx = 1 from the definition of a

logarithm.

If bx = 1 then x = 0, from the laws of indices.

Hence logb 1 = 0.

(log10 1 = 0, for example)

(ii)

Let logb b = x then bx = b from the definition of a

logarithm.

If bx = b then x = 1, from the laws of indices.

Hence logb b = 1.

(log10 10 = 1, for example)

Logarithms… How?
https://youtu.be/ZIwmZ9m0byI

Solving Logarithmic Equations… How?

https://youtu.be/BxD6ZFbu01c

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In problems 1 to 3, solve the equations for x. In problems 9 and 10, write the given expressions in terms of log 2,
log 3 and log 5 to any base.
(a) log10 x = 4 (b) lg x = 5
(a) log 60 (b) log 300
(a) log3x = 2 (b) lg x = -2

(a) log8x = -3⁄4 (b) ln x = 4 (a) log (b) log

In problems 4 to 8, evaluate the given expressions.
Simplify the following:
(a) log10 100 (b) log2 16
(a) log 64 – log 128 + log 32
(a) log7 343 (b) lg 1000
(b) log 125 + log 25 – log 625
(a) log5 125 (b) log2 1⁄8

(a) log4 8 (b) log27 3

(a) log10 105 (b) ln e7

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(a) 10 000 (b) 100 000

(a) 9 (b) 0.01

(a) 1⁄16 (b) e4

(a) 2 (b) 4

(a) 3 (b) 3

(a) 3 (b) -3

(a) 1½ (b) 1⁄3

(a) 5 (b) 7

(a) 2log 2 + log 3 + log 5 (b) 2log 2 + log 3 + 2log 5

(a) 3log 2 + ½ log 5 — 2 log 3 (b) log 2 + 3log 5 — 3log 3

(a) 4log 2 (b) log 5

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1.3 Geometry
Copyright notice Objectives:
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may  The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by fundamentals of the subject.
any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical  The applicant should be able to give a general description of the
recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
Training Support Ltd.  The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in
conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
Knowledge levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft  The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches,
Maintenance Licence drawings and schematics describing the subject.
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the  The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical
allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each manner using detailed procedures.
applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category
B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. LEVEL 3
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:  A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of
the subject.
LEVEL 1  A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of
 A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject. knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Enabling objectives and certification
statement
Certification statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation
(EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and the
associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Objective Part-66 Knowledge Levels

Reference A B1 B2 B3

Geometry 1.3

Simple geometrical
(a) - 1 1 1
constructions

Graphical representations;
nature and uses of graphs, (b)
2 2 2 2
graphs of
equations/functions
Simple trigonometry;
trigonometrical
(c)
relationships, use of tables - 2 2 2
and rectangular and polar
coordinates

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Table of Content
Geometry definitions ________________________________ 8
Polygons _________________________________________ 48
Point _________________________________________________ 8
Exterior angle _________________________________________ 48
Line __________________________________________________ 8
Interior angles _________________________________________ 48
Plane ________________________________________________ 8
Circumcircle, incircle, radius and apothem ___________________ 48
Simple geometric constructions _____________________ 10 Breaking into triangles ___________________________________ 50
Line segment bisector __________________________________ 11 Areas ________________________________________________ 50
Angle bisector _________________________________________ 12
Quadrilaterals _____________________________________ 52
30 degree angle _______________________________________ 14
Rectangle ____________________________________________ 52
45 degree angle _______________________________________ 16
Rhombus _____________________________________________ 52
60 degree angle _______________________________________ 18
Square _______________________________________________ 52
90 degree angle (right angle) _____________________________ 20
Parallelogram _________________________________________ 52
Sum of ‘n’ angles ______________________________________ 22
Trapezoid (US) – trapezium (UK and Europe) ________________ 52
Difference of two angles _________________________________ 24
Irregular quadrilaterals___________________________________ 52
Supplementary angle ___________________________________ 26
Complex quadrilaterals __________________________________ 52
Complementary angle __________________________________ 27
Polygons _____________________________________________ 52
Constructing 75° 105° 120° 135° 150° angles and more ________ 29
Worksheet ____________________________________________ 54
Angles ___________________________________________ 30
Circles ___________________________________________ 58
Definitions and conversions ______________________________ 30
Angle at centre theorem _________________________________ 58
Degrees and radians: measuring angles ____________________ 30
Angle subtended by same arc theorem______________________ 58
Acute angles __________________________________________ 30
Angle in a semicircle theorem (Thales’ theorem) ______________ 58
Obtuse angles ________________________________________ 30
Cyclic quadrilateral _____________________________________ 58
Reflex angles _________________________________________ 30
Tangent angle _________________________________________ 58
Right angles __________________________________________ 30
Worksheet ____________________________________________ 60
Complementary angles _________________________________ 32
Supplementary angles __________________________________ 32 Graphical representations ___________________________ 66
Perpendicular lines _____________________________________ 32 Bar graph _____________________________________________ 66
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 34 Histograms ___________________________________________ 66
Frequency histogram ____________________________________ 68
Triangles _________________________________________ 38
Line graphs ___________________________________________ 68
Congruent and similar triangles ___________________________ 38
Pie chart _____________________________________________ 68
Equilateral triangle _____________________________________ 38
Area or system graph ___________________________________ 68
Isosceles triangle ______________________________________ 38
Coordinates ___________________________________________ 70
Right-angled triangle ___________________________________ 38
Worksheet ____________________________________________ 72
Scalene triangle _______________________________________ 38
Graphs of equations and functions _________________________ 76
Pythagoras theorem ____________________________________ 40
Plotting graphs of equations ______________________________ 90
Worksheet ___________________________________________ 44
Worksheet ____________________________________________ 96

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
The straight line ______________________________________ 102
Worksheet __________________________________________ 104
Determining y = mx + c ________________________________ 108
Worksheet __________________________________________ 112
Simple trigonometry ______________________________ 116
Definition ____________________________________________ 116
Sine, cosine and tangent _______________________________ 116
Trigonometrical relationships ____________________________ 118
Small and large angles _________________________________ 120
30, 60, 90 triangle _____________________________________ 122
Graphical representation of sine, cosine and tangent _________ 124
Special trigonometric functions and identities _______________ 126
Unit circle ___________________________________________ 126
Finding the length of an unknown side _____________________ 128
Use of tables_________________________________________ 130
Worksheet __________________________________________ 132
Rectangular and polar coordinates __________________ 136
Rectangular coordinates _______________________________ 136
Polar coordinates _____________________________________ 136
Converting __________________________________________ 137
Worksheet __________________________________________ 140

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Geometry definitions
Point
A point is an exact location in space. A point describes a location,
but has no size. Dots are used to represent points in pictures and
diagrams. These points are said “Point A,” “Point L”, and “Point F.”
Points are labeled with a CAPITAL letter.

Line
A line is a set of infinitely many points that extend forever in both
directions. A line, like a point, does not take up space. It has
direction, location and is always straight. Lines are one-dimensional
because they only have length (no width). A line can be named or
identified using any two points on that line or with a lower-case,
italicized letter.

This line can be labeled, QP or just g. You would say “line PQ,”
“line QP,” or “line g,” respectively. The order of P and Q does not
matter.

Plane
A plane is an infinite number of intersecting lines that extend
forever in all directions. Think of a plane as a huge sheet of paper
that goes on forever. Planes are considered to be two-dimensional
because they have a length and a width. A plane can be classified
by any three points in the plane.

Basic geometric definitions

https://youtu.be/co8hF9UXi4A

Math Antics - Points, Lines, & Planes

https://youtu.be/k5etrWdIY6o

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
A line, like a point, does not take up space. It
has direction, location and is always straight.
A point describes a location, but has no size. Lines are one-dimensional because they only
Dots are used to represent points in pictures have length (no width)
and diagrams

Planes are considered to be two-dimensional

because they have a length and a width. A plane
can be classified by any three points in the plane

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These constructions use only compass, straightedge (i.e. ruler) and

a pencil.

This is the “pure” form of geometric construction: no numbers are

involved.

There are many geometric constructions. Here we will show just

some of the more simple geometric constructions.

