Training on Research Proposal Writing

Organized by Wollo University,

Department of Public Health

By Lemma Derseh

November 2015

1
 Research
 The essences of developing countries like poverty, inadequate
drinking water, heavy disease burden, etc., all are a matter of
using science or not

 Science is a study and understanding of natural phenomena

 It is of course concerned with empirical data, data that can be

observed, tested, and repeated; and

 It follows the scientific method to understand any phenomenon

through research

So what is Research?
 Research

 Research is an investigational process that involves the scientific

method to find pertinent information on a specific topic.

 Its purpose is to discover answers to questions through the

application of scientific procedures

 Research aims to develop a new knowledge or to make our life

better (technology or improvement in procedure)
 Types of Research
Descriptive/Analytic

 Descriptive research: includes surveys and fact-finding

enquiries. The main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report
what has happened or what is happening

 In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has

to use facts or information already available, and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
 Type of Research study cont..

Applied/Basic research
 Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization

 ‘Pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” is “Gathering knowledge for

knowledge’s sake
 Type of Research study cont..

Quantitative/Qualitative Research
 Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how
people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is also qualitative research

 Quantitative Research: Quantifying the a certain characteristics or

quantifying relationships among variables
 Type of Research study cont..
Secondary/ Primary research
 Secondary research means that you are not gathering or creating
your own empirical data but are using existing data that someone
else has collected, recorded and analyzed. Generally this applies
within the Humanities and some social science topics (Sociology,
History, Politics)

 Primary research means you are going to collect or create your

own data through applying different methods of data collection
(ie. experiments, interviews or questionnaires, surveys or by
compiling statistical charts). It is also called empirical research
What is a research proposal?
 Research proposal

 A research proposal is a document that proposes a research project

Any research should have a proper proposal in written form

before it is actually carried out

 It is like a blue print of a building plan before the construction starts

Writing a research proposal is both science and art

A good research proposal is based on scientific facts and on the art

of clear communication
 Research proposal cont…

 A proposal describes the proposed plan of work. The description

can be viewed as:

What you intend to study (scope and research questions).

How you intend to study your topic (methodology).

Why this topic needs to be studied (significance).

When you will complete this work (timeline).

(Occasionally) Where you will conduct this work.

 Research proposal structure

 The structure and size of your Research Proposal will vary

depending on the requirements of your Discipline, Faculty or
School.

 In this case, the initial step is to find out departmental guidelines

and requirements.

 The second reason for the difference in size and structure of a

proposal is the kind of research you are undertaking – i.e.

 whether you are doing what is called primary research or

secondary research, or quantitative or qualitative etc.
 Research proposal structure cont…
Nevertheless, there are certain elements that most Research Proposal
requires and these should be presented in the following order
Title
Acknowledgment, Table of content, List of tables, List of graphs,
and Acronym
Summary
Problem statement
 literature review
Objectives
Methods
Work plan
Cost of the project
References
Annex
 Title
 It should be clear, concise, descriptive and meaningful.

 It should be free of jargon and overstatement.

 Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because such

titles clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables.

 Title must reflect the central theme: selling point

 Avoid redundancies or non-informative words like ‘a study of…..or ‘an
investigation of…… etc
 Abbreviation or acronyms should not appear in the title
 Scientific names in the title should be in italics.
 The title should contain 12 to 15 words.
 Unlike all other sections in a proposal the title should not have a heading
 Title cont…
 The words in the title should reflect the focus of your proposal and
therefore, put the most important words first
 Title #1 -Red Haired Musicians and their Preference for Musical Style

 Title #2 -Music Style Preference of Red Haired Musicians

 The project with Title #1 appears to be focused on Red Haired Musicians.

