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TABLE OF CONTENT

• Command Terms in Chemistry ........................................................... 11

• Structure 1.1—Introduction to the particulate nature of matter ....... 15

• Structure 1.2—The nuclear atom ....................................................... 42

• Structure 1.3—Electron configurations .............................................. 63

• Structure 1.4—Counting particles by mass: The mole ........................ 91

• Structure 1.5—Ideal gases ............................................................... 153

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Structure 1. Models of the particulate nature of matter

Structure 1.1—Introduction to the particulate nature of matter
Structure 1.2—The nuclear atom
Structure 1.3—Electron configurations
Structure 1.4—Counting particles by mass: The mole
Structure 1.5—Ideal gases

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Structure 1.1—Introduction to the particulate nature of matter

States of Matter
Structure 1.1.2—The kinetic molecular theory is a model to explain physical properties of matter (solids,
liquids and gases) and changes of state.
Distinguish the different states of matter.

Names of the changes of state should be covered: melting, freezing, vaporization (evaporation and
boiling), condensation, sublimation, and deposition.

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When a substance changes from a more condensed state to a less condensed state, energy is
absorbed by the particles from the surroundings. This happens when a solid becomes a liquid or a gas,
and when a liquid becomes a gas. These are endothermic processes.

When a substance changes from a less condensed state to a more condensed state, the particles lose
energy to the surroundings and, for a molecular substance, the intermolecular forces become
stronger. This happens when a gas becomes a liquid or a solid, and when a liquid becomes a solid. The
process of releasing energy to the surroundings is an exothermic process.

Structure 1.1.3—The temperature, T, in Kelvin (K) is a measure of average kinetic energy Ek of particles.
Interpret observable changes in physical properties and temperature during changes of state.
⚫ The kinetic theory states that:

1. All matter consists of particles (atoms or molecules) in MOTION.

2. Temperature: is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles. As the temperature
increases, the movement of the particles increases.

3. The kinetic energy of a particle depends on its mass (m)and speed(v)

4. All the gases have the same kinetic energy at the same temperature.

5. So the particles with SMALLER mass move at Faster speed.

6. K.E = ½ mv ²

Use state symbols (s,l , g and aq) in chemical equations.

Physical & Chemical changes

➢ Physical change: no new substances are produced.

melting of ice: H2O (s)→H2O (l)
Evaporation: Br2 (l)→Br2(g)
Sublimation: I2(s)→I2(g)
➢ Chemical change: results in the formation of new substances.
In a chemical reaction, the atoms in the reactants are rearranged to form new products.

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g)→CO2 (g) + 2 H2O(l)

2Fe(s) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) → 2Fe(OH)2(s)

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)

CdSO4(aq) + K2S(aq) → CdS(s)+K2SO4(aq)

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Physical Changes :
A. Changing states of matter :

⚫ What happens when a substance is heated? Particles absorb energy!

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• Cooling Curve: (opposite to heating coming down)

• The cooling curve illustrates the changes of state as a gas/liquid is cooled down.

• The sloped lines to show an decrease in temperature.( particles loss energy decreasing the kinetic
energy and temperature)

• The plateaus (flat lines) to indicate a change of state.(lost heat is used to strengthen / make the
intermolecular bonds so no decrease in kinetic energy or temperature)

Convert between values in the Celsius and Kelvin scales.

The kelvin (K) is the SI unit of temperature and has the same incremental value as the Celsius
degree (oC).

⚫ Kelvin Temperature Scale:

The kelvin is the base unit of temperature measurement in the International System of Units (SI).

Absolute zero ( 0 K)
at this temperature the particles cannot transfer any kinetic energy on collisions.
Matter at absolute zero cannot lose heat and hence cannot get any colder.

0°C = 273.15 K.

100 °C = 373.15 K.

Absolute zero (0K) on the Celsius scale is -273.15 °C.

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Worksheet [1]: States of Matter Simulation Lab

Substance Selected: Argon

Solid Liquid Gas

Diagram of
molecules

Sentence
explaining
how
molecules
are moving.

4. Now use the menu on the right side of the program to select Water and Solid. Next, use the slider
on the bottom of the program to Add Heat. Notice the thermometer at the top of the program. What
temperature scales is this thermometer showing?

5. What happens to water particles as you increase the temperature?

6. a. What is the melting/freezing point of water in Celsius?

b. What is the melting/freezing point of water in Kelvin?

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c. Predict the conversion relationship between the Kelvin and the Celsius melting/freezing point of
water showing your work:

7 a. What is the boiling/condensation point of water in Celsius?

b. Calculate the boiling/condensation point of water in Kelvin? Show your calculations. Check your
answer using the thermometer on the simulation.

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Worksheet [2]: HEATING CURVES

Heating curves are usually introduced when discussing intermolecular forces and states of matter. Heat
is added to a substance at a constant rate and the temperature is measured. Analysis of the curve can be
related to the concept of kinetic energy (particle motion).

1. Label the x- and y-axes on the graph using you independent and dependent variables. Don’t forget
the units.

2. On the graph identify the phase(s) present in each segment (A→B, B→C, etc.). You may use the
simulation for assistance. Use water as an example.

3. Is the kinetic energy changing during segment A→B? Explain.

4. Explain why the temperature is constant during segment D→E even though energy is being added?

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Worksheet [3]: Heating and Cooling Curve Questions

1 The solid and liquid phases of water can exist in a state of equilibrium at 1 atmosphere of
pressure and a temperature of:

(1) 0oC (2) 100oC (3) 273 oC (4) 373 oC

2 The table below shows the normal boiling point of four compounds.

Which compound has the strongest intermolecular forces?

(1) HF(l) (2) CH3Cl(l) (3) CH3F(l) (4) HCl(l)

3 A sample of water is heated from a liquid at 40 oC to a gas at 110 oC

a) On the heating curve diagram provided above, label each of the following regions:

Liquid, only

Gas, only

Phase change

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4 The graph below represents the heating curve of a substance that starts as a solid below its
freezing point.

What is the melting point of this substance?

(1) 30 oC (2) 55 oC (3) 90 oC (4) 120 oC

Base your answers to questions 5 through 8 on the information below.

Given the heating curve where substance X starts as a solid below its melting point and is heated
uniformly:

5 Identify the process that takes place during line segment DE of the heating curve.

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6 Identify a line segment in which the average kinetic energy is increasing.

7 Using "o" to represent particles of substance X, draw at least five particles as they would appear
in the substance at point F.

8. Describe, in terms of particle behavior or energy, what is happening to substance X during line
segment BC.

Base your answers to questions 9 and 11 on the heating curve below, which represents a substance
starting as a solid below its melting point and being heated at a constant rate over a period of time.

9 What is happening to the average kinetic energy of the particles during segment BC?

10 In which process does a solid change directly into a vapor?

(1) condensation (2) sublimation (3) deposition (4) solidification

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The Composition of Matter

Elements are the primary constituents of matter, which cannot be chemically broken down into
simpler substances.

Compounds consist of atoms of different elements chemically bonded together in a fixed ratio.

Mixtures contain more than one element or compound in no fixed ratio, which are not chemically
bonded and so can be separated by physical methods.

The differences between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures should be understood.

Chemistry is the study of matter

The characteristics of matter:

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Distinguish between the properties of elements, compounds, and mixtures.

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Types of mixtures:
Homogeneous mixtures Heterogeneous mixtures

• Solid/solid e.g. alloys • Solid/solid e.g. rice with chocolate

• Liquid/liquid e.g. vinegar • Liquid/liquid e.g. French salad dressing,

metal with metal oxide (smelting), milk
• Solid /liquid e.g coffee
• Solid /liquid e.g. muddy water
• Liquid/gas e.g. water vapor in air
• Liquid/gas e.g. milk/air =ice-cream
• Gas/gas e.g. Air
• Solid/gas e.g. saw dust in air

Separating Mixtures:
Solvation, filtration, recrystallization, evaporation, distillation and paper chromatography should be
covered.

Mixtures can be separated by physical means because each component of the mixture has unique
properties.

Example:

Separation of sand and sugar

Sand can be separated from sugar because sugar is soluble in water, due to the intermolecular forces
between sugar and water.

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Separation Experimental Set-up Notes

technique
The large insoluble
sand particles will not
pass through and
remain on the filter
paper.
Wet sand could be
Filtration dried; water
evaporates leaving
pure sand.

The sugar crystals can

be obtained by
evaporating the water
from the filtrate.
Crystallization
Filtrate: the solution
that passed through
the filter paper
Ethanol has a lower
Distillation boiling point and
evaporates first. Once
can be used to the vapors rise up a
separate cooling column, they
miscible liquids condense to liquid.
with different Cold water surrounds
boiling points. the condenser and
allows the vapors to
Example: condense to liquid
ethanol and ethanol. The water
water. remains in the
distillation flask.

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The paper is spotted

with the mixture. The
bottom of the paper
is placed in a suitable
solvent.
The substances in the
Paper mixture have
chromatography different affinities for
Example: the solvent (the
separating mobile phase) and the
components of paper (the stationary
ink phase).
The affinity depends
on the intermolecular
forces of attraction
between the pure
substances in the
mixture and the
solvent or the paper.
Magnetic Mixture of iron and
separation sulfur powders can be
separated using a
magnet. Iron is
for separating of magnetic while sulfur
iron from a is not.
mixture

for separating of
insoluble solid from a
Decantation liquid by pouring the
liquid leaving out the
solid at the bottom
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for separating solid

particles depending
Centrifugation on having different
densities , denser
Example: particles separate first
separating blood
components
Blood .

for separating of two

immiscible liquids,
less dense liquid on
Separation the top and the
Funneling: higher density liquid
at the bottom of
Example: oil and
separating funnel
water
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Tool 1: Experimental Techniques:

Chromatography: is a collective term for a group of methods in which a mixture is analysed by the
separation of its components according to their relative affinities to the mobile and stationary phases.