 Line segment bisector

 Angle bisector

 30 degree angle

 45 degree angle

 60 degree angle

 90 degree angle (right angle)

 Sum of ‘n’ angles

 Difference of two angles

 Supplementary angle

 Complementary angle

 Constructing 75° 105° 120° 135° 150° angles and more

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Line segment bisector Again without changing the
A line segment bisector (or ‘perpendicular bisector’) is a line that compasses’ width, place
intersects a line segment at its midpoint and is perpendicular to that the compasses’ point on
line segment, as shown below. the other end of the line.
Draw an arc above and
One important property related to perpendicular bisectors is that if a below the line so that the
point is on the perpendicular bisector of a segment, then it is arcs cross the first two.
equidistant from the endpoints of the segment. This is called the
Perpendicular Bisector Theorem.

Start with a line segment

PQ. Using a straightedge, draw
a line between the points
Place the compasses on where the arcs intersect.
one end of the line
segment.

Set the compasses’ width

to approximately two thirds
the line length. The actual
width does not matter. This line is perpendicular
to the first line and bisects
Without changing the it (cuts it at the exact
compasses’ width, draw an midpoint of the line).
arc above and below the
line.

Perpendicular Bisectors
https://youtu.be/LlUyTS-3bvE

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Angle bisector
An angle bisector bisects any given angle into two angles of equal Without changing
size, each exactly half the angle of the original. the compasses’
width, draw an arc
Start with angle across each leg of
PQR that we will the angle.
bisect.
The compasses’
width can be
changed here if
desired.
Recommended:
leave it the same.

Place the Place the

compasses’ point compasses on the
on the angle’s point where one
vertex Q. arc crosses a leg
and draw an arc in
the interior of the
angle.

Adjust the Without changing

compasses to a the compasses
medium wide setting repeat for
setting. The exact the other leg so
width is not that the two arcs
important. cross.

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This is the bisector

of the angle
∠PQR.

Angle Bisector Construction

https://youtu.be/lIwvSzfUkOY

Constructing Parallel Lines (using a straightedge and compass)

https://youtu.be/LFG02bUUyIU

Constructing Perpendicular Lines (using a straightedge and

compass)
https://youtu.be/7Kp4P0fje_k

Constructing the Perpendicular Bisector of a Line Segment

https://youtu.be/HmSN34aEE0g

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
30 degree angle
Here we show how to construct (draw) a 30 degree angle with Without changing the
compass and straightedge or ruler. It works by first creating a compasses’ width, move
rhombus and then a diagonal of that rhombus. Using the properties the compasses to the
of a rhombus it can be shown that the angle created has a measure point T, and draw an arc
of 30 degrees. across the previous arc,
creating point R.
Draw a line segment
which will become one
side of the angle. (Skip
this step if you are given
this line.) The exact Draw a line from P to R.
length is not important.
Label it PQ. P will be the
angle’s vertex.

Set the compasses on P,

and set its width to any
convenient setting.

Draw an arc across PQ

and up over above the The angle QPR has a
point P. Label the point measure of 30°.
where it crosses PQ as
point S.

Without changing the

compasses’ width, move
the compasses to the
point S. Draw a broad arc
that crosses the first one
and goes well to the right.
Label the point where the
two arcs cross as point T.
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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
 Line segments PT, TR, RS, PS, TS are congruent (5 red
lines)

 PTRS is a rhombus. A rhombus is a quadrilateral with four

congruent sides.

 Line segment AS is half the length of TS, and angle PAS is

a right angle. Diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at
right angles.

 Line segment AS is half the length of PS. PS is congruent to

TS.

 Triangle ∆PAS is a 30-60-90 triangle. ∆PAS is a right

triangle with two sides in the ratio 1:2. (Third side would be
√3 by Pythagoras).

 Angle APS has a measure of 30°.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
45 degree angle
Here we show how to construct (draw) a 45 degree angle with With the compasses’ point on
compass and straightedge or ruler. It works by constructing an the intersection of PQ and the
isosceles right triangle, which has interior angles of 45, 45 and 90 perpendicular just drawn, set
degrees. We use one of those 45 degree angles to get the result we the compasses’ width to P
need.

Draw a line segment which will

become one side of the angle. Draw an arc across the
The exact length is not perpendicular, creating the
important. Label it PQ. P will be point A
the angle’s vertex.
In the next 3 steps we create the perpendicular bisector of PQ.
Set the compasses’ width to
just over half the length of the
line segment PQ.
With the compasses’ point on Draw a line from P through A,
P, then Q, draw two arcs that and on a little more. The end of
cross above and below the line. this line is point R

Done. The angle ∠QPR has a

Draw a line between the two measure of 45°
arc intersections. This is at
right angles to PQ and bisects
it (divides it in exactly half).

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 Line segment AB is perpendicular to PQ. Constructed that

way. See Constructing the perpendicular bisector of a line.

 Triangle APC is a right triangle. Angle ACP is 90°.

 Line segments CP and CA are congruent. Drawn with same

compass width.

 Triangle ∆APC is isosceles. CP = AC

 Angle APC has a measure of 45°. In isosceles triangle APC,

base angles CPA and CAP are congruent. (See Isosceles
Triangles). The third angle ACP is 90° and the interior
angles of a triangle always add to 180. So both base angles
CPA and CAP are 45°.
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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
60 degree angle
Here we show how to construct (draw) a 60 degree angle with Draw a line from P, through
compass and straightedge or ruler. This construction works by the intersection of the two
creating an equilateral triangle. Recall that an equilateral triangle arcs.
has all three interior angles 60°. We use one of those angles to get
the desired 60 degree result.

Draw a line segment which

will become one side of the
angle.

The exact length is not

important. Label it PQ.
Done. The angle QPR has
P will be the angle’s vertex. a measure of 60°.

Set the compasses on P,

and set its width to any
convenient setting.

Draw an arc across PQ

and up over above the
point P.

Without changing the

compasses’ width, move
the compasses to the point
where the arc crosses PQ,
and make an arc that
crosses the first one.

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 Triangle APB is an equilateral triangle. Equilateral triangles

are those with all three sides the same length.

 Angle APB has a measure of 60°. All three interior angles of

an equilateral triangle have a measure of 60°.

Constructing an Angle of 60 degrees

https://youtu.be/hK6aLSGqb6E

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
90 degree angle (right angle)
Here we show how to construct (draw) a 90 degree angle with Draw an arc that
compass and straightedge or ruler. There are various ways to do crosses the given line
this, but in this construction we use a property of Thales Theorem. and extends over and
We create a circle where the vertex of the desired right angle is a above the endpoint C.
point on a circle. Thales Theorem says that any diameter of a circle (If you prefer, draw a
subtends a right angle to any point on the circle. complete circle.)

Start with a ray with

endpoint C. The right
angle will have C as its
vertex.
Draw a diameter
Mark a point, not on through D from the
the given line, about 6 point where the arc
cm in from C. Its exact crosses the given line,
location is not creating points B and
important. Label it D. A.

Set the compasses on

point D and set their
width to the endpoint
C.
Draw a line from C to
the endpoint A of the
diameter line.

Done. The angle ACB

is a right angle (90
degrees.)

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 Angle ACB has a measure of 90°. The diameter of a circle

always subtends an angle of 90° to any point (C) on the
circle. See Thales theorem.

Constructing an Angle of 90 degrees

https://youtu.be/2jEfhX6icow

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Sum of ‘n’ angles
This construction takes one given angle and copies it adjacent to Set the compasses on P
another, creating a larger angle whose measure is the sum of the and make an arc to the
two. left of, and across, RQ.
By carrying out this construction more than once, any number of
angles can be summed. This can be done by adding each
successive angle to the left or the right of the accumulating angle.

In a similar way, angles can be ‘subtracted’.

Set the compasses on J
Start with two angles, and adjust the width to
∠BAC and ∠RPQ. point K.
The goal is to add ∠BAC
to ∠RPQ.

Set the compasses on L

Set the compasses on A, and make an arc across
and adjust to any the previous one,
convenient width. creating point M.

Draw a line from P,

Make an arc across both through M and on to new
legs of the angle, point S
creating points J and K.

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 Angle ∠BAC is congruent to angle ∠SPR

 ∠SPQ = ∠SPR + ∠RPQ

Adjacent angles.

 ∠SPQ = ∠BAC + ∠RPQ

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Difference of two angles Move the compasses to
This construction shows how to create an angle which is the point P and make an arc
difference between two given angles. to the right of RP, crossing
RP at the new point L.
This is very similar to Sum of angles, except that the second angle
is drawn inside the first, effectively subtracting the angles.