 The project with Title #2 appears to be focused on Musical Style
Preference.
 Write/revise the title after the completion of the proposal

 Why Last?
 Title cont…
In addition to the title, the following information would be included
in the title page
 Author’s name and affiliation
 Avoid use of words like ‘By….. ‘from…..
 Preferred order of names- start with 1st, middle followed by last
name.
 Full names should be used, initials should be avoided.
 Titles like Dr., prof., etc should not appear in the names.
 Affiliation should be well illustrated i.e. ‘A thesis proposal
submitted to the Department of … in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of … of University of
….’
 The year should follow at the bottom
 Table of content, List of tables, figures
and acronyms

 Table of contents: Must be Written in Title Case

 List of Tables

 List of Figures
 Acronyms: For terms not universally known, spell out the term
the first time it is used followed by the appropriate abbreviation in
parentheses; the abbreviation may be used thereafter.
 Summary
 It is a brief statement of the problem, objectives of the study,
target population, sampling technique and sample size,
instruments, and plan for data collection, data processing and
analysis

 It determines the first impression to the reviewers and therefore,

concisely describe every part of your proposal

 Write it last, following the logic of the proposal

 Brief, usually between 250-350 words, however, it depends on the

institution or journal
Problem statement

What is problem statement?

 Statement of the problem
 Whereas a research topic is simply a broad area of interest, a research
problem is a statement about what is problematic about the topic of
interest in a specific population.

 The component of a proposal could vary as to institutions especially in

regards of addressing the problem statement. Some institutions use the
component called ‘Introduction’ under which the subtitles called
‘background’ and ‘problem statement’ are included. In that case,

A. Background – shows the understanding and genesis of the

problem. Discussion will be made from global perspective to
local scenario. The target group in the study, etc. will also be
discussed.
 Statement of the problem

B. Statement of the problem- discusses exactly what the problem is,

indicate why and how it is a problem, gives information to support
this (e.g. by use of statistics or evidence). This would be derived
from background information to illustrate connectivity.

 On the other hand, other institutions use ‘statement of the

problem’ from which background information, the problem
statement, methodology, justification and other relevant elements
would be briefed.

 However, whether you used ‘introduction’ or ‘problem statement’,

the points to be discussed inside them would be the same and hence
for our proposal we use the second option, ‘problem statement’.
 Statement of the problem cont …

 It should be understood that a research is set in motion by the

existence of a problem.

 A problem is:
 a perceived difficulty, a feeling of discomfort about the way
things are, or

 a discrepancy between what someone believes the situation

should be and what it is in reality.
 Statement of the problem cont …
 Therefore, the heart of a proposal/paper is the problem statement.

 This is the place where most committee members or evaluators go first to

understand and assess the merits of a proposal

 After reading the problem statement, the reader will know why you are
doing this study and be convinced of its importance.

Steps in writing a problem statement

a. Identifying a problem situation
b. Problem definition/description
 In terms of its occurrence, intensity, distribution, and other measures for which
data are already available
c. Proposed solution
 Statement of the problem cont …
I. Identifying a problem situation

The first question that must be asked to identify the problem is:
What is the overriding problem?
Is that poor conditions in health?

Is that health service delivery?

Is that patient satisfaction?

Is that growth of use of substances?

It that the raise of unwanted pregnancy or what?

 Statement of the problem cont …

II. Defining/describing the problem

 Provide a brief but appropriate background of the historical
literature in the area.

 This is because problem/gap identification and its description will

be built upon previous work or theory
 Defining/describing the cont …

Ask the following types of questions to find & consider the answers
a. Where was/is the problem found?
Health institutions? Universities? Health administration?
Government? Ethiopia? or what …?
b. Who is the victim (the population)?
Male? Female? Students? Urban? Rural? Factory workers? or
who…?
c. How much was/is the magnitude, burden, severity, etc. of the
problem?

 Here when we describe the problem, at the same time the gap will
also be clearly identified as it gets focused .
 Statement of the problem cont …
III. The proposed solution
What needs to be done: to fill the gap identified? to identify the
current reasons why the problem exists? to solve the problem?
 Survey?
 Research?
 Interview?
 Create a new model or what….?