The two types of chromatography you are likely to encounter as a DP chemistry student are paper
chromatography (figure 38) and thin-layer chromatography (TLC) (figure 39).

the lengths marked LA, LC, LB

and L0, indicate the distances
travelled by components A, B, C
and the solvent, respectively.
These lengths can be used to
calculate Rf values..

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Worksheet [4]: Mixtures Worksheet

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9. A student investigating the components of a black food colouring sets up a chromatography

experiment as shown below:

Describe and explain two errors in the set-up shown.

10. Refer to the chromatogram below and:

a. Calculate the Rf value of the top spot. Assume that length A = 3.95 cm and B = 5.02 cm.

b. Estimate the Rf value of the middle and bottom black spots.

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Linking questions:
Tool 1—What factors are considered in choosing a method to separate the components of a mixture?

Tool 1—How can the products of a reaction be purified?

Structure 2.2—How do intermolecular forces influence the type of mixture that forms between two
substances?

Structure 2.3 &2.4—Why are alloys generally considered to be mixtures, even though they often contain
metallic bonding?

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Linking questions
Why are some substances solid while others are fluid under standard conditions? (Structure 2.4)

Why are some changes of state endothermic and some exothermic? (Structure 2, Reactivity 1.2)

What is the graphical distribution of kinetic energy values of particles in a sample at a fixed
temperature? (Reactivity 2.2)

What must happen to particles for a chemical reaction to occur? (Reactivity 2.2)

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A student had two pure substances, A and B. They were heated in separate crucibles and
some qualitative and quantitative observations were made and recorded in table 2.

1) Calculate the change in mass for substances A and B.

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2) State a qualitative observation from the experiment performed on A and B.

3) Melting ice is a physical change while rusting iron is a chemical change. Explain, using the
observations, whether the changes to substances A and B represented a physical change
or a chemical change.

4) A and B were both pure substances, not mixtures. Discuss whether the experiment shows
that A and B are elements.

5) Both A and B turned black on heating. Can it be concluded that the heating of these two
substances produced the same substance?

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Exam-style questions: Multiple-choice questions

1. Which of the following are examples of homogeneous mixtures?

I. Air
II. Steel
III. Aqueous potassium manganate (VIl) KMnO4 (aq).

A. ll only
B. Ill only
C. I and Il only
D. I, ll and Ill

2. What correctly describes the sublimation of dry ice (carbon dioxide)?

3. Which of the following methods could be used to obtain solid sodium chloride from a solution
of sodium chloride in water?

I. evaporation
II. filtration
III. distillation

A. I only
B. I and ll only
C. I and Ill only
D. I, ll and Ill

4. Which changes of state are opposite to each other?

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A. melting and condensation

B. vaporization and deposition
C. deposition and sublimation
D. sublimation and freezing

5. Which of the following statements is incorrect?

A. solids and liquids are almost incompressible

B. particles in both solids and liquids are mobile
C. liquids and gases have no fixed shape
D. particles in solids, liquids and gases can vibrate

6. Which elements can be separated from each other by physical methods?

A. oxygen and nitrogen in air

B. hydrogen and oxygen in water
C. carbon and oxygen in dry ice
D. magnesium and sulfur in magnesium sulfide

7. Which change in temperature on the Celsius scale is equivalent to the increase in temperature by
20 K?

A. decrease by 20°C
B. increase by 20 °C
C. decrease by 293.15 °C
D. increase by 293.15 °C

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Structure 1.2—The nuclear atom

The Structure of the atom
• All matter is build up from atoms.
• An atom is the smallest unit of an element.
• Elements: An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by a
chemical reaction.
• Different elements have different chemical properties.

❖ Dalton`s model of the atom:

1. All matter is composed of tiny indestructible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
3. Atoms of the same element are alike in every way.
4. Atoms of different elements are different.

5. Atoms can combine together in small numbers to form molecules.

❖ J.J Thomson discovered that different metals produce a stream of negatively charged
particles when a high voltage is applied across 2 electrodes, which we now know as
ELECTRONS.
It was known that the atom had no net charge, Thomson pictured the atom as a (PLUM PUDDING), With
the negatively charged Electrons scattered in a positively charged sponge-like substance.

❖ Rutherford’ s model of the atom:

Rutherford and his team wanted to know if Thomson’s model was correct, the alpha particles (+ve)
should either pass straight through or deviate slightly.
 Rutherford’s experiment:
1. Alpha particles (2p +2n) were fired at gold foil.
2. Most passed straight through, but a few were repelled and bounced straight back

 The large number of un-deflected paths led to conclusion that the atom is mainly empty space.

 The large deflections occur when positively charged alpha particles collide with and repelled by a
POSITIVELY CHARGED NUCLEUS.

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Structure 1.2.1—Atoms contain a positively charged, dense nucleus composed of protons and neutrons
(nucleons).
Negatively charged electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus.

Position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom.

1. The volume of the atom is mostly empty space.

2. The mass and positive charge of the atom (protons and neutrons) is concentrated in a very small
nucleus.

3. Negative charged particles of an atom (electrons) move in orbits or energy levels around the nucleus
occupying most of its volume.

Importance of neutrons:

Without them, the protons would mutually repel each other and the nucleus would fall apart.

Relative masses and charges of the subatomic particles should be known; actual values are given in the data
booklet. The mass of the electron can be considered negligible.
the relative masses and relative charges of protons, neutrons and electrons

the terms mass number (A), and atomic number (Z) of an element.

❖ Atomic number (Z): number of protons in the nucleus.

1. Any atom has NO overall charge, the number of electrons is equal to the number of electrons in a
neutral atom.

2. The mass of the atom depends on the number of protons and neutrons. The mass of the electron is
ignored.

❖ Mass number(A) : (p+ + n0): it is the total number of protons and neutrons

Number of protons (p)= number of electrons = Z

Number of neutrons (n) = mass number – atomic number = A – Z

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Use the nuclear symbol 𝑨𝒛𝑿 to deduce the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions.

Atoms form compounds by sharing or transferring electrons.

As a result, these atoms sometimes are no longer neutral, having more or fewer electrons than protons.

Since the atom is neutral:

number of protons (p) = number of electrons = Z
number of neutrons (N) = A − number of protons = A − Z

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Worksheet [1] : Atomic structure

1) Complete the following table:

Sub-atomic particle Relative charge Relative mass Location

Proton
Neutron
Electron

2) Explain why the nucleus is the most dense part of atom.

3) Deduce the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the following species:

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Use the periodic table to write symbols for the following species:

Worksheet [2] : Electron, proton and neutrons

Fill in the blanks in the table below. You may use the periodic table in your book as necessary

Element Atomic Mass # electrons # protons #neutrons

Symbol number Number
Na 11 23
35 45
92 146
260 103
Sr 38 90
82 207
Zn2+ 65 30
S2- 16 16
I- 127 54
Fe3+ 23 30
55 78
Cd 64
Ag 108
39 89

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Isotopes
Structure 1.2.2—Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Differences in the physical properties of isotopes should be understood.

1. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with same atomic number and different mass numbers.
OR
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with same number of protons and electrons, but different
number of neutrons.

2. Isotopes show the same chemical properties because they have the same number of electrons.
However, the difference in mass number leads to different physical properties such as density
,melting and boiling points.

Specific examples of isotopes need not be learned.

Utilization of radioisotopes: (memorize)

➢ Nuclear medicine for diagnostic , treatment and research.

➢ Tracers in biochemical and pharmaceutical research

➢ Chemical clocks in geological and archaeological dating

They can be used either to kill or save human life.

Relative atomic mass(Ar): average mass of an atom relative to 1/12 of mass of an atom of Carbon –
12 .

Carbon-12 was chosen as the standard because it is a very common element that is easy to transport
and use.

1. Chlorine exist as 2 isotopes Chlorine- 35, Chlorine- 37. the relative atomic mass of isotopes is
however not 36 but 35.45.

2. This value is closer to 35 as there are more Cl 35 atoms in nature, this means that chlorine -35 is
the most abundant isotope.

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Perform calculations involving non-integer relative atomic masses and abundance of isotopes from given data.
The relative atomic mass, Ar, listed for each element on the periodic table is not a whole number
because it is the weighted average of all isotopes of that element.
If we know the natural abundances for all isotopes of an element, we can calculate the average A r of that
element.

The opposite task (calculation of natural abundances from Ar) is possible only if the element is composed
of two known isotopes.

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Worksheet [3] : Isotopes

12 13 14
1. Here are three isotopes of an element: 6 C 6 C 6 C
a. The element is:
b. The number 6 refers to the
c. The numbers 12, 13, and 14 refer to the
d. How many protons and neutrons are in the first isotope?
e. How many protons and neutrons are in the second isotope?
f. How many protons and neutrons are in the third isotope?

2. Complete the following chart:

Isotope name atomic # mass # # of protons # of neutrons # of electrons

92 uranium-235

92 uranium-238

5 boron-10

5 boron-11

3. Define isotopes

4. Compare and contrast the physical and chemical properties of carbon isotopes and explain.

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Worksheet [4] : Relative Atomic masses

Deduce the relative atomic masses of the following elements.

1. Silicon (28Si 92.21%, 29Si 4.70%, 30Si 3.09%)

2. Silver (107Ag 51.88%, 109Ag 48.12%)

3. Boron (10B 19.7%, 11B 80.7%)

4. Gallium (69Ga 60.2%, 71Ga 39.8%)

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5. Bromine has two isotopes, with mass numbers 79 and 81. Its relative atomic mass is
often given as 80. What does that tell you about the relative abundance of the two
isotopes?