The two types of construction (add, subtract) can be combined in

any way you like. For example, for the four angles P, Q, R, S you
could construct P+Q-(R+S). Set the compasses’ width
to the distance JK
Start with two given
angles ∠BAC and ∠RPQ.

Without changing the

compasses, set them on
Set the compasses on A, point L and make an arc
and adjust to any across the previous arc,
convenient width. creating point M.

Draw a line from P

through M and on to new
Make an arc across both point S.
legs of the angle, creating
points J and K.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Done. The angle ∠SPQ is If the second angle is larger than the first, then the points M (and so
the difference between the S) will be below the line PQ. The difference angle will still be ∠SPQ
angles ∠RPQ and ∠BAC. as before.

If for example you ‘subtracted’ 90° angle from a 30°angle,

arithmetically this would be negative: but in geometry, you cannot
have negative angles* so the difference between the two angles is
60°.

30 – 90 = -60

So the precise definition of what this construction does is, for two
angles A and B, it finds the absolute value of a – b.

Difference = │A – B│

The two vertical bars mean “absolute value” which is always

positive, regardless of the way a–b comes out. This is why the
construction is titled “Difference of two angles” – it is not quite the
same as arithmetic subtraction.

* Negative angles do occur in trigonometry however.

 ∠RPS + ∠SPQ = ∠RPQ

Adjacent angles

 ∠BAC = ∠RPS
Copied using the procedure in Copying an angle.

 ∠SPQ = | ∠RPQ - ∠BAC |

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Supplementary angle
This construction takes a given angle and constructs its
supplementary angle. Recall that the supplementary angle is one
that makes the given angle become 180°. So an angle of 45° has a
supplementary angle of 180° - 45° = 135°.

In this construction you can extend either leg back. It will produce
the same result.

Start with a angle BAC.

 ∠DAB + ∠BAC = 180°

A linear pair, so add to 180°

Extend either leg (here  ∠DAB is the supplementary angle to ∠BAC

AC) backwards, away
from the interior of the Supplementary Angles
angle. https://youtu.be/3gwcv9LSBO8

Done. The angle ∠DAB

and the given angle
∠BAC are
supplementary (i.e., they
add to 180°.)

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Complementary angle
This construction takes a given angle and constructs its Make the compass width
complementary angle. Recall that the complementary angle is one wider, and from P make an
that makes the given angle become 90°. So an angle of 30° has a arc above A.
supplementary angle of 90° - 30° = 60°.

In this construction you can extend either leg back. It will produce
the same result.

Start with a angle BAC.

Repeat from Q, creating the
point F above A.

Extend either leg (here AC)

backwards, away from the Draw a line from A, up
interior of the angle. through F.

Set the compass medium

width and from A, describe
two arcs, one on AC and one Done. The angle ∠FAB and
on the extension. Mark them
the given angle ∠BAC are
P and Q.
complementary (i.e., they
add to 90°.)

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 ∠FAB + ∠BAC = ∠FAC.

Adjacent angles.

 ∠FAB and ∠BAC are complementary.

∠FAB + ∠BAC = 90°.

Complementary Angles
https://youtu.be/93gal5blsU4

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Adding angles Subtracting angles

Angles can be effectively ‘added’ by constructing them so they By constructing an angle “inside” another you can effectively
share a side. This is shown in ‘Constructing the sum of angles’. subtract them. So if you started with a 70° angle and constructed a
As an example, by first constructing a 30° angle and then a 45° 45° angle inside it sharing a side, the result would be a 25° angle.
angle, you will get a 75° angle. The table below shows some angles This is shown in the construction ‘Constructing the difference
that can be obtained by summing simpler ones in various ways. between two angles’.

To make Combine angles Bisecting an angle ‘halves’ it

By bisecting an angle, you get two angles of half the measure of the
75° 30° + 45° first. This gives you some more angles to combine as described
above. For example, constructing a 30° angle and then bisecting it
you get two 15° angles. Bisection is shown in ‘Bisecting an Angle’.
105° 45° + 60°
Complementary and supplementary angles
120° 30° + 90° or 60° + 60° By constructing the supplementary angle of a given angle, you get
another one to combine as above. For example, a 60° angle can be
135° 90° + 45° used to create a 120° angle by constructing its supplementary
angle. This is shown in ‘Constructing a supplementary angle’.
150° 60° + 90°
Similarly, you can find the complementary angle. For example, the
complementary angle for 20° is 70°. Finding the complementary
angle is shown in ‘Constructing a complementary angle’.
Furthermore, by combining three angles many more can be
constructed.

Constructing an Angle of 45 degrees

https://youtu.be/QUtSDBQV1UA

Constructing an Angle of 75 degrees

https://youtu.be/lYVsdNW_k3Y

Constructing an Angle of 120 degrees

https://youtu.be/pYiSMYvATQA

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Angles
Definitions and conversions Acute angles
We can specify an angle by using a point on each ray and the An acute angle is an angle measuring between 0 and 90 degrees.
vertex. The angle below may be specified as angle ABC or as angle
CBA; you may also see this written as ∠ABC or as ∠CBA. Note how Example 2:
the vertex point is always given in the middle.
The angles shown below are all acute angles.
Example 1:
Obtuse angles
Many different names exist for the same angle. For the angle An obtuse angle is an angle measuring between 90 and
below, ∠PBC, ∠PBW, ∠CBP, and ∠WBA are all names for the 180 degrees.
same angle.
Example 3:
Degrees and radians: measuring angles
We measure the size of an angle using degrees. We can also use The following angles are all obtuse.
radians to measure angles.
Reflex angles
There are 2π radians in 360° A reflex angle is an angle measuring between 180 and 360 degrees

Right angles
The radius of a circle fits around the circumference 6.28 (or 2π)
A right angle is an angle measuring 90 degrees. Two lines or line
times. 1 radian = 57.3 degrees. To convert from degrees to radians,
segments that meet at a right angle are said to be perpendicular.
n°
use x 2π, where n° is the number of degrees. Note that any two right angles are supplementary angles (a right
360 angle is its own angle supplement).
Note: Degrees can be further subdivided into minutes and Math Antics - Angle Basics
seconds. https://youtu.be/DGKwdHMiqCg
 60 seconds = 1 minute Math Antics - Angles & Degrees
 60 minutes = 1 degree https://youtu.be/_n3KZR1DSEo

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Example 2: Acute angles Example 3: Obtuse angles

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Complementary angles Supplementary angles
Two angles are called complementary angles if the sum of their Two angles are called supplementary angles if the sum of their
degree measurements equals 90 degrees. One of the degree measurements equals 180 degrees. One of the
complementary angles is said to be the complement of the other. supplementary angles is said to be the supplement of the other.

Example 4: Example 5:

The two angles shown below are complementary. The two angles shown below are supplementary.

Note that these two angles can be “pasted” together to form a right Note that these two angles can be “pasted” together to form a
angle. straight line.

Complementary Angles Perpendicular lines

https://youtu.be/93gal5blsU4 Two lines that meet at a right angle are perpendicular. They are
also said to be “normal” to each other.

Supplementary Angles
https://youtu.be/3gwcv9LSBO8

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Example 5: Supplementary angles

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(a) ¼π radians (b) ¼π radians (c) ½π radians

(d) 23
⁄180π radians (e) 2
⁄5π radians (f) 2
⁄3π radians

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Triangles
There are four types of triangle:  HL (hypotenuse leg of a right triangle) - Two right triangles
are congruent if the hypotenuse and one leg are equal.
 Equilateral triangle
 Isosceles triangle Similar triangles are two triangles which have the same angles but
 Right-angled triangle are of different size.
 Scalene triangle
Equilateral triangle
Triangles always have 3 sides. The interior angles of a triangle add An equilateral triangle has got 3 sides of equal length and 3
up to 180 degrees. angles that are equal. Since all the angles in a triangle add up to
180º then 180 divided by 3 must be 60°.
Congruent and similar triangles
Congruent and similar are two words usually applied to triangles but The clue is in the name ‘equilateral’.
can equally be applied to other shapes.
Isosceles triangle
Congruent triangles are two triangles which have equal angles An isosceles triangle has got two sides of equal length and
and are the same size (i.e. identical in every way) but may be 2 angles equal.
oriented differently. If all three sides in one triangle are the same
length as the corresponding sides in the other, then the triangles What is the value of the angle at the top of the isosceles triangle
are congruent. This is known as the ‘SSS’ rule of congruent shown below? The answer is 80˚. All angles in a triangle add up to
triangles. 180˚ so 180 – (50 + 50) = 80˚

How to tell if triangles are congruent - Any triangle is defined by So an isosceles triangle has only got two sides of equal length and
six measures (three sides, three angles). But you don’t need to two angles the same.
know all of them to show that two triangles are congruent. Various
groups of three will do. Triangles are congruent if: Right-angled triangle
The right-angled triangle (also known as a ‘right-triange’) contains a
 SSS (side side side) - All three corresponding sides are right angle (an angle of 90˚).
equal in length.
In a right-angled triangle what must the other two angles add up to
 SAS (side angle side) - A pair of corresponding sides and
90˚ because all the angles in a triangle add up to 180˚ and a right
the included angle are equal.
angled triangle has got one angle of 90˚.
 ASA (angle side angle) - A pair of corresponding angles and
the included side are equal. Scalene triangle
 AAS (angle angle side) - A pair of corresponding angles and A scalene triangle is the easiest of them all. The scalene triangle
a non-included side are equal. has got no sides of equal length and no angles the same.