 Finally, after conducting the study, identify and refer to the most
relevant and representative publications to bring out its
significance.
 Statement of the problem cont …
Template for initial draft of problem statement

There is a problem in____1st___(societal organization). Despite _____2nd___

(something that should be happening) ____3rd______ is occurring.
[provided supporting evidence]. This problem has negatively impacted
___4th____(victims of problem) because _____5th___. A possible cause of
this problem is ____6th_____. Perhaps a study which investigates
____7th_____ by ___8th___(paradigm/method) could remedy the
situation.

 The 1st blank is the wider population under problem

 The 2nd and 3rd show the discrepancy
 The 4th is the population of your interest (focus area)
 The 5th is the evidence why the particular population is a victim
 The 6th is the independent variables
 The 7th is the proposed study
 The 8th is the method proposed
 Literature review

What is the aim of literature review?

 Literature Review
 Literature review is the process of synthesizing
information about the state of the science/art on
the problem identified

 When you review literature, you are entering a

scholarly conversation already in progress. The
literature review shows that you’ve been listening
and that you have something valuable to say.

 After assessing the literature in your field, you

should be able to answer the following questions:

 Why should we study (further) this research

topic/problem?
 What contributions will my study make to the
existing literature?
 Literature review cont…
 The answer to the previous questions would lead you to the aim of
‘identifying gaps in the literature’

 Having identified the gap, the way how the study will fill those
gaps will be forwarded

Since research tends to be a

cyclical process, your research
findings lead to a theory
development, and the theory
leads to further research.
 Literature review cont…

 The literature review part should have an introduction, body and

conclusion parts:

 The Introduction section defines the framework of the review,

 The body part evaluates the literature reviewed and

 the conclusion part summarizes the current state of knowledge

on the problem
 Literature review cont…
Introduction part of literature reviewed
 Here an introductory paragraph (not more than one) explaining how the
framework of the review is constructed will be written. That means, explain
how you categorized the literature into recognizable topic clusters

 Usually, the hypothesized variables should be subheadings/clusters of the literature

review to form a framework that would help in analysis.

 For example, we can form subheadings by grouping

independent variables as:
 demographic
 Societal related
 Economic
 Behavioral
 cultural
 Biological etc
 Literature review cont…
The body of literature reviewed
 Review extensively the empirical and theoretical literature relevant to
the problem being investigated
 However, be selective of literature that are relevant or closely related
to the problem and purpose
 Use recent literature (within the past 5 years)
 Emphasize the primary sources avoid use secondary sources
 Concentrate on scholarly research articles
 Indicate what has been done by other researchers including the
methodologies used and identify gaps
 Avoid “Mr. X says this , Mrs. Y says that”.
 Avoid including all the studies on the subject.
 Avoid praise and blame.
 Synthesize the body of literature based on the framing variables
explained in the introduction part in a coherent, relevant and easily
understandable manner
 Literature review cont…
Conclusion part of literature reviewed

 Observe carefully the dialogue of literature from the body of

literature and summarize the current state of knowledge on the
problem in a concise manner

 The conceptual framework could summarize the relationship

among variables
 Literature review cont…
Significance of literature review

 To highlight gaps in the existing research

 It helps the investigator to gain good knowledge in that field of inquiry

including different methodologies that could be applied

 Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel“

 Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research

 Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information

and ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature
 Theoretical or Conceptual Framework
 The theoretical framework usually forms the final part of the literature
review section. It describes the model that you are using in the thesis
to demonstrate your point

 This section will detail the theory that is guiding the proposed study.
From this theory, the researcher is able to inform the statement of the
problem, the purpose of the study, the questions and hypothesis, the
choice of instruments, and methodology of the study.

 It should be clear what paradigm you are working within, what

theoretical assumptions you are making or questioning. You need to
offer a justification for the adoption of the particular methodology you
will use to conduct your research. This needs to be supported by the
literature.
 Justification/siginficance
 The justification of the study illustrates why the research is
conducted and whom it shall benefit.