6. Most argon atoms have a mass number 40. How many neutrons does this isotope
have? The relative isotopic mass of this isotope is 39.961, but the relative atomic
mass of argon is 39.948. What can you deduce about the other isotopes of argon?

7. The relative atomic mass of gallium is 69.7. Gallium is composed of two isotopes:
gallium-69 and gallium-71. Calculate the percentage abundance of gallium-69.

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8. Iridium has a relative atomic mass of 192.22. Its isotopes are 191Ir and 193Ir.
Calculate the percentage abundances of the two isotopes.

Linking questions
Structure 1.3—What determines the different chemical properties of atoms?

Structure 3.1—How does the atomic number relate to the position of an element in the periodic
table?

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Nature of science, Reactivity 3.4—How can isotope tracers provide evidence for a reaction
mechanism?

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Exam-style questions: Multiple-choice questions

1. Consider the composition of the species W, X, Y and Z below. Which species is an anion?

Species Number of protons Number of neutrons Number of electrons

W 9 10 10
X 11 12 11
Y 12 12 12
Z 13 14 10

A. W

B. X

C. Y

D. Z

2. Which is related to the number of electrons in the outer main energy level of the elements from the
alkali metals to the halogens?

I. Group number

II. Period number

A. I only

B. II only

C. Both I and II

D. Neither I nor II

3. What is the correct number of each particle in a fluoride ion, 19F–?

protons neutrons electrons

A. 9 10 8
B. 9 10 9
C. 9 10 10
D. 9 19 10

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4. How many protons, neutrons and electrons are there in the species 26Mg2+?

Protons Neutrons Electrons

A. 10 14 12
B. 12 14 10
C. 12 26 10
D. 14 12 12

5. A certain sample of element Z contains 60% of 69Z and 40% of 71Z. What is the relative atomic
mass of element Z in this sample?

A. 69.2

B. 69.8

C. 70.0

D. 70.2

59 59
6. What is the difference between two neutral atoms represented by the symbols Co and Ni?
27 28

A. The number of neutrons only.

B. The number of protons and electrons only.

C. The number of protons and neutrons only.

D. The number of protons, neutrons and electrons.

24 +2
7. How many electrons are there in one 12 Mg ion?

A. 10

B. 12

C. 14

D. 22

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8. Information is given about four different atoms:

atom neutrons protons

W 22 18
X 18 20
Y 22 16
Z 20 18

Which two atoms are isotopes?

A. W and Y

B. W and Z

C. X and Z

D. X and Y

9. How many neutrons are there in the ion 18O2–?

A. 8

B. 10

C. 16

D. 20

10. Which statement is correct about the isotopes of an element?

A. They have the same mass number

B. They have the same electron arrangement

C. They have more protons than neutrons

D. They have the same numbers of protons and neutrons

210 210
11. What is the difference between two neutral atoms represented by the symbols Po and At?
84 85

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A. The number of neutrons only.

B. The number of protons and electrons only.

C. The number of protons and neutrons only.

D. The number of protons, neutrons and electrons.

12. What is the symbol for a species that contains 15 protons, 16 neutrons and 18 electrons?

31
A. 16 S

31 3−
B. 16 S

C. 31
15 P−

31
D. 15 P 3−

13. What is the electron arrangement of an Al3+ ion?

A. 2, 8

B. 2, 3

C. 2, 8, 3

D. 2, 8, 8

14. Which species has 54 electrons and 52 protons?

128 2−
A. 52 Te

132
B. 54 Xe 2+

132
C. 54 Xe 2−

128 2+
D. 52 Te

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Structure 1.3—Electron configurations

Emission Spectra
Structure 1.3.1—Emission spectra are produced by atoms emitting photons when electrons in excited states
return to lower energy levels.

Much of our understanding of electron configurations in atoms has come from studies involving interaction
with light.

Sunlight can be broken down into different coloured components using a prism.

This generates a continuous spectrum (figure la).

continuous spectrum: contains light of all wavelengths, and appears as a continuous series of colours, in which
each colour merges into the next, and no gaps are visible.

A pure gaseous element subjected to a high voltage under reduced pressure will glow - in other words, it will
emit light. When this light passes through a prism, it produces a series of lines against a dark background. This
is known as an emission spectrum (figure lb).

In contrast, when a cold gas is placed between the prism and a source of visible light of all wavelengths, a series
of dark lines within a continuous spectrum will appear. This is known as an absorption spectrum (figure Ic).

Each line in the emission spectrum of an element has a specific wavelength, which corresponds to a
specific amount of energy.
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This is called quantization: the idea that electromagnetic radiation comes in discrete packets.

A photon is a quantum of energy, which is proportional to the frequency of the radiation as follows:

E=hxf
Where:
E = the specific energy possessed by the photon, expressed in joules, J
h = Planck's constant, 6.63 × 10-34 J.s
f = frequency of the radiation, expressed in hertz, Hz, or, s-1

Distinguish between a continuous and a line spectrum.

continuous all frequencies/wavelengths of light present.

spectrum
The different colors merge smoothly into one another.
radiation spread over all
wavelengths/frequencies/energies/colours
line Emission only certain frequencies/wavelengths of
spectrum spectrum light present.

Absorption
radiation (absorbed/emitted) at
spectrum certain/specific
wavelengths/frequencies/energies/colors

series of (separate/discrete) lines which

converge/get closer together at high
energy

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Qualitatively describe the relationship between color, wavelength, frequency and energy across the electromagnetic
spectrum
- Electromagnetic radiation comes in different
forms of differing energy.
- Different colors of visible light have different
wavelengths; ROY. G. BIV
Red light, has a longer wavelength than blue
light. .
- Flame colors can be used to identify unknown
compounds. All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed (c) but can
- the shorter the wavelength, the higher the be distinguished by their different wavelengths (λ)
frequency.
- Blue light has a higher frequency than red All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed, c = 3.00 × 108
light. m s-1
- White light is a mixture of light waves of
differing wavelengths or colors. The number of waves which pass a particular point in 1 s is called
the frequency (ν);

The wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional

the equation: c=ν λ where c is the speed of light.

Details of the electromagnetic spectrum are given in the data booklet. (section 5)

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Structure 1.3.2—The line emission spectrum of hydrogen provides evidence for the existence of electrons in
discrete energy levels, which converge at higher energies.

Describe the emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom, including the relationships between the lines and
energy transitions to the first, second and third energy levels.

Niels Bohr proposed a model of the hydrogen atom based on its emission spectra.

The main assumptions of his theory were:

1. The electron can exist only in certain stationary orbits around the nucleus. These orbits are
associated with discrete energy levels.

2. When an electron in the orbit with the lowest energy level absorbs a photon of the right amount
of energy, it moves to a higher energy level and remains at that level for a short time.

3. When the electron returns to a lower energy level, it emits a photon of light. This photon
represents the energy difference between the two levels.

The most stable state of the hydrogen atom is the state at n = 1, where the electron has the lowest
possible energy.
This energy level is known as the ground state of the atom.
The energy levels with n = 2, 3, ... are called excited states.
Atoms in excited states are unstable and spontaneously return to the ground state by emitting
photons of specific wavelengths.

Electrons cannot exist between energy levels. Jumping up each level requires a specific, discrete
amount of energy, and jumping down a level releases the same amount of energy.

An electron can be excited to any energy level, n, and return to any lower energy level.

Electrons returning to n = 2 will produce distinct lines in the visible spectrum of hydrogen
Note that the red line has a longer wavelength and lower frequency than the violet line.

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The energy of the photon released is lower when an electron falls from n = 3 to n = 2, than from n = 6
to n = 2. In both cases, it represents the difference between two of the allowable energy states of the
electron in the hydrogen atom.

Electron transitions for the hydrogen atom.

Energy levels get closer together when the electron moves further away from the nucleus.
The energy difference between n = 3 and n = 2 is much smaller than that between n = 2 and n = 1

To Summarize

• The emission spectrum for hydrogen provides evidence for the existence of discreet energy levels within the
atom
• Electrons jump to higher energy levels when a certain amount of energy is absorbed
• The same amount of energy is given off as light when the electron falls
• Each line in the spectrum corresponds to a specific drop between energy levels within the atom
• Only certain discreet energies are allowed (quantized)
• One photon, or quantum, of light is released for each electron transition
• The bigger the jump, the bigger the energy absorbed/released
• The lines converge at the higher energy end of the spectrum
• Lines converge at higher energies because the energy levels within the atom are closer together
• Lines in the visible region. (drops from higher energy levels to n= 2)
• There are also lines in the ultraviolet (drops from higher energy levels to n= 1)
• And in the infrared (falls to n=3)

The names of the different series in the hydrogen emission spectrum will not be assessed.

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The limitations in modeling the emission spectra of hydrogen:

1. The model could not predict the emission spectra of elements containing more than one electron. It
was only successful with the hydrogen atom.
2. It assumed the electron was a subatomic particle in a fixed orbit about the nucleus.
3. It could not explain molecular bonding and geometry.
4. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to precisely know the location of an
electron simultaneously.

Linking questions

Nature of science
Structure 1.2—How do emission spectra provide evidence for the existence of different elements?

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Worksheet [1] : Electromagnetic spectrum

1) Write the following in order of increasing energy:

UV, visible light, gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves, radio waves, infrared

2) Write the following in order of increasing wavelength:

UV, visible light, gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves, radio waves, infrared

3) Write the following in order of increasing frequency:

UV, visible light, gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves, radio waves, infrared

4) Write the following in order of increasing energy:

Orange, yellow, red, violet, green, indigo, blue

5) State the relationship between energy, frequency and wavelength:

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6) The diagram below (not to scale) represents some of the electron energy levels in the hydrogen atom.

a. Draw an arrow on a copy of the diagram to represent the lowest energy transition in the
visible emission spectrum. Label this arrow B.

b Draw an arrow on a copy of the diagram to represent the electron transition for the ionization
of hydrogen. Label this arrow A.