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Equilateral triangle Isosceles triangle Scalene triangle

Right-angled triangle
Congruent triangles

Similar triangles

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Pythagoras theorem Calculating the length of one of the shorter sides
Pythagoras’ theorem states that, in any right-angled triangle, the Rearrange Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the length of one of the
square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the shorter sides.
other two sides.
a2 + b2 = c2 calculates the length of the longest side.
If the sides of the right-angled triangle (see below) are labelled a, b
and c then Pythagoras’ theorem states: To calculate the length of one of the shorter sides, rearrange the
formula to make a2 or b2 the subject.

a2 = c2 - b2 or b2 = c2 - a2

Then take the square root to calculate the length a or equation b.

Example 2:
Calculating the length of the hypotenuse
To calculate the length of the hypotenuse, use Pythagoras’ Calculate the length AB in the triangle shown below.
theorem.
a2 + b2 = c2
Example 1:
82 + b2 = 102
Calculate the length of the hypotenuse BC in the triangle shown
below. Rearrange the formula to make b2 the subject:
a2 + b2 = c2 b2 = 102 - 82
82 + 152 = c2 b2 = 36
289 = c2

b = 6 cm
c = 17 cm The length AB is 6 cm.

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Example 2

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Identifying right-angled triangles using Pythagoras’ theorem Pythagorean triples
It is possible to determine if a triangle contains a right angle using A “Pythagorean triple” is a set of positive integers, a, b and c that
Pythagoras’ theorem. fits the rule:

If the squares of the two shorter sides add up to the square of the
hypotenuse, the triangle contains a right angle.

Example 1: Example:

Does the triangle ABC (shown below) contain a right angle? The Pythagorean triple of 3, 4 and 5 (see figure below) makes a
right angled triangle.
a2 + b2 = c2
Other common Pythagorean triples worth remembering are:
52 + 62 = c2
 5, 12, 13
61 = c2  9, 40, 41
The hypotenuse of the triangle is 8. Pythagoras’ Theorem
https://youtu.be/8FJlxRUdHg4
82 = 64

61 does not equal 64. Therefore, the triangle does not

contain a right angle.

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Common Pythagorean triples

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5. What is the length of the side x?

1. Find c.

2. Find a.

6. The diagram shows a kite ABCD. The diagonals cut at right

angles and intersect at O.

What is the length of the diagonal AC?

3. What is the length of the diagonal of a rectangle of length 3

and width 2?

4. Which of the following is NOT a right angle?

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8. A 3m ladder stands on horizontal ground and reaches 2.8 m

up a vertical wall. How far is the foot of the ladder from the
base of the wall?

9. A rectangular field is 125 yards long and the length of one

diagonal of the field is 150 yards. What is the width of the
field?

10. Only one of these triangles is really a right triangle. Which

one?

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1. 25

2. √135

3. √13

4. C

5. 2√11

6. 21

7. 18.8 miles

8. 1.08 m

9. 82.9 yards

10. B

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Polygons
A polygon is a plane shape (two-dimensional) with straight sides. Which can be rearranged like this:
Examples include triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, hexagons
and so on. Interior angle = 180° - 360°/n

A regular polygon has: = (n × 180°/n) - (2 × 180°/n)

 all sides equal and = (n-2) × 180°/n

 all angles equal.
So we also have this:
Otherwise it is irregular.

Here we look at regular polygons only.

Exterior angle Circumcircle, incircle, radius and apothem

The Exterior Angle is the angle between any side of a shape, and a These are the names of the “outer” and “inner” circles (and each
line extended from the next side. radius) that can be drawn on a polygon as shown below.

All the Exterior Angles of a polygon add up to 360°, so: The “outside” circle is called a circumcircle, and it connects all
vertices (corner points) of the polygon.
Each exterior angle must be:
The radius of the circumcircle is also the radius of the polygon.

The “inside” circle is called an incircle and it just touches each side
of the polygon at its midpoint.
Where ‘n’ is the number of sides. The radius of the incircle is the apothem of the polygon.
Interior angles (Not all polygons have those properties, but triangles and regular
The interior angle and exterior angle are measured from the same polygons do).
line, so they add up to 180°.
Math Antics – Polygons
Interior angle = 180° - exterior angle https://youtu.be/IaoZhhx_I9s
We know the exterior angle = 360°/n, so:

Interior angle = 180° - 360°/n

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Circumcircle, incircle,
Exterior angle = 360°/n radius and apothem

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Breaking into triangles
We can learn a lot about regular polygons by breaking them into
triangles as shown below.
sin(π/n) = ½ side / radius side = 2 x radius x sin(π/n)
Notice that:
cos(π/n) = apothem / radius apothem = radius x cos(π/n)
 the “base” of the triangle is one side of the polygon. tan(π/n) = ½ side / apothem side = 2 x radius x tan(π/n)
 the “height” of the triangle is the “apothem” of the polygon

The area of a triangle is half of the base times height, so: Areas
We can use that to calculate the area when we only know the
Area of one triangle = base × ½ height = side × ½ apothem Apothem:

To get the area of the whole polygon, just add up the areas of all Area of the small triangle = ½ apothem × (½ side)
the little triangles (“n” of them):
And we know (from the “tan” formula above) that:
Area of Polygon = n × side × ½ apothem
Side = 2 x Apothem × tan(π/n)
And since the perimeter is all the sides = n × side, we get:
So:
Area of polygon = perimeter × ½ apothem
Area of small triangle = ½ × apothem × (apothem × tan(π/n))
A Smaller triangle
By cutting the triangle in half we get this: = ½ × apothem2 × tan(π/n)
(Note: The angles are in radians, not degrees) And there are 2 such triangles per side, or 2n for the whole polygon:
The small triangle is right-angled and so we can use sine, cosine Area of polygon = n × apothem2 × tan(π/n)
and tangent to find how the side, radius, apothem and “n” are
related. When we don’t know the apothem, we can use the same formula
but re-worked for radius or for side:

Area of polygon = ½ × n × radius2 × sin(2 × π/n)

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Quadrilaterals
There are 6 special types of quadrilateral: Parallelogram
 rectangle A parallelogram has opposite sides parallel and equal in length.
 rhombus Also opposite angles are equal (angles “a” are the same, and
 square angles “b” are the same).
 parallelogram
 trapezoid (US), trapezium (UK and Europe) Note: squares, rectangles and rhombuses are all parallelograms.
 kite Trapezoid (US) – trapezium (UK and Europe)
A trapezoid (called a trapezium in the UK and Europe) has a pair of
Some types are also included in the definition of other types! For
opposite sides parallel.
example, a square, rhombus and rectangle are also parallelograms.
It is called an Isosceles trapezoid if the sides that are not parallel,
Rectangle
are equal in length and both angles coming from a parallel side are
A rectangle is a four-sided shape where every angle is a right angle
equal, as shown below.
(90°). Also opposite sides are parallel and of equal length.
It is a quadrilateral with NO parallel sides.
Rhombus
A rhombus is a four-sided shape where all sides have equal length. Trapezoid Trapezium
Also opposite sides are parallel and opposite angles are equal. In the US: 1 pair of parallel sides no parallel sides
In the UK/Eu: no parallel sides 1 pair of parallel sides
Another interesting thing is that the diagonals (dashed lines in
second figure) meet in the middle at a right angle. In other words, Note: The US and UK/European definitions are swapped over.
they “bisect” (cut in half) each other at right angles.
Irregular quadrilaterals
A rhombus is sometimes called a rhomb or a diamond. The only regular quadrilateral is a square. So all other quadrilaterals
are irregular.
Square
A square has equal sides and every angle is a right angle (90°). Complex quadrilaterals
Also opposite sides are parallel. When two sides cross over, you call it a “complex” or “self-
intersecting” quadrilateral like those shown below.
A square also fits the definition of a rectangle (all angles are 90°),
and a rhombus (all sides are equal length). Polygons
A quadrilateral is a polygon. In fact, it is a 4-sided polygon, just like
a triangle is a 3-sided polygon, a pentagon is a 5-sided polygon,
and so on.