 A research can be justified by the following four main criteria:

The size of the area/population under problem and those
involved in the study
The gaps in the literature that demand attention

The unusual or improved methodology being used

The benefits in terms of policy and practice

 Research Objectives
Objectives:
 The objectives should describe what you intend to achieve by doing
this piece of work.

 Or they are the steps you are going to take to test your hypotheses or
answer your research question.

 The objectives should be realistic, consistent and linked with

methods, timetable, and outcomes. They must also be SMART
(Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Timely)
 Research Objectives
 Research objectives should be written after the statement of the
problem is developed but before the methodology for the study is
planned

 This is because the objectives follow from the statement of the

problem and show the precise goal of the study, help guide the
development of the research methodology
 Types of Objectives- Based on the scope
 Commonly, research objectives are classified into general objectives
and specific objectives.

 The general objective is closely related to the statement of the

problem and is derived from it.

 Specific objectives are commonly considered as smaller portions of

the general objectives.

 Specific objectives should systematically address the various aspects

of the problem as defined under ‘Statement of the Problem’ and the
key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem.
 Types of Objectives- Based on the scope
Example
 The general objective of this study is to determine the prevalence
and associated factors of unwanted pregnancy among first year
undergraduate female students in Wollo University
Specific objective
 To determine the prevalence of unwanted pregnancy among first
year undergraduate female students in Wollo University
 To examine factors associated with unwanted pregnancy among
first year undergraduate female students in Wollo University
 Note that too many objectives should be avoided; even just one
clearly stated relevant objective for a study would be good enough

 If there is more than one objective the objectives can be presented in

the appropriate order of importance
Types of Objectives- Based on the framework of
stating objectives

Research objectives can take either of the following three

derivatives of a purpose/aim:

Positive sentence
 A clear statement of the specific objectives of the study, which
identifies the key study variables and their possible
interrelationships and the nature of the population of interest.

Example
 The objective of this study is to determine which operative
method of treating a fractured pelvis is associated with a lower
risk of postoperative infection
 Stating objectives
 When developing a specific objective, a researcher should use unbiased
verbs such as:
Determine
Investigate
Compare
Describe
Develop
 Discover
Explore
Test
Example: The objective of this study is to explore the effects of music
therapy on blood pressure in adult BP patients.

 The researcher should avoid biased verbs such as:

Demonstrate, prove, show, understand, appreciate etc.
 Types of Objectives cont...

Research Question
 It is used when a descriptive/exploratory research is required or
when little is known about the problem.

 These are the specific objectives stated in the form of a

questions

E.g. Does the administration of analgesic by nurses vs. by patients

themselves affect pain intensity during the first postoperative
recovery day in older adults?
 Types of Objectives cont...
Research Hypotheses
 It is used in an explanatory research i.e. they are predictive
statements as enough is known about the problem.

 There is a prediction of the answer to the research question

Examples
 Hypothesis: There will be a difference in knee injury occurrence
during ovulation.

 Null Hypothesis: There will be no difference in knee injury

occurrence during ovulation.
 Research methodology

 Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research

problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is
done scientifically

 The guiding principle for writing the Method section is that it should
contain sufficient information for the reader to determine whether the
method is sound

 However, the methodology do not have to be explain in great detail, but

should justify its significance over other methodologies.
 Research Methodology cont…
Components of research methodology
 Study setting
 Study design
 Target population
 Study population
 Sample size and sampling procedure
 Variables
 Operational definitions of key terms
 Tools/instrument.
 Data collection procedures
 Plan for analysis of data and interpretation of the results
 Ethical considerations
 Research Methodology cont…
Study setting

 It is related to the study area and other characteristics which are

more related to the study; add as a brief background.

 Include map if possible (1-2 Paragraphs)

 Research Methodology cont…

Study design
 A study design is a specific plan or protocol for conducting the
study, which allows the investigator to translate the conceptual
hypothesis into an operational one.