7) Describe the emission or line spectrum of gaseous hydrogen atoms and explain how this is related
to the energy levels in the atom.

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Work Sheet [2]: EMISSION SPECTRA AND ELECTRON TRANSTIONS questions

1.

2.

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3.

4.

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Electron Configurations

Structure 1.3.3—The main energy level is given an integer number, n, and can hold a maximum of 2n 2
electrons.
Deduce the maximum number of electrons that can occupy each energy level.

Energy levels closer to the nucleus hold fewer electrons.

The maximum number of electrons in any energy level, n, is 2n2.
For example, the energy level with
n =1 holds up to two electrons,
n = 2 there could be a maximum of eight electrons,
n = 3 has a maximum of 18 electrons,
n = 4 has a maximum of 32 electrons.

Structure 1.3.4—A more detailed model of the atom describes the division of the main energy level into s, p,
d and f sublevels of successively higher energies.
Sub-levels of electrons
The number of electrons in the sub-levels of the first four energy levels are shown in the table below.

- s sub-levels can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.

- p sub-levels can hold a maximum of 6 electrons.
- d sub-levels can hold a maximum of 10 electrons.
- f sub-levels can hold a maximum of 14 electrons.

Recognize the shape and orientation of an s atomic orbital and the three p atomic orbitals.

• s-orbitals are spherical

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• p-orbitals are dumbbell shaped, and oriented on the x- y- and z-axes

Structure 1.3.5—Each orbital has a defined energy state for a given electron configuration and chemical
environment and can hold two electrons of opposite spin.
Sublevels contain a fixed number of orbitals, regions of space where there is a high probability of finding an
electron.

atomic orbital: is a region around an atomic nucleus in which there is a 90% probability of finding the
electron. The shape of the orbitals will depend on the energy of the electron. When an electron is in an
orbital of higher energy it will have a higher probability of being found further from the nucleus.

Orbital diagrams
For convention, an "arrow in box" notation called an orbital diagram is used to represent how electrons are
arranged in atomic orbitals. The arrangement of electrons in orbitals is called electron configuration.

Each atomic orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons. These electrons can occupy the same region of space
despite their mutual repulsion as they spin in opposite directions.

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\
Apply the Aufbau principle, Hund’s rule and the Pauli exclusion principle to deduce electron configurations
for atoms and ions up to Z = 36.

Aufbau Principle: orbital diagrams: electrons are placed into orbitals of lowest energy first.

- Boxes can be used to represent the atomic orbitals,

- single-headed arrows represent the spinning electrons.
- The number of electrons in each sub-level is given as a superscript.

Hund’s third rule:

- If more than one orbital in a sub-level is available, electrons occupy different orbitals with parallel spins. To
minimizes the mutual repulsion between them.
- The electrons in the different 2p orbitals have parallel spins, as this leads to lower energy.

The Pauli Exclusion Principle:

- no more than two electrons can occupy any one orbital, and if two electrons are in the same orbital they must
spin in opposite directions.

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Full electron configurations and condensed electron configurations using the noble gas core should be covered.
Orbital diagrams, i.e. arrow-in-box diagrams, should be used to represent the filling and relative energy of
orbitals.

Electron sharing and transfer are fundamental to understanding chemical reactions, so it is important to know the
electron configuration of an atom or an ion. There are three ways to show the electron configuration:
1. Full electron configuration
2. Condensed electron configuration
3. Orbital filling diagram ("arrows in boxes" notation)

Condensed electron configuration = [previous noble gas] + valence electrons

Orbital diagrams can also sometimes be shortened by using a condensed electron configuration.

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Worksheet [74]: Electron
configuration

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\
Worksheet [2] : Electron configuration

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Worksheet [1] : Energy waves problems

Exercises: Do the following problems. Show your calculations. Do not write between the
lines attach another sheet or use the back of this sheet as necessary

1. KXL a local am radio station broadcasts on a frequency of 750 kilohertz. (750,000 s-1 ) Calculate the
wavelength and energy of the radio wave emitted by KXL.

2. Ultra violet radiation from the sun is often quite intense in the range of 320-400
nanometers. Calculate the frequency and energy of UV radiation if its wavelength is 360 nm.

3. An argon laser emits light with a wavelength of 489 nm. Calculate its energy in kjmol-1

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4. A laser emits light with a frequency of 4.69 x 1014 s-1. Calculate its energy in kjmol-1

5. In a spectra experiment, a line for the red line of hydrogen was recorded at 645 nm. Calculate its
frequency and energy in kjmol-1.

6. Determine the frequency, in s-1, of a photon that will cause the first ionization of copper.
Use sections 1, 2, and 8 of the data booklet.

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Linking questions
Structure 3.1—How does the trend in IE values across a period and down a group explain the trends in
properties of metals and non-metals?

Nature of science, Tool 3, Reactivity 3.1—Why are log scales useful when discussing [H+] and IEs?

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Exam-style questions: Multiple-choice questions

1. Which statement is correct for the emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom?

A. The lines converge at lower energies.

B. The lines are produced when electrons move from lower to higher energy levels.

C. The lines in the visible region involve electron transitions into the energy level closest to the nucleus.

D. The line corresponding to the greatest emission of energy is in the ultraviolet region.

2. Energy levels for an electron in a hydrogen atom are

A. evenly spaced.

B. farther apart near the nucleus.

C. closer together near the nucleus.

D. arranged randomly.

3. How many valence electrons are present in an atom of an element with atomic number 16?

A. 2

B. 4

C. 6

D. 8

4. The electron arrangement of sodium is 2.8.1. How many occupied main electron energy levels are there
in an atom of sodium?

A. 1

B. 3

C. 10

D. 11

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5. Which statement is correct about a line emission spectrum?

A. Electrons absorb energy as they move from low to high energy levels.

B. Electrons absorb energy as they move from high to low energy levels.

C. Electrons release energy as they move from low to high energy levels.

D. Electrons release energy as they move from high to low energy levels.

6. Which statements are correct for the emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom?

I. The lines converge at lower energies.

II. Electron transition to n =1 are responsible for lines in the UV region.
III. Lines are produced when electrons move from higher to lower energy levels.

A. I and II only

B. I and III only

C. II and III only

D. I, II and III

7. What is the electron configuration of selenium, Se?

A.1s22s22p63s23p64s24d104p4

B.1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p4

C.1s22p22p63s23p63d104p6

D.1s22s22p63s22d103p4

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8. Which atoms have one or more unpaired electrons in their ground state?

I. Copper
II. Chromium
III. Zinc

A. I and II only
B. II and III only
C. I and III only
D. I, II and III

9. Which is correct about the infrared and ultraviolet regions of the spectrum?

A. Z

B. X

C. Y

D. W

10. Which process produces the first line in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum for the
emission spectrum of hydrogen?

A. The absorption of energy by electrons

B. The release of energy by electrons
C. The convergence of energy by electrons
D. The deflection of energy by electron

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11. Which are correct for the hydrogen emission spectrum?

I. The spectrum consists of lines converging at higher energy.

II. The lines in the UV region are due to electronic transitions to the lowest energy level.

III. The lines are due to electrons absorbing energy as they move from higher energy levels to lower
energy levels

A. I, II and III

B. II and III only

C. I and II only

D. I and III only

12. What is the electron configuration of a S2- ion?

A.1s22s22p63s23p6
B.1s22s22p2
C.1s22s22p4
D.1s22s22p6

13. Which all contain the same electron configuration?

A.O2+, F+, Ne

B. Ca+, K+, Ar

C. O2-, Ne, Cl+

D.Al3+, Na+, Mg2+

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Structure 1.4—Counting particles by mass: The mole

The Mole

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Structure 1.4.1—The mole (mol) is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole contains exactly the
number of elementary entities given by the Avogadro constant.
An elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron, any other particle, or a specified
group of particles.
Convert the amount of substance, n, to the number of specified elementary entities.
The Avogadro constant NA is given in the data booklet. It has the units mol–1.

Moles (n) : One mole is the amount of substance that contains the same number of particles as there
are carbon atoms in 12g of carbon-12. This number is called Avogadro's constant and has a value of
6.02 x 1023 mol-1.

Mole - A measure of amount.

The Avogadro constant defines the mole as the unit of amount in chemistry : 1 mole = NA = 6.02 x 1023

𝑁 𝑁
𝑛= = where n= nb of moles and N = nb of particles or elementary entities (atoms; ions;
𝑁𝐴 6.02 X 1023
molecules; formula unit)

Ex. How many atoms of hydrogen are found in 1 mol of C2H5OH

Each 1 mol contains 6 hydrogen atom, therefore particles = 1× 6.02×1023 × 6= 3.6×1022 atoms

Relative molecular mass and molar mass

Structure 1.4.2—Masses of atoms are compared on a scale relative to 12C and are expressed as relative
atomic mass Ar and relative formula mass Mr .
Relative atomic mass and relative formula mass have no units.

Relative atomic mass (Ar) : the average of the masses of the isotopes of an atom relative to the mass of
1/12 of an atom of carbon-12.

Relative molecular mass (Mr) the mass of a molecule of that compound relative to the mass of 1/12 of an
atom of carbon

Determine relative formula masses Mr from relative atomic masses Ar .

The values of relative atomic masses given to two decimal places in the data booklet should be used in calculations.

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To find the Mr of a molecule or a compound, we need to add together the Ar values for all atoms.

