UNIT CODE: AFT 2103

UNIT TITLE: FOOD MACRONUTRIENTS

Instructor Mr. Clinton Nyakangi

Contact: Tel. 0712-02-01-69

Email: [email protected]

Lecture Hours: 45hours

A) INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF FOOD CHEMISTRY

Food Chemistry

 Food Chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological

and non- biological components of foods

 It covers the basic composition, structure and properties of foods and the chemistry

changes occurring during processing and utilization

 It also covers the chemistry of water, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins,

minerals and enzymes.

BASIC CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD

 FOOD is any substance usually composed of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water etc

that can be eaten or drunk by human for nutrition. A food is any substance that can be

metabolized by an organism to give energy and build tissue.

 The constituents of foods are divided into two; major and minor constituents.

Major Minor

Carbohydrates Vitamins

1
 Fats Minerals

Proteins Enzymes

Pigments

Flavors

Acids

 There is also the ever present and important constituent is Water

 All these constituents are arranged in foods to give the foods features and

characteristics like;

– Structure

– Texture

– Flavour

– Colour

– Nutritive value

CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS

 Foods are classified, according to their functions in the body.

1. ENERGY YIELDING FOODS

 This group includes foods rich in carbohydrates & fats

 1 gm of CHO yields 4 calories

 1gm of fat yields 9 calories

 It is divided into two:-

 Pure Carbohydrates like sugar, fats & oils

 Cereals, pulses, roots & tubers

 Sugars provide energy & Fats and oils also provide concentrated source of energy.

2
  Cereals provide in addition to energy large amounts of proteins, minerals and

vitamins in the diet

 Pulses also give proteins and vitamins besides giving energy to the body

 Roots & tubers mainly provide energy but they also contribute to some extent

vitamins & minerals

2. BODY BUILDING FOODS

 Foods rich in proteins are called Body Building foods.

 They are classified into two groups

– Meat, Egg & Fish: – They are rich in proteins of high biological value. These

proteins have all the essential amino acids in correct proportions for the

synthesis of body tissues.

– Pulses, Oil-seeds & Nuts: - They are rich in protein but may not contain all

the essential amino acids required by the human body.

3. PROTECTION & REGULATION

 Foods rich in proteins, vitamins & minerals have regulatory functions in the body

 E.g. maintaining heart-beat, body temperature, clotting of blood & excretion of

wastes

 Protective foods are classified into two groups:-

– Foods rich in vitamins, minerals & proteins of high biological value e.g.

Milk, egg, fish & liver

– Foods rich in certain vitamins & minerals only e.g. Green leafy vegetables &

some fruits.

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING FOOD CHEMISTRY

3
 Food chemistry allows for subjecting food materials to chemical scrutiny. It employs

chemistry tools to analyse food items so that they transform to nutritious, safe and

materials of commercial value.

 Flavours, preservatives, emulsifiers, thickeners, stabilizers, sweeteners, colours

are some of the materials that are produced from food chemistry. And a consideration

of the development of these materials from their crude source through research,

development, production, regulation and commerce; would tell of how expansive the

importance of food chemistry is.

 Food preservation – Food chemistry has led to the birth of numerous natural and

artificial food preservatives that are currently used at the industrial level.

 Economic Importance – helps in the designing and developing of new food products

for industries. The study of the component of various food substances could be used

to initiate an array of chemical reactions that could lead to the formation of either new

or improved food products. The improvement could be taste enhancement, new

aroma, colour, or increased chef life.

 Nutritional importance - Food chemistry uses analytical techniques to study the

chemical components of food items in order to detect the nutritional and non-

nutritional compounds. These include the constituent amino acids, fatty acids and

carbohydrates. Emphasis is also given to mineral constituent and vitamin content.

Knowledge of the nutritional value of food is essential for developing a food product

with essential amino acids and fatty acids. This could be by mixing up different food

products since the amino acid that is absent in cow-pea and other legumes may be

present in maize grains.

 Branding and packaging - An interesting aspect of food chemistry is in the branding

and packaging of finished food products. Here, they represent on the food pack

4
 approval from various organizations and agencies responsible for the inspection of

food items. Food chemistry also caters for the manufacture and expiration day of the

food item, the nutritional value of the food and other essentials.