 The study design to be used should be appropriate for achieving

the objective of the study and should also be clearly stated
 Research Methodology cont…

There are two broad groups of research designs

 Experimental

 Non-experimental (observational)

 Experiment - Set of observations, conducted under controlled

circumstances, in which the scientist (researcher) manipulates the
condition to ascertain what effect such manipulation has on the
outcome

 All experimental studies are longitudinal since subjects are

followed from exposure of intervention to outcome
 Research Methodology cont…
Observational designs

 Cross-sectional/Surveys: the whole population or a sample is

studied

 Cohort Studies: subjects are selected with reference to their

exposure status and followed up

 Case Control Studies: Subjects are selected in reference to

their disease status.
 Research Methodology cont…
Population
 Broadly, population can be categorized as target population and
study population

 Target population is a collection of items that have something in

common for which we wish to draw conclusions at a particular
time.

 In other words, there could be some elements of the target

population which are systematically excluded from the study
population and hence are not represented in the sample

 Study(sampled) Population: is a part of target population and

actually accessible and legitimate for data collection
 Sample size and sampling procedure
 Whether the study design to be employed is quantitative or
qualitative, a standard sampling technique is important in most
situations (i.e. except census)

 However, the sampling techniques in qualitative and quantitative

studies are different. This is because, in qualitative study, the aim is
not generalization of the population parameter (rather it is a
discovery), whereas this is true in quantitative study.

 As a result, in qualitative study we employ non-probability

sampling techniques (convenience, quota, judgment, snowball
sampling etc) so that we can select simply individuals using the
above techniques who are rich in information that we want
 Sample size and sampling … cont’d

 On contrary to this, in quantitative study, we have different

probability sampling techniques (simple random sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster sampling, systematic sampling, multi-
stage sampling etc) to get a representative sample.

 This is because it is only probability sampling technique that would

enable us to predict population parameters with certain level of
confidence (e.g. 95%) and level of precision (e.g. 100 gram for
mean weight estimation of newborns)
 Sample size and sampling … cont’d

 Therefore, in quantitative study, to take a sound generalization

about a population parameter, we must have a representative
sample.

 In turn, a representative sample could be secured if two things

have been fulfilled:
We must have a minimum but adequate sample size drawn
from the population

The sampling design employed must be in line with the

distribution of the characteristic we are to study
Sample size and sampling … cont’d
 In quantitative study, the larger the sample size, the more will be
the likelihood to represent the population. Of course, after a certain
limit the gain in accuracy will diminish as the sample size
increases

 The adequate minimum sample size can be determined using:

 Thumb rule,
 Precision approach (single population proportion or mean
approach)
 Power approach (two population proportion or mean difference
approach)

 In any case, consider the non-response rate (contingency), design

effect or the number of independent variables.
Sample size and sampling … cont’d

 For qualitative study, it is very difficult to set the sample size from the
outset.

 Of course, with a thorough look at of the resource and time one has,
and some reading of similar studies one can give a reasonable
indication.

 However, it is good to leave it for saturation of the study

Sample size and sampling … cont’d

Rules of thumb
1. If the population size is small (N ‹ 100), there is little point in
sampling. Survey the entire population.
2. If the population size is around 500, 50% should be
sampled.
3. If the population size is around 1500, 20% should be
sampled.
4. Beyond a certain point (N = 5000), the population size is
almost irrelevant and a sample size of 400 may be
adequate.
5. Statistician – maximalist – at least 500
58
 Sample size and sampling … cont’d
Precision approach
Hence the absolute precision denoted by d is given as (N > 10,000)
d  z  s.e Where s.e is the standard error of the
2 estimator of the parameter of interest.