Example:

H2O Mr (H2O) = (2 x 1.01) + (1x16.00) = 18.02

CaCl2 Mr (CaCl2) = Ar(Ca) + 2 × Ar (CI) = 40.08 + (2 × 35.45) = 110.98

Hydrated compound Mr (CuSO4 • 5H2O) = Ar (Cu) + Ar (S) + 4 x Ar(O) + 5 x Mr (H2O)

CuSO4 • 5H2O = 63.55 + 32.07 + (4 × 16.00) + (5 × 18.02)
= 249.72

Structure 1.4.3—Molar mass M has the units g mol–1.

Solve problems involving the relationships between the number of particles, the amount of substance in
moles and the mass in grams.

The molar mass of a substance, M, is its relative atomic mass, Ar, or its relative formula mass, Mr, expressed in
grams. It has the unit g.mol-1 .

one mole is the mass of substance that contains as many particles as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-12.

1 mole = Mr (g. mol-1)

𝒎
The relationship 𝒏 = is given in the data booklet.
𝑴

𝑚
𝑛= where n= nb of moles; m= mass in grams; M = molar mass or Mr (g.mol-1)
𝑀

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Linking questions:

Structure 3.1—Atoms increase in mass as their position descends in the periodic table. What properties
might be related to this trend?

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Worksheet [1]: Mole concept

Mole concept

All answers should be given to 3 significant figures

1) State the value of Avogadro’s constant.

2) Calculate the number of molecules in the following:

a) 0.500 mol CH4

b) 0.750 mol SO2

c) 1.08 mol C2H5OH

d) 2.50 mol C3H8

e) 1.45 x 10-3 mol NH3

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3) Calculate the total number of atoms in the following:

a) 0.500 mol CH4

b) 0.750 mol SO2

c) 1.08 mol C2H5OH

d) 2.50 mol C3H8

e) 1.45 x 10-3 mol NH3

4) Calculate the number of hydrogen atoms in:

a) 0.750 mol CH4

b) 1.24 mol C2H5OH

c) 0.913 mol C3H8

d) 2.45 mol C5H10

e) 6.90 x 10-4 mol NH3

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5) Calculate the number of ions in:

a) 1.00 mol of NaCl

b) 0.500 mol of Na2O

c) 1.45 mol of MgCl2

6) Calculate the following:

a) The number of ethanol molecules in a drop of ethanol CH3CH2OH (2.30x10-3g)

b) The mass of one molecule of ethane (C2H6)

c) The amount (in mol) of O2 that contains 1.80x1022 molecules

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d) The mass of 3.01x1023 molecules of H2O

e) The number of iodine atoms in 0.835 mol of I2

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Worksheet [2]: Formula Mass Calculations

A formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses of all of the atoms that are found in the formula.
To calculate a formula mass:
• Find the atomic mass of each element in the formula
• Multiply each atomic mass by the number of times the atom appears in the formula
• Find the sum
Example
• First calculate the formula mass for Na2SO4 . Find the atomic mass of each element from the
periodic table. Multiply it by the number of times it appears in the formula and add up the total

2 Sodium atoms Na 2 x22.99 = 45.98

1 Sulfur atom S 1 x32.06 = 32.06
4 Oxygen atoms O 4 x16.00 = 64.00
Formula mass = 142.04
Use the example above as a model and calculate the formula mass (Molar Mass) for each of the
following:

1. NaCl

2. KNO3

3. ZnCO3

4. BaSO4

5. (NH4)2SO4

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6. Ca(OH)2

7. Ti2O3

8. Sr(NO3)2

9. PbCl2

10. Cu(NO3)2

11. CH3CH2OH

12. Al2(SO4)3

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Worksheet [3]: Moles, moles and more moles: Calculating moles from masses and vice-
versa

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Trickier moles questions….You will need to know something about these compounds before you
can calculate the moles…. (CLUE: you will find your table of common ions on the back of your Periodic
Table very useful!) Give all answers to 1 decimal place.

1. Calculate the number of moles in 10g of the following compounds

A. Water

B. Sodium chloride

C. Bromine liquid

D. Magnesium
chloride

E. Hydrochloric acid

2. Calculate the mass of 3 moles of the following compounds

A. Magnesium
sulphate

B. Ammonium
hydroxide

C. Barium
sulphate

D. Nitric acid

E. Iron (III)
oxide

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Empirical formula, molecular formula and chemical analysis

Structure 1.4.4—The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest ratio of atoms of each
element present in that compound. The molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of
each element present in a molecule.

The empirical formula is the simplest whole- number ratio of the elements in a compound.

The molecular formula shows all the atoms present in the actual molecule. It is a multiple of the empirical formula.

Interconvert the percentage composition by mass and the empirical formula.

% composition – look carefully at the given molecular formula to know how many atoms you have.

you may be asked to get the % by mass of water in a

hydrated compound (same steps)

example: calculate the % of water in the

hydrated copper(II) sulfate.

Molar mass = M(CuSO4)+ 5x(MH2O) = 249.72

then % water = 𝑥 100 = 36%

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Empirical formula can be calculated from % by mass if given, or mass, or moles of every element making the
compound.

Steps to follow:

1. Convert the mass of each element to moles by dividing by its molar mass, M.
2. Divide by the smallest number to give the ratio.
3. Approximate to the nearest whole number.

Rounding: If your result ends in one or the following, multiply all results by same factor. If your
number ends in...

¼ 0.25 multiply all by 4

1/3 0.33 multiply all by 3

½ 0.50 multiply all by 2

0.66 multiply all by 3

¾ 0.75 multiply all by 4

Example:
A sample of urea contains 1.210 g N, 0.161 g H, 0.480 g C, and 0.640 g O. What is the empirical
formula of urea?

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Determine the molecular formula of a compound from its empirical formula and molar mass.

Tip: you will be given the molar mass of the actual compound which is the molecular formula.

find X = (molar mass of the molecular formula/ molar mass of the empirical formula) – X
must be a whole number, if you get a decimal, go back and check your calculations.

molecular formula = X (empirical formula)

if X = 1 this means that MF is the same as the EF (it has the simplest ratios)

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Worksheet [1]: Percent Composition

Example Calculate the mass of each element in potassium carbonate, K2CO3 .

1. Calculate the Mr of the compound

2 Potassium K 2x = 78.20
atoms 39.10
1 carbon atom C 1x = 12.01
12.01
3 Oxygen atoms O 3x = 48.00
16.00
138.21
2. To find the percent of each element divide the part of the formula mass that pertains to that
element with the total formula mass
Percent of 78.20 X 100 56.58
K=
Potassium 138.21 = %
Percent of 12.01 X 100 8.69
C=
Carbon 138.21 = %
Percent of O 48.00 X 100 34.73
Oxygen = 138.21 = %

Percent Composition Calculations

Using the example above, Calculate the percentage composition of each element in the formulas
shown below. Show your work and circle your answers

1. Magnesium carbonate MgCO 3

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2. Sulfuric Acid H2SO4

3. Sodium Nitrate NaNO3

4. Iron (III) Phosphate FePO4

5. Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4

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6. Zinc Hydroxide, Zn(OH) 2

7. Sodium hydroxide, NaOH

8. Potassium Chloride, KCl

9. Potassium chlorate, KClO3

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Worksheet [2]: Empirical and molecular formula

1) Define the terms empirical formula and molecular formula.

2) Compound B has the following percentage composition by mass: C 26.7%, O

71.1% and H 2.2%. Calculate the empirical formula of compound B.

3) Compound C has the following percentage composition by mass: 48.6% C,

10.8% H, 21.6% O and 18.9% N. Calculate the empirical formula of compound C.

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4) Work out the molecular formula of each of the following given the empirical
formula and the relative molecular mass:

a) CH2, Mr = 70

b) OH, Mr = 34

c) C2H5O, Mr = 90

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5) An organic compound A contains 62.0% by mass of carbon, 24.1% by
mass of nitrogen, the remainder being hydrogen.

a) Determine the percentage by mass of hydrogen and the empirical

formula of A.

b) The relative molecular mass of A is 116. Determine the molecular

formula of A.

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Worksheet [3]: Empirical and Molecular formula
1. Determine the empirical formula for following compounds

a. 28.4% copper, 71.6% bromine

b. 39.0% potassium, 12.0% carbon, 1.01% hydrogen, and 47.9% oxygen

b. 77.3% silver, 7.4% phosphorus, 15.3% oxygen

d. 0.57% hydrogen, 72.1% iodine, 27.3% oxygen

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2. Smog is common in cities throughout the world. One component of smog is PAN
(peroxyacylnitrate) which consists of 20.2 % C, 11.4 % N, 65.9 % O and 2.50 % H by
mass.Determine the empirical formula of PAN, showing your working.
............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................
.

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................
.

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................
.

............................................................................................................................................
.
3. Ninhydrin’s composition is 60.68% carbon, 3.40% hydrogen, and 35.92% oxygen. What is the
empirical formula for ninhydrin?

............................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................
.

............................................................................................................................................
.

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4. A sample of histamine having a mass of 385 mg is composed of 208 mg of carbon, 31 mg of
hydrogen, and 146 mg of nitrogen. The molar mass of histamine is 111 g/mol. What is the
molecular formula for histamine?

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Tool 1—How can experimental data on mass changes in combustion reactions be used to derive
empirical formulas?

find the empirical formula of a find the empirical formula of a compound

hydrocarbon by combustion reaction: containing C, H, and O. from the combustion
reaction.
CxHy + O2 → CO2 + H2O
CxHyOz + O2 → CO2 + H2O

find the moles of CO2 n (CO2) = m/Mr of

n C = n CO2 CO2

n (C) = n (CO2)
find the moles of H2O,
n H = 2 x n (H2O) m (C) = n x 12.01

n (H2O) =m/Mr of
Find the ratio: H2O

n (H) = 2 x n (H2O)

m (H) = n x 1.01

m (O)= mass cpd –

(m H + m C)

n (O) = m (O) /16

Find the ratio

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Challenge questions
For each of the following calculate the empirical formula:
a When 2.20 g of a hydrocarbon, D, is burnt in excess oxygen, 6.90 g of CO2 and
2.83 g of water are produced.

b When 1.52 g of compound E, which contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

only, is burnt in excess oxygen, 3.04 g CO2 and 1.24 g H2O are produced.