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Math Antics – Quadrilaterals

https://youtu.be/yiREqzDsMP8
Parallelogram

Rectangle

Trapezoid Isosceles trapezoid

Rhombus

Complex quadrilaterals

Square Kite

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1. What is the name of this quadrilateral? 4. What is the name of this quadrilateral?

2. What is the name of this quadrilateral?

5. Which of the following statements is false?

A - A rectangle is also a parallelogram

B - A trapezoid (trapezium) is also a parallelogram

C - A rhombus is also a parallelogram

D - A rhombus is also a kite

6. What is the shape shown below?

3. What is the name of this quadrilateral?

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What is the size of angle D? What is the size of angle B?

8. ABCD is a parallelogram

What is the size of angle A?

10. ABCD is an isosceles trapezoid (isosceles trapezium).

What is the size of angle A?

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1. Rhombus - The rhombus has all 4 sides equal. It also has 7. 55°
opposite sides parallel and opposite angles equal.
The interior angles of a quadrilateral add up to 360°
2. Kite - The kite has two pairs of sides.
Their sum is (83° + 107° + 115°) = 305°
Each pair is made up of adjacent sides that are equal in
length. So angle D = 360° - 305° = 55°

3. Trapezoid (US) or trapezium (UK and Europe) - the 8. 129°

trapezoid (US) or trapezium (UK and Europe) has one pair
of opposite sides parallel. The interior angles of a quadrilateral add up to 360°

4. Parallelogram - the parallelogram has opposite sides We also know that opposite angles of a parallelogram are
parallel and equal in length, and opposite angles equal. equal, so angle B must also be 51°

5. B - a trapezoid (called a trapezium in the UK and Europe) That leaves 360° - 51° - 51° = 360° - 102° = 258°
has just one pair of opposite sides parallel. A trapezoid is,
therefore, not a parallelogram. So angle A + angle C = 258°

6. Kite - the shape has all the properties of a kite: Angles A and C must also be equal in a parallelogram,

So angle A = angle C = ½ × 258° = 129°

 It has two pairs of sides.
 Each pair is made up of adjacent sides that are equal in Alternative method
length. Since opposite angles are equal and all four angles add to
 The angles are equal where the pairs meet. 360°, we could also think that angles A and D must add to
 Diagonals (dashed lines) meet at a right angle, and one 180° (half of 360°)
of the diagonal bisects (cuts equally in half) the other.
180° - 51° = 129°

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The interior angles of a quadrilateral add up to 360°

We know angles A and C:

 A + C = 88° + 64° = 152°

 so that leaves 360° - 152° = 208° for angles B and D

 We also know that a kite has two equal angles, so ∠B =

∠D

 so angle B = angle D = ½ × 208° = 104°

10. 121°

The interior angles of a quadrilateral add up to 360°

We also know that an isosceles trapezoid has two pairs of

equal angles, so ∠C = ∠D

and ∠A = ∠B

 angle C + angle D = 59° + 59° = 118°

 so angle A + angle B = 360° - 118° = 242°

 so angle A = angle B = ½ × 242° = 121°

(Note that this also means that ∠A + ∠D = 180° and that ∠B

+ ∠C = 180°)

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Circles
An angle made from points sitting on the circle’s circumference. Math Antics - Circles, What Is PI?
https://youtu.be/cC0fZ_lkFpQ
A and C are ‘end points’. B is the ‘apex point’
Math Antics - Circles, Circumference And Area
Angle at centre theorem https://youtu.be/O-cawByg2aA
An inscribed angle a° is half of the central angle 2a°
Everything About Circle Theorems - In 3 minutes!
Angle subtended by same arc theorem https://youtu.be/XUus6-9E9sQ
Keeping the endpoints fixed, the angle a° is always the same, no
matter where it is on the circumference.

Angle in a semicircle theorem (Thales’ theorem)

An angle inscribed in a semicircle is always a right angle.

(The end points are either end of a circle’s diameter, the apex point
can be anywhere on the circumference.)

The inscribed angle 90° is half of the central angle 180°.

Cyclic quadrilateral
A “cyclic” quadrilateral has every vertex on a circle’s circumference.

A cyclic quadrilateral’s opposite angles add to 180°.

a + c = 180°

b + d = 180°

Tangent angle
A tangent is a line that just touches a circle at one point.

It always forms a right angle with the circle’s radius.

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The inscribed
angle 90° is
half of the
central angle
180° No matter where that angle
Angle in a semicircle theorem is on the circumference, it is
always 90°

A tangent is a
A cyclic line that just
quadrilateral has touches a
every vertex on a A cyclic circle at one
circle’s quadrilateral’s point. It always
circumference opposite forms a right
angles add to angle with the
180° circle’s radius.

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1. AB is a diameter of a circle, centre O. C is a point on the 3. L, M and N are points on the circumference of a circle,
circumference of the circle, such that ∠CAB = 26°. centre O.

What is the size of ∠CBA? ∠MON = 98°.

What is the size of ∠MLN?

2. AB is a diameter of a circle, centre O. 4. L, M and N are points on the circumference of a circle,

centre O.
C is a point on the circumference of the circle, such that
∠CAB = 2 × ∠CBA ∠MLN = 42°.

What is the size of ∠CBA? What is the size of ∠MON?

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
5. V, W, X and Y are points on the circumference of a circle, 7. ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral drawn inside a circle
centre O. Chords VX and WY intersect at the point Z. centre O.

∠XVW = 72° and ∠VXY = 38° ∠ABC = 108°

What is the size of ∠VZW? What is the size of ∠ADC?

8. WXYZ is a cyclic quadrilateral drawn inside a circle centre O

6. A, B, C and D are points on the circumference of a circle,
and V is on the line XW extended.
centre O.
∠XYZ = 83°
Chords AB and CD intersect at the point X.
What is the size of ∠VWZ?
∠AXD = 92° and ∠CBA = 57°

What is the size of ∠DAX?

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∠SRT = 40° ∠SUT = 72°

What is the size of ∠SUT? What is the size of ∠SRT?

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1. 64°

2. 30°

3. 49°

4. 84°

5. 70°

6. 31°

7. 72°

8. 83°

9. 70°

10. 36°

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Graphical representations
Bar graph Histograms
A bar graph (also called ‘bar chart’) is a graphical display of data A histogram is a graphical display of data using bars of different
using bars of different heights. heights.

Bar graphs are used to compare things between different groups or It is similar to a bar chart, but a histogram groups numbers into
to track changes over time. However, when trying to measure ranges.
change over time, bar graphs are best when the changes are
larger. Example:

Imagine you just did a survey of your friends to find which kind of Height of orange trees
film they liked most:
You measure the height of every tree in the orchard in centimeters.

The heights vary from 100 cm to 340 cm.

You decide to put the results into groups of 50 cm:

 The 100 to just below 150 cm range,

We can show that on a bar graph like that shown below.  The 150 to just below 200 cm range,
 etc...
It is a good way to show relative sizes: we can see which types of
movie are most liked, and which are least liked, at a glance. So a tree that is 260 cm tall is added to the 250-300 range.
We can use bar graphs to show the relative sizes of many things, From the resulting histogram shown below, you can see (for
such as what type of car people have, how many customers a shop example) that there are 30 trees from 150 cm to just below 200 cm
has on different days and so on. tall.
Bar graphs can be displayed vertically, or horizontally, such as the The range of each bar is also called the class interval.
bar graphs shown below, taken from a survey of people’s favourite
fruit. In the example above each class interval is 50 cm.