For mean estimation For proportion estimation

d = (Zα/2) Se d = (Zα/2) Se
d= (Zα/2) σ/√n d= (Zα/2) √p(1-p)/n
√n = (Zα/2) σ/d √n = (Zα/2) √p(1-p)/d
n = (Zα/2)2 σ2/d2 n = (Zα/2)2 p(1-p)/d2

If N < 10,000 we calculate the adjusted sample size as:

where, no and n are the initial and adjusted
sample sizes, respectively
Sample size and sampling … cont’d
Power approach
For proportion estimation:
n (in each region/group) = [(p1q1 + p2q2) f(α, β)]/(p1 –p2)2
For mean estimation:
n (in each region/group) = [(S21 + S22)f(α, β)]/(μ1 –μ2)2

Where α = type I error (level of significant)

β = Type two error (1- β = power of the study)
Power = the probability of getting a significant result

f(α, β) = (Zα/2 + Zβ)2 = (1.96+ 1.28)2 = 10.5, when the power =

90% and the level of significance is 5%, two sided
 Sample size and sampling …cont’d
 However, size by itself can not be a guarantee to get a
representative sample. Rather, for example, if the characteristic we
are going to study is uniformly distributed throughout the larger
population, we can use simple random sampling or cluster
sampling provided that there is a means to clustering the
population

 Otherwise, if there is another variable by which the distribution of

the characteristic could importantly vary, we can stratify the
population by that variable, and in that case stratified sampling
would be appropriate
 Sample size and … cont’d
 Sometimes the population that we want to study could be distributed in
a very large geographic area or large population. In that case, it will be
costly covering all the study area.

 Therefore, multistage sampling could be more appropriate in such

situations
Example
To study the prevalence of common cold in Gondar town during the last
1 month period, we may assume that the distribution of common cold is
uniform in all the 10 kebeles of the city. Therefore, we can select 3
kebeles randomly from which only some of the households and then
some of the household members will be included in the sample.

Questions: In this example, we used a three stage sampling. Please,

identify the three stages .The study population for this example will be
all individuals in Gondar town, but not only all individuals in the 3
Kebeles! Why? What do you think is the target population?
Operational definition of variables
 An operational definition describes or defines a variable in terms of the
operations or techniques used to make it happen or measure it.

 When quantitative researchers describe the variables in the study, they

specify what they mean by demonstrating how they measured the
variable

 Demographic variables like age, sex & ethnicity are usually measured
simply by asking the participants to choose the appropriate category from
the list

 However, abstract concepts like knowledge about how to prevent

HIV/AIDS infection need to be defined operationally. For example, the
investigator may provide sample item questions and change the
responses into a score that could show the level of knowledge in
HIV/AIDS.
 Research instrument/Tools.
 One of the most important components of a research design is a
set of research instruments because they are the tools we use to
collect the data

 Some of them are questionnaires, measuring instruments (e.g

anthropometric measuring instruments like meter tape, balance
scale), etc for quantitative study, and

 interview guideline (check list), tape recorder , etc. for

qualitative study
 Research Tools cont…

 Questionnaires are the most frequently used data collection tools

in quantitative research.

 If there are standard questionnaires already designed by other

organizations, use it as one should not re-invent the wheel.

 Otherwise, developing a valid and reliable questionnaire is a must
to reduce measurement error which is the "discrepancy between
respondents' actual attributes and their survey responses
 Pre-Test and Pilot Study
 To find a valid and reliable questionnaire, pre-test and pilot studies are
important. However, we can also employ them (especially pilot study)
for other additional purposes.

 Generally, a pretest is used on isolated problems of the research design,

mainly to evaluate the general approachability and feasibility of the
questionnaire, and identify the specific problems of communication
between the interviewer and the respondent in terms of specific questions
or items of information sought

 Whereas, pilot study is mainly with the objective of checking

organization and arrangement of the whole research process
(administrative and organizational arrangements in general, supplies,
equipments, field work operation, questionnaires, sample size
determination and data processing).Thus, it is a full scale dress rehearsal
of the survey
 Pre-Test and Pilot Study cont…

With the pilot study, we can benefit:

 The adequacy of the sampling frame from which it is proposed

to select the samples
 The estimates needed to estimate the sample size i.e. SD and P
 The none–response rate
 Adequacy of the questionnaire
 Making a sensible choice from the alternative methods of
collecting the data
 To estimate probable cost needed to conduct the research, etc
 Data Collection procedures
Write clearly:
 The data collection technique that you plan to use (face to face
interview, self-administered questionnaire, telephone, post, web, in-
depth interview, FGD, observation, …….)