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➢ Calculate Empirical Formula of metal oxide from experimental

data:
1. Oxidation of metal: e.g. Oxidation of Magnesium to calculate the
empirical formula of Magnesium oxide experimentally.
Example 1:
a. Write the balanced equation for the reaction of magnesium burning in air.

b. Calculate the empirical formula of magnesium oxide using the data below:

mass of crucible + lid (±0.01g) 40.10

mass of crucible + lid + magnesium before heating (±0.01g) 44.94

mass of crucible + lid + contents after heating (±0.01g) 48.18

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Example 2:
Calculate the empirical formula of magnesium oxide using the data below. Comment on
any experimental errors in the experiment.

mass of crucible + lid (±0.01g) 30.91

mass of crucible + lid + magnesium before heating (±0.01g) 31.04

mass of crucible + lid + contents after heating (±0.01g) 31.11

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2. Reduction of metal oxide: e.g. Reduction of copper oxide to calculate the

empirical formula of Copper oxide experimentally

Classwork:

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➢ Water of crystallization
• Some substances crystallize with water.

For example:
1. CuSO4. 5 H2O (Hydrated Copper Sulphate)
2. MgCl2 .6 H2O ( Hydrated Magnesium chloride)

• The water is necessary for the formation of the crystals and is called “water of
crystallization”.
For example:

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Classwork:

When 2.56 g of hydrated Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4. x H2O) is heated, 1.25 g of

anhydrous Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) is formed. Determine the value of x in the
formula?

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Worksheet [4]: Water of crystallization

1) 4.00 g of hydrated barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2 . zH20) was heated to remove the water of
crystallization. When it reached constant mass, the sample weighed 2.17g of an anhydrous
salt. What is the formula of the hydrated crystals?

2) 12.00 grams of hydrated magnesium sulfate crystals decompose, when heated, to

produce 5.86 grams of anhydrous product (MgSO4). What is the formula of the
hydrated crystals?

3) 15.00 grams of sodium chromate hydrate decompose, when heated, to produce 10.38
grams of anhydrous product (Na2CrO4). What is the formula of the hydrated
crystals?

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LAB SHEET [1]: Calculate the empirical formula of Magnesium Oxide

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LAB SHEET [2]: Finding the Formula of a Hydrate

Purpose:

To find the molecular formula of a certain hydrate of copper (II) sulfate,

CuSO4 • xH2O. You will be working in groups of 3-4. However, each person will
submit their own lab report.

Assessment:

CE – record and label your results carefully, including units, significant figures, and
uncertainties. You will be comparing this to the true value of the hydrate. Also pay
attention to any variables that should be controlled during this experiment.

Materials:

Ceramic evaporating dish

Electronic balance

Bunsen burner

Retort stand, ring clamp, clay triangle

Glass stirring rod, scoopula, crucible tongs

Copper (II) sulfate hydrate crystals

Safety:

• All students must wear safety glasses at all times during the lab, even when not
working directly with the chemicals or apparatus.

• Be careful around the hot plates, even when they are unplugged – they may still
be hot!

• Do not inhale the copper (II) sulfate hydrate

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• Do not touch the copper (II) sulfate crystals

• Always wash your hands thoroughly before and after handling any chemicals.

Procedure:

1. Gather all the equipment you need for this lab.

2. Use evaporation to determine the formula of CuSO4 • xH2O. Use between 3-5g
of crystals per trial.

3. Place the clay triangle on top of the ring clamp, and set the evaporating dish on
top.

4. Light the Bunsen burner. You will hold the Bunsen burner throughout the entire
experiment and wave it gently back and forth underneath the evaporating dish.

5. Use your stirring rod to CAREFULLY mix the crystals in the dish so that they do
not burn. Continue allowing the crystals to heat until ALL the crystals have
changed colour. Do not lose any crystals during the heating. Record any
observations you notice during the heating of the crystals.

6. If you hear sizzling, then the heat is a little bit too high.

7. Once the colour change has finished, use the tongs to remove the evaporating dish
from the clay triangle. Be careful, it is very hot.

8. Let the sample cool down for 1-2 minutes before measuring.

9. Place the anhydride into the storage beaker provided by your teacher. Wipe the
evaporating dish using paper towels.

10. Repeat all steps of the experiment a total of 3-4 times, depending on time.

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Analysis/Calculations:

11. Find the average of your 3-4 trials.

12. Use your average values to calculate the molecular formula of the hydrate (the value of x).
DATA SHEET

A. Percentage of Water in Copper sulfate .X H20

Trial 1 Trial 2

(1) Mass of crucible and lid g g

(2) Mass of crucible, lid and hydrate g g

(3) Mass of hydrate (2) – (1) g g

(4) Mass of crucible, lid and g g

anhydrous salt (after heating)

(5) Mass of water g g

Show calculations for the experimental water of crystallization for Trial 1+2

Percentage of water in CuSO4• X H2O % %

Average %

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Solution and Concentration
Structure 1.4.5—The molar concentration is determined by the amount of solute and the
volume of solution.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances, which may be solids, liquids or gases, or a
combination of these.

The solvent is the component present in the greatest quantity, in which the solute is dissolved.
Consider solutions made by dissolving a solid solute in a liquid solvent. We express the amount through its
concentration.

Solve problems involving the molar concentration, amount of solute and volume
of solution.
Units of concentration should include g dm–3 and mol dm–3 and conversion
between these.
The relationship n = CV is given in the data booklet.

The concentration of a solution refers to the amount of solute per volume of solution

Molar Note that concentration is specified per volume

concentration of final solution, not per volume of solvent added. This
(mol.dm-3) is because volume changes occur on dissolving the
solute.
to find the molar concentration of a mixture of two
𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝐴𝑉𝐴+𝐶𝐵𝑉𝐵
solutions A & B : Cnew = =
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝐴+𝑉𝐵

Mass 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑛 𝑚 𝐶 (𝑔.𝑑𝑚 3 )

C (g.dm-3) = 𝐶= = = Thus C (g.dm-3) = C x M
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑑𝑚3) 𝑉 𝑀𝑉 𝑀
concentration
(g .dm-3 ).

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* NOTE: If you mix 2 liquids together of same solute but two different concentration and volumes and you
are asked to find new concentration after mixing, therefore

1. find the new volume by adding the volume of two solutions

2. Find the number of moles of both liquids (n1 = C V) , (n2 = C V) and add them
3. Then find new concentration

+ = ?
Example 1
If you mix 100 cm3 of a 5.0 mol dm-3 concentration of drug A with 200 cm3 of a 20 mol dm-3concentration
of drug A, what will the final concentration be?

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The use of square brackets to represent molar concentration is required.

example: [H2SO4] = 2.00 mol.dm-3;

since the same volume (same container) so [H+] = 2x2.00 = 4.00 mol.dm-3; [SO42-] = 2.00 mol.dm-3
H2SO4-(aq) → 2 H+-(aq) + SO42-(aq)

Tool 1—What are the considerations in the choice of glassware used in preparing a standard
solution and a serial dilution?

A standard solution is one of known concentration.

Procedure to prepare standard solutions of known concentration:

Note: In quantitative work, it is essential to select glassware that measures volume to an

appropriate level of precision. Most glassware is marked with a given uncertainty at a
specified temperature - the smaller the uncertainty, the more precise the
measurement.

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Procedure for preparing standard solution with known concentration:

1. Accurately measure the mass of solute required and then transfer carefully to a volumetric
flask, which is precisely calibrated for a specific volume.
2. Add the solvent steadily with swirling to help the solute to dissolve, until the final level
reaches the mark on the flask. Note that distilled water, not tap water, must be used as the
solvent in the preparation of all aqueous solutions.

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Dilution: Purpose to prepare a solution with a less concentration than the standard
solution.
Upon dilution number of moles of the solute remains constant.: n(before adding water) =
n(after adding water)

CoVo = C1V1

If asked what is the volume of water added to prepare the diluted solution : Vwater = V1-V0

Serial Dilution:
Serial dilutions are used to accurately prepare a series of solutions of increasingly lower
concentration starting from a standard solution.

Solutions for calibration curves are often prepared using this method, as extremely low
concentrations are often required.

It generates a series of solutions of known concentration, e. g. 1.00 mol dm -3, 0.100 mol
dm-3, 0.0100 mol dm-3, 0.00100 mol dm-3.

Dilution is carried out into volumetric flasks so that the final volume of the solution is
measured, taking account of volume changes that may occur on dilution.

Procedure for serial dilution:

1. Using a pipette transfer 10cm3 from the stock solution into a 100 cm3 volumetric flask.
2. Add distilled water to the mark.
3. Repeating this process generates a series of solutions, each 10 times less
concentrated than the previous one.
Tool 1, Inquiry 2—How can a calibration curve be used to determine the concentration of a solution?

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Spectrophotometry and Calibration curves

Spectrophotometry is an analytical technique based on the measurement of the intensity

of visible, ultraviolet and near-infrared radiation.

This technique is commonly used for determining concentrations of coloured substances

in solutions.

A spectrophotometer produces light of a certain wavelength, which passes through a

small sample of the studied solution. The photodetector measures the intensity of the
transmitted light and converts it into the absorbance. Absorbance is a value describing the
amount of light absorbed by the sample.

Initially, several standard solutions of the studied substance are prepared by serial dilution
and their absorbances are measured.

These absorbances are plotted against concentrations, producing a calibration curve.

The calibration curve is then used for determining the unknown concentration of the
coloured substance in the studied solution.