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A horizontal
bar graph
A vertical
bar graph

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Frequency histogram Pie chart
A frequency histogram is a special histogram that uses vertical A pie chart is a special chart that uses “pie slices” to show relative
columns to show frequencies (how many times each score occurs): sizes of data.

The histogram shown below shows how often 1 occurs (2 times), Pie charts are best to use when you are trying to compare parts of a
how often 2 occurs (5 times), etc., and shown them as a histogram. whole. They do not show changes over time.

Histogram vs. Bar Graphs Remember you surveyed your friends to find the kind of film they
https://youtu.be/F0zxwK7-OeY like most:

Line graphs
A line graph shows information that is connected in some way (such
as change over time).

Line graphs are used to track changes over short and long periods
of time. When smaller changes exist, line graphs are better to use
The results are shown below, this time as a pie chart.
than bar graphs. Line graphs can also be used to compare changes
over the same period of time for more than one group. It is a good way to show relative sizes: it is easy to see which movie
types are most liked, and which are least liked, at a glance.
Line graphs are commonly used in aircraft maintenance to carry out
‘trend analysis’ of engine and airframe parameters (such as exhaust Area or system graph
gas temperature, fuel consumption, oil pressure etc.). This is done Area (or system) graphs are very similar to line graphs. They can
to help to predict possible component or system failures and thus be used to track changes over time for one or more groups or
enable maintenance action before failure actually occurs. systems on an aircraft. Area graphs are good to use when you are
tracking the changes in two or more related groups that make up
Example:
one whole system (for example, fuel pressure and oil pressure).
Over a period of 4 days, you measure the oil consumption rate (in
System graphs are often used as a troubleshooting tool for aircraft
quarts) of a piston engine. These are the results:
systems, especially engines.

Bar Charts and Pie Charts

https://youtu.be/foyPpC3XjhE

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A line graph showing the trend of oil consumption

of a piston engine (in quarts)
A frequency histogram

A pie chart

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The x- and y-axis Example 1:

An equation involving two variables can be represented by a graph
drawn on ‘coordinates axes’. Coordinate axes (illustrated below) The point (3, 2) may be plotted on the coordinate axes as shown
consist of a horizontal line (usually referred to as the x-axis) and a below.
vertical line (usually referred to as the y-axis). The point of
intersection of these two lines is called the origin (usually denoted Example 2:
by the letter ‘0’).
Consider the diagram below.
Along the x and y axes we can mark off units of measurement (not
necessarily the same on both axes). The origin takes the value zero The points A, B, C, D, E and F above are defined by their
on both axes. The x axis takes positive values to the right of the coordinates as follows:
origin and negative values to the left of the origin. The y axis takes
A (1, 4) D (- 4, 1)
positive values above the origin and negative values below the
origin. B (3, 2) E (- 5, - 3)
Any point on this diagram can be defined by its coordinates C (2, 1) F (3, - 2)
(consisting of two numbers). The first, the x coordinate, is defined
as the horizontal distance of the point from the y axis; the second, Plotting Points on the Coordinate Plane
the y coordinate, is defined as the vertical distance of the point from https://youtu.be/s7NKLWXkEEE
the x axis.

In general, a point is defined by its coordinates which are written in

the form (a, b).

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Example 1

Example 2

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1. Plot the following points on coordinate axes.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Graphs of equations and functions Linear functions
Graphs of equations and functions (sometimes known as ‘X-Y These are functions of the form:
plots’) are used to determine relationships between the two different
things.

The x-axis is used to measure one event (or variable) and the y-
axis is used to measure the other. If both variables increase at the where ‘m’ and ‘c’ are constants. A typical use for linear functions is
same time, they have a positive relationship. converting from one quantity or set of units to another. Graphs of
these functions are straight lines.
If one variable decreases while the other increases, they have a
negative relationship. Sometimes the variables do not follow any ‘m’ is the slope and ‘c’ is the y-axis intercept. If m is positive, then
pattern and have no relationship. the line rises to the right and if m is negative then the line falls to the
right.
There are 8 different types of X-Y plot:
Equations of Linear Functions
 linear https://youtu.be/zxVSN9IdLs0
 quadratic
Quadratic functions
 power
These are functions of the form:
 polynomial
 rational
 exponential
 logarithmic
 sinusoidal where a, b and c are constants. Their graphs are called parabolas.
In each case the argument (input) of the function is called ‘x’ and This is the next simplest type of function after the linear function.
the value (output) of the function is called ‘y’.
Falling objects move along parabolic paths. If ‘a’ is a positive
Sometimes, the ‘y’ is replaced with the term ‘f(x)’. This means that number, then the parabola opens upward and if ‘a’ is a negative
the shape of the graph is a ‘function of x’. number then the parabola opens downward.

Intro to Quadratic Functions

https://youtu.be/12Thn-tVPGo

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Linear functions
Quadratic functions
Functions are of the form y = mx + c
‘m’ is the slope and ‘c’ is the y-axis intercept. Functions are of the form y = ax2 + bx + c
where a, b and c are constants.
If m is positive, then the line rises to the right and
if m is negative then the line falls to the right. Their graphs are called parabolas.

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where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants.

If b = 2 it is called a ‘squaring function’.

If b = 3 it is called a ‘cubing function’.

If b = ½ it is the same as y = a √x, and it is called a square root

function.

If b = ⅓ It is the same as y = a 3√x, and it is called a cube root

function.

They get their name from the fact that the variable ‘x’ is raised to
some power.

Many physical laws (e.g. the gravitational force as a function of

distance between two objects, or the bending of a beam as a
function of the load on it) are in the form of power functions.

We will assume that ‘a’ = 1 and look at several cases for ‘b’. See
the figures below.

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The power ‘b’ is a positive integer. The power ‘b’ is a negative integer. The power ‘b’ is a fraction between
0 and 1.
When x = 0 these functions are all When x = 0 these functions suffer a
zero. When x is big and positive division by zero and therefore are all When x = 0 these functions are all zero. The
they are all big and positive. When infinite. When x is big and positive curves are vertical at the origin and as x
x is big and negative then the ones they are small and positive. When x increases they increase but curve toward the
with even powers are big and is big and negative then the ones x-axis.
positive while the ones with odd with even powers are small and
powers are big and negative. positive while the ones with odd
powers are small and negative.

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where an, an−1, … , a2, a1, a0 are constants.

Only whole number powers of ‘x’ are allowed. The highest power of
‘x’ that occurs is called the degree of the polynomial.

The graph below shows examples of 4th degree and 5th degree
polynomials. The degree gives the maximum number of “ups and
downs” that the polynomial can have and also the maximum
number of crossings of the x-axis that it can have.

Polynomials are useful for generating smooth curves in computer

graphics applications and for approximating other types of
functions.

Analyzing Graphs of Polynomial Functions

https://youtu.be/KZgMkLhPexs

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Showing 4th degree and 5th degree polynomials. The degree gives the
maximum number of “ups and downs” that the polynomial can have and
also the maximum number of crossings of the x-axis that it can have

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When the polynomial in the denominator is zero then the rational

function becomes infinite as indicated by a vertical dotted line
(called an asymptote) in its graph. For the example shown
below left, this happens when x = -2 and when x = 7.

When x becomes very large, the curve may level off. The curve
shown below levels off at y = 5.

The graph below right shows another example of a rational function.

This one has a division by zero at x = 0. It does not level off, but
does approach the straight line y = x when x is large, as indicated
by the dotted line (another asymptote).

Basic Algebraic Functions and their Graphs

https://youtu.be/_TCiSVkUMMc

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These functions are the ratio of two polynomials.

When the polynomial in the denominator is zero then the rational function
becomes infinite as indicated by a vertical dotted line (called an asymptote).

When x becomes very large, the curve may level off.

When there is a division by zero at x = 0, it does not level off, but does
approach the straight line y = x when x is large (another asymptote).

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where x is in an exponent (not in the base as was the case for

power functions) and ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants. (Note that only ‘b’ is
raised to the power ‘x’; not ‘a’.).

If the base b is greater than 1 then the result is an exponential

growth.

Many physical quantities grow exponentially (e.g. animal

populations and cash in an interest-bearing account).

If the base ‘b’ is smaller than 1 then the result is exponential decay.
Many quantities decay exponentially (e.g. the sunlight reaching a
given depth of the ocean and the speed of an object slowing down
due to friction).