 Who will be the data collectors and supervisors ( educational

background, sex, experience, from where they are i.e out of the
study area or not, etc.)
 The data collection tools (questionnaire, interview guide, tape
recorder, measuring instruments, etc. )
 The time and setting/place of data collection
 What data quality controlling mechanism you plan to use (pre-test,
pilot, training, field exercise, supervision and spot checking,
editing, verification, etc)
Planning Data Analysis and Interpretation
of the Results
A plan for data analysis and interpretation of the results will
be prepared because it helps the researcher to make sure that:

 The information needed will be collected

 All the information collected will be analyzed

 The data will be collected in such a way that it will be analyzed

based on what was planned
 Planning Data Analysis and …. cont’d

The plan for data analysis and interpretation of the

results should include:

1. A plan for consolidation and distribution of the data to those

scheduled to code and analyze it which should include:
 Reception of the data sent from the field

 Appropriate labeling of data in order to retrieve them easily

 Storage of questionnaires and/or other instruments to be used

 Distribution of data for classification and coding

Planning Data Analysis and …cont’d

2. A plan for processing and coding the data should include:

 Decisions on what type of data processing to use

 Decisions on coding frameworks

 Identification of categories to be used

 A plan for staffing the coding and data processing operations

 A plan for supervisions and verification of the fieldwork

 Planning Data Analysis and … cont’d

3. A plan for data analysis should include the following information:

 Identification of the analysis tasks to be completed

 A schedule or work plan for the analysis of the data

 A plan for quality control of the data analysis, including regular checks
which involve review and assessment of the quality of a sample of the
analysis already performed
 Planning Data Analysis and … cont’d

4. A preliminary plan for the interpretation of the results, including:

 A review of the objectives and/or hypotheses of the project (which are
often used as a basis for organizing the report on the analysis of data
and interpretation of the results)
 A review of known theories on the topic and the results of the research
already completed on the topic (summarizing the review of the
literature)
 A discussion of alternative interpretations of the results

 A presentation of conclusions drawn

 Any recommendations for future studies

 Ethical Considerations

 In designing research, especially research that involves human

subjects, it is important to consider the underlying ethical
principles.

 Proposal for such research must be reviewed by the relevant Ethical

Committee.

 All ethical issues must be dealt with at inception.

 Ethical Considerations cont..
The main principles include:
a) Scientific merit: any research should be merited, and the method must be
appropriate to the aims of the investigation.
b) Equitable selection of subjects.
c) Informed consent: individuals must understand the nature of the study and
possible implications.
d) Confidentiality
e) Coercion: the rights of individuals must be protected. Coercion and
deception must be avoided at all costs.
f) Field trials must obtain communal consent.
 Ethical Considerations cont..
g) Enhance the benefits and eliminate harms.
h) Provision of incentives; no hard rule should exist.
 Care must be exercised in each situation under specified circumstances.

i) Feedback of the Results; the community must know the findings

 This should reinforce future interest in community-based research.

j) Anonymity of communities; i.e. a community’s right to

confidentiality is important.
 Work Plan/Implementation Plan

What is a work plan ?

 A work plan is a schedule, chart, or a graph that summarizes the

various components of the research project and how they fit
together.
 Work Plan cont…
A work plan may include:
 The tasks to be performed (activity)

 When the tasks will be performed (time)

 Who will perform the tasks and the time each person will
spend on them (person)

 The relationship of the tasks to each other.