In the general case, a calibration curve relates a measurable property (such as

absorbance, pH or electrical conductivity) of the solution to the concentration of the solute.

The unknown concentration can be found by measuring that property and plotting the
result of the measurement on the calibration curve.

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ATL skills:

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using a serial dilution in the preparation of
samples for a calibration curve.

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Tool 1: Experimental Techniques:

A standard solution is usually prepared as follows:

1. The solid (or sometimes liquid) solute is weighed in a clean and dry beaker using an analytical balance.
2. A small volume of deionized water is added to the beaker, and the mixture is stirred with a glass rod
until the solid dissolves completely.
3. The solution is transferred to a volumetric flask using a glass funnel.
4. The beaker, glass rod and funnel are rinsed three times with deionized water, each time adding this
water into the volumetric flask to ensure that the solute is transferred completely.
5. Deionized water is added to the volumetric flask until its level reaches the graduation mark on the flask.
6. The flask is stoppered and turned over at least ten times to ensure that the solution is mixed thoroughly.

The solution is transferred to a reagent bottle with a label showing the formula or name of the
substance, its concentration, and any hazard labels, if relevant.

Note: !!!!

- Measuring cylinders and beakers with graduation marks should never be used for
preparing or diluting standard solutions, as they do not allow measurement of
volumes with sufficient precision.
- the balance must show the mass of a sample with at least four significant figures.

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Worksheet [1]: Concentration problems:

1. Calculate the concentrations of each of the following solutions in units of gdm-3:

a 10.0 g of sodium chloride dissolved in 2.00 dm3 of water

b 2.5 g of glucose dissolved in 0.5 dm3 of water

c 3.8 g of copper sulfate dissolved in 250 cm3 of water

d 25.6 g of potassium chloride dissolved in 1500 cm3 of water.

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2. Calculate the concentrations of each of the following solutions in units of
moldm-3:

a 10.0 g of sodium chloride, NaCl, dissolved in 2.00 dm3 of water

b 2.5 g of glucose, C6H12O6, dissolved in 0.5 dm3 of water

c 3.8 g of copper sulfate, CuSO4, dissolved in 250 cm3 of water

d 25.6 g of potassium chloride, KCl, dissolved in 1500 cm3 of water

e 2.5 g of hydrated copper sulfate, CuSO4•5H2O, dissolved in 0.025 dm3 of water.

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Calculate the amount of solute in each of the following solutions.
a. in units of moles

b in units of grams
i.0.20 dm3 of a solution of hydrochloric acid, HCl, with a
concentration of 1.5moldm-3

ii.4.5 dm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, with a

concentration of 0.40moldm-3

iii. 80 cm3 of a solution of nitric acid, HNO3, with a concentration of 1.25 moldm-3

iv. 1250 cm3 of a solution of calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, with a concentration of

0.87 moldm-3.

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Worksheet [9]: Preparing standard solution:
1 A student is investigating the effect of concentration on the colour of a solution of
copper sulfate. She wishes to make up 250 cm3 of a solution of copper sulfate,
CuSO4, with a concentration of 0.50 moldm-3, that she can dilute.

a State the colour of a solution of copper sulfate

b A solution of copper sulfate of 0.50 moldm-3, Calculate the concentration of this

solution in gdm-3.

c Describe how the student could make up 250 cm3 of a solution of copper sulfate
with the desired concentration. Include the mass of copper sulfate that must be
dissolved and details of the practical steps needed.

d How much water must be added to 10 cm3 of the 0.50 moldm-3 solution to produce
a solution with a concentration of 0.25 moldm-3?

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1. How many moles of LiF would be required to produce a 2.5 moldm-3 solution
with a volume of 1.5 dm3 ?

2. How many moles of Sr(NO3)2 would be used in the preparation of 2.50 dm3 of
a 3.5 moldm-3 solution?

3. What is the concentration moldm-3 of a 500-cm3 solution containing 249 g of

KI?

4. How many grams of CaCl2 would be required to produce a 3.5 moldm-3

solution with a volume of 2.0 dm3?

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Worksheet [10]: Concentration problems:

1. Determine the concentration in moldm-3 and gdm-3 of a solution prepared by dissolving

141.6 g of citric acid, C3H5O(COOH)3, in solution to 3500.0 dm3.

2. What is the concentration in moldm-3 and gdm-3 of a salt solution made by dissolving 280.0
g of NaCl in 2.00 dm3 of water?

3. What is the concentration in moldm-3 of a CH3COOH, if the concentration is 390.0 g dm-3

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Worksheet [11]: Dilution Problems

1. How much of a 15.0 moldm-3 stock solution do you need to prepare 250 cm3 of a 2.35 moldm-3
HF solution?

2. If 455 cm3 of 6.0 moldm-3 HNO3 is diluted to 2.5 dm3, what is the molarity of the diluted
solution?

3. If 65.5 cm3 of HCl stock solution is used to make 450 cm3 of a 0.675 moldm-3 HCl dilution,
what is the concentration of the stock solution?

4. How do you prepare 500 cm3 of a 1.77 moldm-3 H2SO4 solution from an 18.0 moldm-3 H2SO4
stock solution?

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5) (a) A student needs to prepare 250.00 cm3 of a solution of sodium hydrogencarbonate with
a concentration of 0.500 moldm-3. Explain the steps in the process starting with the solid salt, and
stating the apparatus and glassware used. [5 marks]

(b) Explain how, starting with the solution prepared in (a), 100 cm3 of solutions with
concentrations of 0.0500 moldm-3 and 0.00500moldm-3 could be prepared. [4 marks]

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Avogadro’s Law

Structure 1.4.6—Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of all gases measured under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules.

At constant pressure and temperature:

n=V
(so in case when given volume it can be used in mole ratio)

Solve problems involving the mole ratio of reactants and/or products and the volume of gases. (more practice after
reactivity 2.1)

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Exam-style questions: Multiple-choice questions

1. What amount of oxygen, O2, (in moles) contains 1.8×1022 molecules?

A. 0.0030

B. 0.030

C. 0.30

D. 3.0

2. Which compound has the empirical formula with the greatest mass?

A. C2H6

B. C4H10

C. C5H10

D. C6H6

3. What volume (in dm3) of 0.30 mol dm–3 NaCl solution can be prepared from 0.060 mol of solute?

A. 0.018

B. 0.20

C. 0.50

D. 5.0

4. What amount (in moles) is present in 2.0 g of sodium hydroxide, NaOH?

A. 0.050

B. 0.10

C. 20

D. 80

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5. A hydrocarbon contains 90% by mass of carbon. What is its empirical formula?
A. CH2

B. C3H4

C. C7H10

D. C9H10

6. Which solution contains the smallest amount of H+ ions?

A. 10.0 cm3 of 0.250 mol dm–3 HCl

B. 20.0 cm3 of 0.250 mol dm–3 HCl

C. 10.0 cm3 of 0.500 mol dm–3 HCl

D. 10.0 cm3 of 0.250 mol dm–3 H2SO4

7. How many hydrogen atoms are contained in one mole of ethanol, C2H5OH?

A. 5

B. 6

C. 1.0×1023

D. 3.6×1024

8. The percentage by mass of the elements in a compound is

C = 72%, H = 12%, O = 16%.

What is the mole ratio of C:H in the empirical formula of this compound?

A. 1:1

B. 1:2

C. 1:6

D. 6:1

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9. What amount of NaCl (in moles) is required to prepare 250 cm3 of a 0.200 mol dm–3 solution?
A. 50.0

B. 1.25

C. 0.800

D. 0.0500

10. Which of the following contains the greatest number of molecules?

A. 1 g of CH3Cl

B. 1 g of CH2Cl2

C. 1 g of CHCl3

D. 1 g of CCl4

11. Which of the following compounds has/have the empirical formula CH2O?

I. CH3COOH

II. C6H12O6

III. C12H22O11

A. II only

B. III only

C. I and II only

D. II and III only

12. Which is a correct definition of the term empirical formula?

A. formula showing the numbers of atoms present in a compound

B. formula showing the numbers of elements present in a compound

C. formula showing the actual numbers of atoms of each element in a compound

D. formula showing the simplest ratio of numbers of atoms of each element in a compound

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13. Which solution contains the greatest amount (in mol) of solute?

A. 10.0 cm3 of 0.500 mol dm–3 NaCl

B. 20.0 cm3 of 0.400 mol dm–3 NaCl

C. 30.0 cm3 of 0.300 mol dm–3 NaCl

D. 40.0 cm3 of 0.200 mol dm–3 NaCl

14. How many oxygen atoms are present in 0.0500 mol carbon dioxide?

A. 3.01×1022

B. 6.02×1022

C. 6.02×1023

D. 1.20×1024

15. The relative molecular mass (Mr) of a compound is 60. Which formulas are possible for this
compound?

I. CH3CH2CH2NH2

II. CH3CH2CH2OH

III. CH3CH(OH)CH3

A. I and II only

B. I and III only

C. II and III only

D. I, II and III

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16. Which sample has the least number of atoms?
A. 1 mol of H2SO4

B. 1 mol of CH3COOH

C. 2 mol of H2O2

D. 2 mol of NH3

17. Avogadro’s constant has the same value as the number of

A. molecules in 1 mol of solid iodine.

B. atoms in 1 mol of chlorine gas.

C. ions in 1 mol of solid potassium bromide.

D. protons in 1 mol of helium gas.

18. Which aqueous solution contains the most hydrogen ions?

A. 20 cm3 of 2 mol dm–3 sulfuric acid

B. 10 cm3 of 4 mol dm–3 nitric acid

C. 80 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid

D. 40 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 sulfuric acid

19. Which contains the same number of ions as the value of Avogadro’s constant?

A. 0.5 mol NaCl

B. 0.5 mol MgCl2

C. 1.0 mol Na2O

D. 1.0 mol MgO

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20. Which solution contains 0.1 mol of sodium hydroxide?