Introduction to Exponential Functions

https://youtu.be/ceWQ_t-YtjM

Graphing Exponential Functions

https://youtu.be/V0JgN9wgR8Q

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These are functions of the form y = abx

where x is in an exponent (not in the base as was the case for power functions)
and ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants. (Note that only ‘b’ is raised to the power ‘x’; not ‘a’).

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where ‘x’ is in the natural logarithm and ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants.
They are only defined for positive ‘x’.

For small x they are negative and for large x they are positive but
stay small.

Logarithmic functions accurately describe the response of the

human ear to sounds of varying loudness and the response of the
human eye to light of varying brightness.

Graphing Logarithmic Functions

https://youtu.be/Ort4z9NEbDA

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

https://youtu.be/YwKmT73cnzg

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Logarithmic functions are of the form y = a ln(x) + b,

where ‘x’ is in the natural logarithm and ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants. They are only
defined for positive ‘x’.

For small x they are negative and for large x they are positive but stay small.

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where ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ are constants.

Note that the term ‘sinusoidal’ denotes only the shape of the curve.

The function includes also cosine, since sin (x + 90) = -cos (x).

Sinusoidal functions are useful for describing anything that has a

wave shape with respect to position or time.

Examples are waves on the water, the height of the tide during the
course of the day and alternating current in electricity. Parameter ‘a’
(called the amplitude) affects the height of the wave, ‘b’ (the angular
velocity) affects the width of the wave and ‘c’ (the phase angle)
shifts the wave left or right.

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These are functions of the form y = a sin (bx + c),

where ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ are constants.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Plotting graphs of equations
An equation involving two variables can be represented, on Graphing Equations by Plotting Points
coordinate axes, by means of a graph. https://youtu.be/mYYGQrRQeUw

For a given range of values of x, the corresponding y values can be

calculated from the equation being considered. The points obtained
can then be plotted and joined together to form the graph.

Before plotting the points on a graph, the axes must be drawn in a

way that takes into account the range of the x-values and the range
of the y-values. If graph paper is used (which is desirable) you
should use a scale that involves a sensible number of units per
square i.e. you should use steps of, for example, 1, 2, 5 or 10, etc.
units per square depending on the question. You should avoid
using steps along the axes of, for example, 7 or 9 units per square
as this can complicate the graph unnecessarily.

Example 1:

Draw the graph of y = 2x + 1 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5.

By taking x values of 0, 1, 2, …5, we can calculate the

corresponding y values, as shown below, by first evaluating the
component parts of the equation.

We then plot the points obtained, each point being defined by its
x coordinate and its corresponding y coordinate. The points are
then joined together to form the graph.

In this example the points to be plotted are (0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 5),
(3, 7), (4, 9), (5, 11).

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Draw a graph of y = x2 – 8x + 12 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 6.

We again take x values covering the given range, and calculate the
corresponding y values from the given equation.

We now plot the points obtained and join them together to form the
graph. In this example the points to be plotted are (0, 12), (1, 5),
(2, 0), (3, - 3), (4, - 4), (5, - 3), (6, 0).

Note: For a more detailed graph we could, of course, include more

points. e.g. by taking x values of 0, ½, 1, 1½, 2, 2½, …5½, 6
and calculating the corresponding y values, we could plot
nearly twice as many points as we did in the above
example.

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Draw a graph of y = x2 + 1 for - 3 ≤ x ≤ + 3

Again, taking x values covering the given range, we first calculate

the corresponding y values from the given equation.

We now plot the points obtained and join them together to form the
graph.

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1. Draw graphs of the following functions for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5

2. Draw graphs of the following functions for -3 ≤ x ≤ 3

(i) y = 2x2 + 7

(ii) y = 3x2 – 12

(iii) y= x3 – 7

(iv) y = 4x3 – 15x2 – 16x + 64

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
The straight line
A straight line is defined as the shortest distance between two
points.

The equation of a straight line is given by:

Hence the line cuts the x axis at x = 2

where m represents the slope (also known as ‘gradient’) of the line We can now say that the y intercept = 6 and the x intercept = 2
and c is the point where the line crosses the y-axis (i.e. they
intercept). The point where the line crosses the x-axis is called the x Example 3:
intercept.
Graph of y = -2 + 4x
Straight Line Graphs y=mx+c
https://youtu.be/rWC25CybfUA In this example, m = 4 and c = - 2

Example 1: We know, immediately, that they intercept is - 2 (i.e. the value of c).

Graph of y = 2x To find the x intercept, we substitute y = 0 into the equation of the

line.
In this example, m = 2 and c = 0

Note that whenever c = 0, the line will pass through the origin.

Example 2:

Graph of y = 6 - 3x Hence the x intercept is x = ½

In this example, m = - 3 and c = 6 Coordinate Geometry : Gradient of a straight line

https://youtu.be/DQzkmEnVtLU
As c = 6, we know that this line cuts the y axis at y = 6 (this can be
verified by substituting x = 0 into the equation of the line, as x = 0 Special cases
along the y axis). A straight line parallel to the x-axis takes the form y = constant.

Similarly, as y = 0 along the x axis, we can substitute y = 0 into the Similarly, a straight line parallel to the y-axis takes the form
equation of the line to find where the line intersects with the x axis x = constant.
(i.e. the x intercept).
These cases are illustrated below.
Total Training Support Ltd 3-102
© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Example 1: y = 2x
Example 2: y = 6x - 3

Special cases

Example 3: y = -2 + 4x

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For each of the following equations identify the gradient and

the y-intercept.

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Determining y = mx + c
Given the coordinates of two points, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) say, we can Now (1) and (2) give us two equations in two unknowns, m and c,
calculate the equation of the straight line that passes through these (i.e. simultaneous equations) which we can solve.
points.

Two methods of calculating this equation are illustrated below:

Example:

Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the points
(1, 4) and (3, 10).

Method 1
The general equation of a straight line is given by

y = mx + c

and it is necessary to find numerical values for m and c.

If the straight line in question passes through the two given points, We have:
then each of these points must satisfy the equation of this straight
line. That is, we can substitute the coordinates of each point as If we now substitute these numerical values of m and c into the
follows: equation y = mx + c, we obtain the equation of the straight line
passing through the points (1, 4) and (3, 10).

(1)
Finding the equation of a line given the graph
https://youtu.be/tkBXNS_wxSg

(2)

Total Training Support Ltd 3-108

Note. In this example, the point (1, 4) corresponded to (x1, y1) and
the point (3, 10) corresponded to (x2, y2).

If we had worked through this example with the point (3, 10)
corresponding to (x1, y1), and the point (1, 4) corresponding
to (x2, y2), the answer would have been exactly the same.

How to find the equation of a straight line graph with two points
https://youtu.be/n9tWZixoMRI

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1. Calculate the equation of the straight line that passes 2. Calculate the equation of the straight line that passes
through the following points. through the following points:

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Simple trigonometry
Definition
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships  Sine function (sin), defined as the ratio of the side opposite
involving lengths and angles of triangles. the angle to the hypotenuse.

Trigonometry is most simply associated with planar right-angle  Cosine function (cos), defined as the ratio of the adjacent
triangles (each of which is a two-dimensional triangle with one leg to the hypotenuse.
angle equal to 90 degrees).
 Tangent function (tan), defined as the ratio of the opposite
The applicability to non-right-angle triangles exists, but, since any
leg to the adjacent leg.
non-right-angle triangle (on a flat plane) can be bisected to create
two right-angle triangles, most problems can be reduced to
calculations on right-angle triangles. Thus the majority of
applications relate to right-angle triangles.

Sine, cosine and tangent

If one angle of a triangle is 90 degrees and one of the other angles
is known, the third is thereby fixed, because the three angles of any
triangle add up to 180 degrees. The two acute angles therefore add
up to 90 degrees: they are complementary angles.