 Work Plan cont...
Points to keep in mind when preparing a work plan include
 It should be simple, realistic and easily understood by those directly
involved.
 It should cover both the pre-project period and the implementation
phase of the project,
 The activities covered (technical or research work, administrative
tasks, training and teaching, secretarial and other support level tasks
 The realities of local customs and schedules (local holidays,
festivals, work habits, seasonal changes and their effect on travel
etc).
 The use of a Work Plan

A work plan can serve as:

 A tool in planning the details of the project activities and later the project
funds.

 A visual outline or illustration of the sequence of the project operations.

 A management tool for the principal investigator and/or members of

his/her team, showing what tasks and activities are planned, their timing,
and when various members will be involved in the tasks;

 A tool for monitoring and evaluation, when the current status of the
project is compared to what was foreseen in the work plan.
 When should the work plan be prepared?
 The first draft of the work plan should be developed when the
project proposal is being developed, so the schedule can be
discussed easily with the relevant authorities.
 A more detailed work plan should be prepared after the
pretest in the study area.
 There should be no hesitation in revising work plans or
preparing new ones after the project is underway based on
reassessment of what can be realistically accomplished in the
coming months.
 Ways of presenting a work plan

 A work plan could be presented in the form of: a work

schedule, GANNT chart or PERT chart.
 The Work Schedule
A work schedule is a table that includes:
 The tasks to be completed,
 How long they take, and
 Who is to be assigned to each one,

 But does not show how various tasks are related, nor
give a visual picture of the time schedule.
 The Work Schedule cont..
Activity Time Responsibility
 GANTT Chart
A typical Gantt chart includes the following information:

 The tasks to be performed

 Who is responsible for each task?
 The time each task is expected to take.
 The length of each task is shown by a bar that extends over the
number of days, weeks or months the task is expected to take.
 The Gantt chart doesn’t show how various tasks are related.
GANTT Chart cont…
 The PERT Chart
 A PERT (Program Evaluation Review Technique ) chart
shows the steps or events in the project that must be
completed as well as illustrating graphically how the steps
are interrelated.
 It has the added advantage of helping the investigator
determine the best timing for particular tasks and how to
complete the project in the least possible time
 However, it doesn’t indicate who will complete the work and
is somewhat more complicated to use it than the other
techniques
 Budget Preparation
How should a budget be prepared?
 It is necessary to use the work plan as a starting point.
 Specify, for each activity in the work plan, what resources are
required.
 Determine for each resource needed the unit cost and the total
cost.
 The budget for the fieldwork component of the work plan will
include funds for personnel, transport and supplies
 If more than one budget source will be used, it is useful to indicate
in the budget which source will pay for each cost.
 The Budget Format and Justification

 The type of budget format to be used may vary depending

on the funding agency

 Most donor organizations have their own special project

forms, which include a budget format.

 If you intend to seek donor support it is advisable to write

to the potential funding organization as early as possible
during the period of project development.
 Appendices
 Include in the appendices of your proposal any additional
information you think might be helpful to a proposal reviewer. For
example, include:
 Biographical data on the principal investigator
 The study questionnaire if you have it.
 The consent form.
 A copy of the approval from the Institutional Review Board.
 Any explanatory material (such as annual report) about your
institution
 Title Page and Summary/Abstract

 Although the title page and abstract appear as the first section of a
research proposal, they are the last to be written.

 The title page gives the essential information about the proposal.

 Immediately following the title page you should include an

abstract.

 The abstract is a summary of the basic information contained in all

the other sections of your proposal
 Title Page and Summary cont..
 Do not overload an abstract with unnecessary information. Keep it short
(no longer than one or two pages), precise, and to the point.

 The abstract should tell the reader:

 The problem to be studied.
 The main objective of the study.
The major expected implications of the study.
Who will conduct the study
When the study will be conducted.
Where the study will be conducted.
What methods will be used to conduct the study.
What resources are required for the study.