ROLE OF FOOD CHEMISTRY IN FOOD TECHNOLOGY

 Food chemistry as a major branch of food science deals with the composition and

properties of foods and the chemical changes they undergo. Food chemistry is related

to chemistry, biochemistry, physiological chemistry, botany, zoology and molecular

biology. Despite this fact, food chemists have specific interests distinct from those of

other biological chemists. Most of the activities of food chemists are related to food

technology and nutrition in one way or the other.

 Many food chemists are engaged in developing palatable, nutritious and low- cost

foods.

 Food chemists play a significant role in developing new food products and improving

the quality of the already existing ones. This includes altering the nutritional

composition of food, which could be in the form of fortification, for example addition

of vitamins to breakfast cereals or reduction of the caloric content of food by use of

artificial sweeteners such as aspartame.

 Food chemists also play a major role in ensuring that food produced is safe and of

high quality. Food chemists ensure that food preparation, processing, and storage is

done properly by following good manufacturing practices. This in turn reduces the

incidences of food borne diseases caused by food poisoning and food infection.

 Food poisoning refers to sicknesses resulting after ingesting food containing microbial

toxins such as botulotoxin produced by Clostridium botulinum while food infection

5
 refers to sicknesses resulting from ingesting food containing disease causing

microorganisms such as Salmonella typhi which causes typhoid.

 Food chemists are currently involved in the study of how pesticide residues are

affected during food processing. They are also seeking to understand if processes can

be developed to eliminate or reduce pesticide residues and how such processes would

affect food safety.

 Food chemists in conjunction with toxicologists are also studying the occurrence and

entry into food of naturally occurring and synthetic toxicants.

 Food chemists have joined hands with genetic engineers and biotechnologists in

coming up with new products derived from such technology as recombinant DNA

technology. Such technology has led to the development of improved microbial

strains and new enzymes, which can be used in fermentation industries.

 Another role that has been played by food chemists is development of food standards

that promote world trade and protect the consumer against being deceived on the

quality or the nutritive value of food. Food chemists work hand in hand with

nutritionists to develop standards for the optimal nutritional content of the diet and

that cater for changes in nutrient composition during processing.

 Food chemists should take initiatives in consumer enlightenment. They should

explain to the consumers why certain food habits and taboos could be harmful.

B) CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF FOODS

6
 1) WATER

1. Water is an essential constituent of any foods.

2. It may occur in two forms; an intracellular or extracellular component in

vegetable & animal products as a dispersing medium or solvent in many foods & as

the dispersed phase in some emulsified products such as butter, margarine & as a

minor constituent in some foods

3. The presence of water in food is described as the moisture content or water activity

(aw) of the food

4. Moisture refers to the amount of water present in food while water activity (aw)

refers to the water available in foods for chemical and microbial activity.

FORMS OF WATER IN FOODS

Water exists in 3 forms in foods:-

– Free water

– Absorbed water

– Bound water

Chemically, each form of water is the same (H2O), but differences exist in the

physical & chemical conditions in which water can exist.

The form in which water occurs in foods determines the physical properties of the

food for e.g. Fluid milk & apples contain approximately the same amount of water

but have different physical structures.

i. FREE WATER

 Most water in foods is called free water.

 Free water is lightly entrapped & therefore easily pressed from food.

 It acts as a dispersing agent & solvent & can be removed by drying foods.

7
 ii. ADSORBED WATER

 This water associates in layer through intermolecular hydrogen bonds around

hydrophilic food molecules i.e. the water is held tightly in cell walls or protoplasm &

is held tightly to proteins

iii. BOUND WATER

 Bound water is the water that remains unfrozen at temperature below 0⁰C usually

−20⁰C.

 Also it is the amount of water in a food that is unavailable as a solvent.

 The amount of unfreezable water, based on protein content, vary from one food to

another for E.g., About 8-10 % of the total water in animal tissue is unavailable for

ice formation. Egg white, egg yolk, meat & fish all contain approximately 0.4gm of

unfreezable water/g of dry protein. Most fruits & vegetables contain less than 6%

unfreezable water

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

 The chemical formula of a molecule of water is H2O: two atoms hydrogen (H2)

linked to one atom oxygen (O). The atom electrons (particles with a negative

charge) establish links between themselves.

 Oxygen is more able to keep them close to it than hydrogen. The water molecule

results to be charged negatively near the atom of oxygen and positively near the

atom of hydrogen. Since opposites attract, the water molecules tend to join

together like magnets.

8
 Water is called the "universal solvent" because it dissolves more substances than

any other liquid. This means that wherever water goes, either through the ground

or through our bodies, it takes along valuable chemicals, minerals, and nutrients.