The shape of a triangle is completely determined, except for

similarity, by the angles. Once the angles are known, the ratios of Trigonometry Lessons Part 1: Definitions
the sides are determined, regardless of the overall size of the https://youtu.be/0UM5xzerIC0
triangle.
Basic Trigonometry: Sin, Cos, Tan
If the length of one of the sides is known, the other two are
https://youtu.be/X5uFqpypDy4
determined. These ratios are given by the following trigonometric
functions of the known angle A, where a, b and c refer to the
How to Remember the Unit Circle
lengths of the sides in the figure below.
https://youtu.be/qTbDQ9gkKJg

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“Adjacent” is adjacent (next to) to the angle θ

“Hypotenuse” is the long one

Adjacent is always next to the angle

And Opposite is opposite the angle

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Trigonometrical relationships
By using Pythagoras, you are now able to partially solve Now consider the similar triangles shown below (right).
right-angled triangles, i.e. you can find the third side of a
right-angled triangle when given its other 2 sides. This section is In both cases side ‘c’ is the hypotenuse.
concerned with establishing the basic trigonometrical concepts
which will later enable you to completely solve right-angled Taking angle A as the reference:
triangles, i.e. to find all their 6 elements (angles and sides).
 Side ‘a’ is the side opposite
Similar triangles are triangles which are the same shape, one is  Side ‘b’ is the adjacent side
simply an enlargement of the other. Two important properties of
similar triangles are: Taking angle B as the reference:

 their corresponding angles are equal.  Side ‘b’ is the side opposite
 their corresponding sides are proportional.  Side ‘a’ is the adjacent side

Consider the pair of triangles shown below (left):

The triangles are similar since they are equiangular and the ratios
of their corresponding sides are constant, i.e.

The above are the fundamental trigonometrical ratios for

right-angled triangles and must be remembered.

A convenient method to help you to remember them is

‘SOHCAHTOA’ or ‘SohCahToa’

Where:

S = sin,
C = cos
T = tan.

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Similar triangles

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Example: Small and large angles
We will now investigate how the values of sin, cos and tan vary with
For the triangle shown below (left), find: the magnitude of the angle.

 sine of angle B When angle A is very small:

 cosine of angle B

 tangent of angle B

When angle A is large:

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Large angle A

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Note: The maximum value of sin and cos is 1, but the maximum
value of tan is infinity (∞).

30, 60, 90 triangle

We have seen that trigonometrical ratios vary as the angle varies
and have calculated values for 0° and 90°. We will now calculate
the values for 30° and 60°.

Consider the equilateral triangle ABC of sides 2 units.

In triangle ABD, ∠A = 60°, ∠B = 30° and ∠D = 90°

Thus, in right-angled triangle ABD:

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Graphical representation of sine, cosine and tangent
We can now collect all our information and show graphically how You can, of course, use a graph to find the sin and cos of angles
the basic trigonometrical ratios change as the angle increases from between 0 and 90°. For tan, this is only practical (because of length
zero to 90°. of axis) up to about 45°. You should note from the curves of
y = sin θ and y = cos θ that there is a definite relationship between
The sine curve sin and cos, e.g.:

 sin 30° = cos 60° = 0.5000

This is the curve drawn (see below) when you put all the figures on  sin 45° = cos 45° = 0.7071
the graph from the table above. As you can see, this curve is in a
 sin 60° = cos 30° = 0.8660
wave form. This wave can continue past 360° and go into the
negatives.
 sin 80° = cos 10° and so on.
The cosine curve
Trigonometric Graphs and the Unit Circle
https://youtu.be/H0QveRy8OgY

If you look at this curve drawn (see below) you can see it is actually
the same as the sine curve except it is a different section (i.e. this
peaks at 0° where the sine curve peaks at 90°).

The tan curve

The tan curve is very different from the others. It is a non-

continuous which breaks as the value at the breaking point
(when x = 90° or x = 270°) is infinity. Again this curve can be
continued with the section from x = 90° to x = 270° repeated.

From the curves (see below) we can see there is always more than
one possible value for any number you are working out the inverse
of (sin- 1 0.5 = 30° or 150°). The problem is that your calculator only
gives you one of the values (the one below 90°). You must
remember the curves to find the position of the second angle.

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Tangent curves

Cosine curve

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Special trigonometric functions and identities
Although less often used, other trigonometrical terms can be Square relations (also known as the fundamental identities):
derived from the basic terms sin and cos. These terms are called
cot (cotangent), sec (secant) and cosec (cosecant). They are
determined as follows:

Trigonometry Lessons Part 2: Identities

https://youtu.be/MahKG1aPakA

Trigonometry Lessons Part 3: Identities

https://youtu.be/kBh6L3cQYXg
Reciprocal relations:
Unit circle
Unit circle with a radius of 1 with its center at 0.

Because the radius is 1, we can directly measure sine, cosine and

tangent.

Here we see the sine and cosine function being made by the unit
circle, as the radius rotates counter clockwise.

Note: When a lowercase letter is used in any trig function e.g. sin,
cos, tan, we consider angles between 0 and 90 degrees
only.

When the trig function starts with an uppercase letter such

as Sin, Cos, Tan, we consider all angles 0-360 degrees.
Many of the trig functions of angles repeat, at each
additional 90 degree (especially when the negative signs are
ignored)

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Sine curve

Cosine curve
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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Finding the length of an unknown side
So far we have evaluated the sine, cosine and tangent of angles,
given the 3 sides of a right-angled triangle. Now we see how to
solve a right-angled triangle, given any side and 2 angles.

From the right-angled triangle shown below (left):

To find side c.

Note: If we use trigonometry to find side ‘c’, it necessitates our

using angle A which we have just found. If we have made an
error in calculating angle A, this would also result in an error
in side ‘c’. By using Pythagoras, we use only given
information and thus the possibility of ‘carrying’ an error is
eliminated.

Example 1:

In the right-angled triangle ABC shown below (right), find angle A

and side c.

To find angle A.

Note: In terms of angle a, we are given the side opposite and the
side adjacent.

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Example 1: Right-angled triangle

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
Use of tables
In mathematics, tables of trigonometric functions are useful in a
number of areas. Before the existence of pocket calculators,
trigonometric tables were essential for navigation, science and
engineering. The calculation of mathematical tables was an
important area of study, which led to the development of the first
mechanical computing devices.

To find values of trig functions of angles that fall between those

values listed, an interpolation technique is required.

Modern computers and pocket calculators now generate

trigonometric function values on demand, using special libraries of
mathematical code. Often, these libraries use pre-calculated tables
internally, and compute the required value by using an appropriate
interpolation method.

Interpolation of simple look-up tables of trigonometric functions is

still used in computer graphics, where only modest accuracy may
be required and speed is often more important.

For some standard angles, i.e. 0, 30, 45, 60 and 90 degrees, a

standard matrix of trig functions can be memorized and recalled as
required.

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1. For the triangle shown, find the sine, cosine and tangent of 3. For the triangle shown below:
∠A and ∠C.
(a) What is the value of sin θ?

(b) What is the value of tan θ?

4. For the triangle shown below, what is the value of csc(Φ)?

2. The classic 60° triangle has a hypotenuse of length 2, an
opposite side of length √3 and an adjacent side of length1:

(a) What is the value of cos(60°)?

(b) What is the value of tan(60°)?

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(a) What is the value of sec θ?

(b) What is the value of cot θ?

6. For the triangle below:

(a) What is the value of sin θ + cos θ?

(b) What is the value of cot θ + csc θ?

Total Training Support Ltd 3-133

2. a) 0.5

b) 1.732

3. a) 0.6

b) 0.75

4. 1.1333

5. a) 2.6

b) 0.4167

6. a) 1.24

b) 7

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Rectangular coordinates Polar coordinates

Using rectangular (also called ‘cartesian’) coordinates, you mark a Using polar coordinates, you mark a point by how far away, and
point by how far along and how far up it is (x and y coordinates): what angle it is (r and θ coordinates):

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So, to convert from rectangular coordinates (x, y) to polar

coordinates (r, θ):

To convert from rectangular to polar

If you have a point in rectangular coordinates (x, y) and need it in
polar coordinates (r, θ), you need to solve a triangle where you
know two sides.

Example: what is (12, 5) in polar coordinates?

Use Pythagoras Theorem to find the long side (the hypotenuse):

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© Copyright 2016 Module 1.3 Geometry Issue 2 – September 2016
To convert from polar to rectangular coordinates So, to convert from polar coordinates (r, θ) to rectangular
If you have a point in polar coordinates (r, θ), and need it in coordinates (x, y):
rectangular coordinates (x, y) you need to solve a triangle where
you know the long side and the angle:

Example: what is (13, 23°) in rectangular coordinates?

Polar coordinates
https://youtu.be/1jz7S1Cefsk

Use the cosine function for x:

Rearranging and solving:

Use the sine function for y:

Rearranging and solving:

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1. Convert the following rectangular coordinates into polar

coordinates:

2. Convert the following polar coordinates into rectangular

coordinates

π/4

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