 Pure water has a neutral pH of 7, which is neither acidic nor basic.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

 Water is unique in that it is the only natural substance that is found in all three

states -- liquid, solid (ice), and gas (steam) -- at the temperatures normally found

on Earth. Earth's water is constantly interacting, changing, and in movement.

 Water's freezing and boiling points are the baseline with which temperature is

measured: 0° on the Celsius scale is water's freezing point, and 100° is water's

boiling point.

 Water is unusual in that the solid form, ice, is less dense than the liquid form,

which is why ice floats.

 Water has a high specific heat index. This means that water can absorb a lot of

heat before it begins to get hot. This is why water is valuable to industries and in

your car's radiator as a coolant.

9
  Water has a very high surface tension. In other words, water is sticky and elastic,

and tends to clump together in drops rather than spread out in a thin film. Surface

tension is responsible for capillary action, which allows water (and its dissolved

substances) to move through the roots of plants and through the tiny blood vessels

in our bodies.

2) CARBOHYDRATES

 Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains,

vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets,

carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy

diet.

 Carbohydrates are macronutrients, meaning they are one of the three main

ways the body obtains energy, or calories

 They are called carbohydrates because, at the chemical level, they contain

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

 They form the body’s main source of energy.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBOHYDRATES

 The physical properties of carbohydrates depend primarily on their microsaccharide

composition, glycosidic linkage, functional groups present, molecular size and

branching

 In addition, chemical modification of the carbohydrate structure, such as functional

group protection, can result in marked changes in the physical properties of these

molecules.

10
 A. Solubility

 Unmodified monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are generally

readily soluble in aqueous solvents. Highly crystalline polysaccharides like cellulose,

gelling polymers such as agarose and highly branched or crosslinked polymers such

as starch are often insoluble in aqueous solvents.

 There are few organic solvents that can dissolve these unmodified carbohydrates.

Polar solvents capable of hydrogen bonding interactions such as formamide,

dimethylformamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, and pyridine are most commonly used to

solubilize unmodified carbohydrates.

B. Viscosity and Surface Activity

 Polysaccharides are among the most viscous natural products, many being used in

food industry as thickeners or gelation and high viscosity agents.

 The viscosity of a polysaccharide increases with its chain length or molecular Weight.

 Polysaccharides do not lower the surface tension of aqueous solutions, their affinity

for the oil-water interface gives them great value as emulsifiers.

C. Crystallinity

 Carbohydrates have a wide range of crystallinity. Sucrose, a disaccharide that is readily

crystallized, may represent the natural product produced in the largest quantities as a

pure crystalline material.

 Similarly, cellulose, a highly crystalline polysaccharide, is probably the most widely

distributed organic molecule found in nature. With the exception of these notable

examples, most carbohydrates are not easily crystallized and are often isolated or

synthesized as amorphous solids, glasses, or syrups.

11
  The difficulty in crystallizing carbohydrates results from their conformational

flexibility as well as the presence of multiple structural forms of reducing sugars, i.e.,

pyranose, furanose, acyclic, u- and B-configurations, resulting from mutarotation, and

other dynamic equilibria.

D. Hygroscopicity

Many carbohydrates are hygroscopic, often containing substantial amounts (2-

10%) of water even after extensive efforts at drying.

E. Stability

 Carbohydrates are generally fairly stable molecules. However, reducing sugars

contain an aldehyde or hemiacetal (masked aldehyde) function, and are therefore

sensitive to oxidation.

 Many polysaccharides can form stable secondary structures (Fig. 1), such as helices,

in solution.

 Stable secondary structures can often be disrupted by elevating the temperature,

changing the pH, or through the addition of denaturants.

 Finally, the stability of many higher order structures in polysaccharides can be

influenced through either covalent or non-covalent cross-linking of the polysaccharide

chains. Non-covalent cross-linking includes both favorable or unfavorable hydrogen

bonding, ionic (often mediated by bridging ions such as Ca2+), or steric interactions

between the polysaccharide backbone or branch structures.

12
 F. Optical Properties

 Most carbohydrates absorb very little light in the ultraviolet and visible

spectral regions. Any functional groups present, either natural or chemically

introduced, can act as chromophores or fluorophores.

 Virtually all carbohydrates contain multiple chiral centers and are, thus,

optically active. Many carbohydrates are either enantiomers, i.e., D- and L-

glucose, and are characterized by a specific optical rotation

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBOHYDRATES

The chemical properties of carbohydrates depend on the monosaccharide residues present,

their functional groups, the linkage position(s) and configuration(s). In spite of the unique

properties of each molecular entity, some general chemical properties can be ascribed to

carbohydrates.

A. Hydrolysis

 The most frequently used chemical transformation of oligosaccharides and

polysaccharides is the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis to cleave the glycosidic linkage

 The conditions required for hydrolysis range from very mild, such as the auto-

hydrolysis of aqueous solutions of polysialic acid at room temperature and neutral pH,

to the harsh conditions of 1 M mineral acid at >100 0 C required for the hydrolysis of

crystalline cellulose.

B. Oxidation/Reduction

13
 Carbohydrates are highly oxidized molecules and thus, except for specific functional

groups, are relatively insensitive to oxidation.

 The aldehyde group present in reducing sugars can be oxidized to an aldonic acid

under relatively mild conditions.

 Stronger oxidants are required to oxidize primary hydroxyl groups to carboxylic

acids, and secondary hydroxy groups require even stronger reagents, such as chromic

acid.

C. Functional Groups

 Carbohydrates can possess a number of different functional groups in addition to the

commonly found aldehydes, primary and secondary hydroxy groups. The free amino

group in amino sugars can be acylated, sulfonated, or phosphorylated.

 Carboxy sugars can be esterified (as an ester or lactone) or amidated.

D. Chelation and Complexation

 Many native glycans and their derivatives display affinities towards various classes

of metal ions.

 Copper can readily chelate polysulfated polysaccharides such as heparin and

dermatan sulfate, thus affecting their solubility and their detection. Linear and cyclic

glucose oligomers (cyclodextrins) and polymers also form complexes with a wide

range of molecules

14
 3) FATS AND OILS

 Fats and oils are the most abundant lipids in nature. They provide energy for living

organisms, insulate body organs, and transport fat-soluble vitamins through the

blood.

 Fats are solid at room temperatures while oils are liquid at room temperature.

 Foods generally contain one main group of fat. For example:

 Saturated fats – sources include fatty cuts of meat, full-fat milk, cheese, butter,

cream, most commercially baked products such as biscuits and pastries, most deep-

fried fast foods, coconut and palm oil.

 Monounsaturated fats – sources include avocado, and nuts such as peanuts,

hazelnuts, cashews and almonds (including peanut and other nut butters), margarine

spreads such as canola or olive oil based choices, oils such as olive, canola and

peanut.

 Polyunsaturated fats – sources include fish, seafood, polyunsaturated margarines,

vegetable oils such as safflower, sunflower, corn or soy oils, nuts such as walnuts

and Brazil nuts, and seeds.

Sources of omega-6 and omega-3 fats

 Polyunsaturated fats can be divided into two categories, which are:

 Omega-3 fats are found in both plant and marine foods, although it is the omega-3

fats from marine sources that have the strongest evidence for health benefits

(including reducing the risk of heart disease). Plant food sources include canola and

soy oils, and canola-based margarines. Marine sources include fish, especially oily

fish such as Atlantic salmon, mackerel, Southern blue fin tuna, trevally and

sardines.

15
 Omega-6 fats are found primarily in nuts, seeds and plant oils, such as corn, soy and

safflower.

Benefits of omega-3 fats

– lower triglyceride levels and reduce blood pressure, which are important risk factors

in cardiovascular disease

– improve blood vessel elasticity

– keep the heart rhythm beating normally

– ‘thin’ the blood, which makes it less sticky and less likely to clot

– reduce inflammation and support the immune system

– may play a role in preventing and treating depression

– Contribute to the normal development of the foetal brain.

Structures of Fats and Oils

 Fats and oils are called triglycerides (or triacylcylgerols) because they are esters

composed of three fatty acid units joined to glycerol, a trihydroxy alcohol:

Physical Properties of Fats and Oils

 Contrary to what you might expect, pure fats and oils are colorless, odorless, and

tasteless.

16
 The characteristic colors, odors, and flavors that we associate with some of them are

imparted by foreign substances that are lipid soluble and have been absorbed by

these lipids. For example, the yellow color of butter is due to the presence of the

pigment carotene; the taste of butter comes from two compounds—diacetyl and 3-

hydroxy-2-butanone—produced by bacteria in the ripening cream from which the

butter is made.

 Fats and oils are lighter than water, having densities of about 0.8 g/cm3.

 They are poor conductors of heat and electricity and therefore serve as excellent

insulators for the body, slowing the loss of heat through the skin.

Chemical properties of Fats

 The most important chemical reaction of neutral fat is their hydrolysis to yield three

molecules Alkali hydrolysis (saponification). The process of alkali hydrolysis is

called 'saponification.'

 The alkali salt of fatty acid resulting from saponification is soap.

Enzyme hydrolysis

– Hydrolysis of triacylglycerol may be accomplished enzymatically through

the action of lipases.

– Lipases are widespread in both plants and animals.

Rancidity

17
 – Development of disagreeable odour and taste in fat or oil upon storage is

called rancidity.

– Rancidity reactions may be due to hydrolysis of ester bonds (hydrolytic

rancidity) or due to oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids (oxidative rancidity).

Hydrogenation

– The degree of unsaturation of the fatty acids present in triacylglycerol

determines whether a fat is liquid or solid at room temperature.

– The presence of more unsaturated fatty acids lower the melting point.

– The presence of highly unsaturated fatty acids makes the oil more

susceptible to oxidative deterioration.

– The objective of hydrogenation is to reduce the degree of unsaturation and to

increase the melting point of the oil.

4) PROTEINS

 Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long

chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within

organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding

to stimuli, providing structure to cells, and organisms, and transporting molecules

from one location to another.

 Types and functions of proteins

 Proteins can play a wide array of roles in a cell or organism. Here, we’ll touch on a

few examples of common protein types that may be familiar to you, and that are

important in the biology of many organisms (including us).

Enzymes

18
 Enzymes act as catalysts in biochemical reactions, meaning that they speed the

reactions up. Each enzyme recognizes one or more substrates, the molecules that

serve as starting material for the reaction it catalyzes. Different enzymes participate

in different types of reactions and may break down, link up, or rearrange their

substrates.

Hormones

 Hormones are long-distance chemical signals released by endocrine cells (like the

cells of your pituitary gland). They control specific physiological processes, such as

growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction. While some hormones are

steroid-based (see the article on lipids), others are proteins. These protein-based

hormones are commonly called peptide hormones.

19
Amino acids

 Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins. Specifically, a protein is

made up of one or more linear chains of amino acids, each of which is called a

polypeptide.

Physical Properties of Proteins

Colour and Taste

20
 – Proteins are colourless and usually tasteless. These are homogeneous and

crystalline.

Shape and Size

– The proteins range in shape from simple crystalloid spherical structures to

long fibrillar structures. Two distinct patterns of shape have been

recognized;

A. Globular proteins- These are spherical in shape and occur mainly in plants,

esp., in seeds and in leaf cells. These are bundles formed by folding and crumpling

of protein chains eg. pepsin, edestin, insulin, ribonuclease etc.

B. Fibrillar proteins - These are thread-like or ellipsoidal in shape and occur

generally in animal muscles. Most of the studies regarding protein structure have

been conducted using these proteins. e.g. fibrinogen, myosin etc.

Colloidal Nature

Because of their giant size, the proteins exhibit many colloidal properties, such as;

their diffusion rates are extremely slow and they may produce considerable light-

scattering in solution, thus resulting in visible turbidity.

Denaturation

Denaturation refers to the changes in the properties of a protein. In other words, it is

the loss of biologic activity. In many instances the process of denaturation is

followed by coagulation— a process where denatured protein molecules tend to

form large aggregates and to precipitate from solution.

Ion Binding Capacity

The proteins can form salts with both cations and anions based on their net charge.

Solubility

21
The solubility of proteins is influenced by pH. Solubility is lowest at isoelectric

point and increases with increasing acidity or alkalinity. This is because when the

protein molecules exist as either cations or anions, repulsive forces between ions are

high, since all the molecules possess excess charges of the same sign. Thus, they

will be more soluble than in the isoelectric state.

Chemical Properties of Proteins

Hydrolysis

Proteins are hydrolyzed by a variety of hydrolytic agents.

A. By acidic agents:

B. By alkaline agents:

A. Reaction with alkalies (Salt formation)

B. Reaction with alcohols (Esterification)

C. Reaction with amines

Reactions involving NH2 Group

A. Reaction with mineral acids (Salt formation): When either free amino acids or

proteins are treated with mineral acids like HCl, the acid salts are formed.

B. Reaction with formaldehyde: With formaldehyde, the hydroxy-methyl

derivatives are formed.

C. Reaction with nitrous acid (Van Slyke reaction): The amino acids react with

HNO2 to liberate N2 gas and to produce the corresponding α-hydroxy acids.

22
23