A. 1 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 NaOH

B. 10 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 NaOH

C. 100 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 NaOH

D. 1000 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 NaOH

21. Which of the following quantities has units?

A. Relative atomic mass

B. Relative molecular mass

C. Molar mass

D. Mass number

22. The empirical formula of a compound is C2H4O. Which molecular formulas are possible for
this compound?

I. CH3COOH

II. CH3CH2CH2COOH

III. CH3COOCH2CH3

A. I and II only

B. I and III only

C. II and III only

D. I, II and III

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23. What is the total number of ions present in the formula, Al2(SO4)3?
A. 2

B. 3

C. 5

D. 6

24. A 4 g sample of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is dissolved in water and made up to 500 cm3 of
aqueous solution. What is the concentration of the resulting solution?

A. 0.1 mol dm–3

B. 0.2 mol dm–3

C. 0.5 mol dm–3

D. 1.0 mol dm–3

25. What is the empirical formula of a compound containing 50 by mass of element X (Ar = 20)
and 50 by mass of element Y (Ar = 25)?

A. XY

B. X3 Y2

C. X4 Y5

D. X5 Y4

26. On complete combustion, a sample of a hydrocarbon compound produces 1.5 mol of carbon
dioxide and 2.0 mol of water. What is the molecular formula of this hydrocarbon?

A. C2H2

B. C2H4

C. C3H4

D. C3H8

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27. Which expression gives the amount (in mol) of a substance, if the mass is given in grams?

A. mass
molar mass

B. molar mass
mass
1
C.
molar mass

D. mass × molar mass

28. What is the total number of atoms in 0.20 mol of propanone, CH3COCH3?

A. 1.2×1022

B. 6.0×1023

C. 1.2×1024

D. 6.0×1024

29. How many hydrogen atoms are in one mole of ethanol, C2H5OH?

A. 1.00×1023

B. 3.61×1024

C. 5.00

D. 6.00

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Structure 1.5 - Ideal Gases
Structure 1.5.1—An ideal gas consists of moving particles with negligible volume and no intermolecular
forces. All collisions between particles are considered elastic.
Recognize the key assumptions in the ideal gas model.

• the gas behaves most like an ideal gas at low pressure and shows the greatest deviation at high pressure;

• the gas behaves most like an ideal gas at high temperature and shows the greatest deviation at low temperature.

At high pressure: the particles approach more closely; attractive forces strengthen between them.
These have the effect of reducing the pressure of the gas. the non-zero volume of the particles
becomes more important
At low temperatures: lower kinetic energy of the particles increases the strength of inter-particle
forces.

Assumptions must be made in describing an ideal gas in the kinetic molecular theory:

1. The particles in a gas have negligible volume compared with the volume the gas occupies.
2. There are no intermolecular forces between the particles except when the molecules collide.
3. The average kinetic energy of the particles is proportional to the temperature.
4. The collisions of the particles with the walls of the container and with each other are elastic: kinetic
energy is conserved.

Structure 1.5.2—Real gases deviate from the ideal gas model, particularly at low temperature and high
pressure.

There is no such thing as an ideal gas. All gases, known as real gases, deviate to some extent from ideal
behavior as the assumptions (negligible volume and no intermolecular forces) do not apply to real gases
under all conditions.

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Explain the limitations of the ideal gas model.

1. The volume of the gas particles is not negligible

If the volume of the particles is not negligible, they travel

less distance between collisions with the wall.

The collisions are more frequent than predicted by the

.
ideal gas model and the pressure is greater.

2. There are attractive forces between the particles

When a particle is approaching the wall of a container,

attractive forces from other particles pull in the opposite
direction. This reduces the speed of the colliding particle
and leads to a less energetic collision with the wall. The
pressure is lower than for an ideal gas.

Data Analysis:

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The Molar Volume of an Ideal Gas

Structure 1.5.3—The molar volume of an ideal gas is a constant at a specific temperature and pressure.

At standard conditions:
T = 0oC (273 K) and P = 100 KPa ;
for n = 1 mole of the gas; then Vm = 22.7 dm3 (molar volume)
𝑽
if the question states at STP: use the formula: n = to get the moles for the gas.
𝟐𝟐.𝟕

Investigate the relationship between temperature, pressure and volume for a fixed mass of an ideal gas
and analyse graphs relating these variables.

(Phet simulation)

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at constant T
(P 1/𝖺 V)
P and V are inversely
proportional
P1V1 =P2V2

(Boyle’s Law)

at constant V
(P𝖺T)
P and T are directly proportional
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

(Gay Lusacc’s Law)

at constant P
(V𝖺T)
V and T are directly proportional
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

(Charles’s Law)

For all gas calculations use the temperature in Kelvin (oC + 273.15)

The names of specific gas laws will not be assessed.

The value for the molar volume of an ideal gas under standard temperature and pressure (STP) is given
in the data booklet.

Linking Questions:
Nature of science, Tools 2 and 3, Reactivity 2.2— Graphs can be presented as sketches or as accurately plotted data
points. What are the advantages and limitations of each representation?

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Pressure, volume, temperature and amount of an ideal gas

Structure 1.5.4—The relationship between the pressure, volume, temperature and amount of
𝑷 𝑽 𝑷 𝑽
an ideal gas is shown in the ideal gas equation PV = nRT and the combined gas law 𝟏 𝟏 = 𝟐 𝟐
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

Solve problems relating to the ideal gas equation.

𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐
Combined Gas Law: =
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

- P ∞ 1/V (Inversely proportional)

- P∞T (Directly proportional)
- V∞T (Directly proportional)
*If pressure and temperature are both doubled then volume is constant (doesn’t change)

ideal gas equation: PV = nRT

If the unit of pressure is in KPa then the unit of Volume should be in dm3
If the unit of pressure is in Pa then the unit of Volume should be in m3
universal gas constant R (8.31) given

Units of volume and pressure should be SI only. The value of the gas constant R, the ideal gas
equation, and the combined gas law, are given in the data booklet.

from the data booklet section 2 and 4:

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Tool 1, Inquiry 2—How can the ideal gas law be used to calculate the molar mass of a gas from experimental data?

Experiment to calculate the molar mass of carbon dioxide by application of the ideal gas equation

The percentage error can be analyzed in consideration of systematic errors such as:

- gas collected may not be pure CO2;

- CO2 may be soluble in water;
- air in the tube is collected with the gas;

Modifications to the experimental design should suggest ways to reduce the impact of these errors.
Note that repeat trials and error propagation are not shown here.

Ideal gas equation: PV = nRT (replace n = m/M) m

PV = RT
M
molar mass of a gas mRT
M=
from the ideal gas equation PV
Density of a gas (D = m/V) DRT MP
M= thus D =
from the ideal gas equation P RT

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Data Analysis
The graph shows the variation in pressure P with temperature T for a sample of 0.193 g of a gas
in a container with a fixed volume of 1.0 × 10-3 m3.

(a) Does the gas behave ideally under these conditions? Justify your answer.

(b) Deduce the identity of the gas in the container.

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Worksheet [1] : Combined Gas Laws and Ideal Gas Law :

1. A 952 cm3 container of gas is exerting a pressure of 108 kPa while at a temperature of 48 C.
Calculate the pressure of this same amount of gas ina 1236 cm3 container at a temperature of 64 C.

2. At STP, a sample of gas occupies 24.5 cm3. Calculate the volume of this gas at a pressure of
230 KPa and a temperature of 301 K.

3. A 3.25 dm3 container of ammonia gas exerts a pressure of 85.8 KPa at a temperature of 243 K.
Calculate the pressure of this same amount of gas ina 2.50 dm3 container at a temperature of 221 K.

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4. A sample of gas has a volume of 5.23 cm3 at a pressure of 72.6 kPa and a temperature of 25 C.
What will be the volume of the gas if the pressure is changed to 124 kPa and the temperature is
changed to 0 C?

5. Calculate the pressure (in kPa) of 0.421 mole of helium gas at 254 K whenit occupies a volume of
3.32 dm3.

6. How many moles of argon are there in a 22.7 dm3 sample of gas at 100 kPa and 0 C?

7. What is the volume of 2.56 moles of gas at 64.2KPa and 65 C?

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8. A 500.0 g block of dry ice (solid CO2, molar mass = 44.0 g) vaporizes to a gas at room temperature.
Calculate the volume of gas produced at 25.0 oC and 152 KPa.

9. Calculate the volume of a gas at a pressure of 1.00 × 102 kPa if its volume at 1.20 × 102 kPa is 1.50× 103 dm3.

10. A gas occupies a volume of 180 dm3 at 35.0 C and 95.9 kPa. What is the volume of the gas at conditions of
STP?

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11. The gaseous product of a reaction is collected in a 25.0 cm3 container at 27ْ˚ C.

The pressure in the container is 216 kPa, and the gas has a mass of 96.0 g. What is the molar mass of the gas?

12. How many grams of CO2 would be contained in 8.0 dm3 at 152 kPa and 27ْ C?

13. Determine the molar mass of a compound that has a density of 0.650 g dm-3 at STP.

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Worksheet [2] :Ideal Gas Equation:

1. Calculate the volume occupied by one mole of a gas at 25 oC and 100 KPa pressure.

2. Calculate the pressure of a gas given that 0.2 moles of the gas occupy 10 dm3 at 20 oC.

3. Calculate the temperature of a gas if 0.5 moles occupy 1.2 dm3 at a pressure of 202 KPa.

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4. Calculate the mass of a sample of carbon dioxide which occupies 20 dm3 at 27 oC and 100 KPa.

5. Calculate the relative molecular mass of a gas if a 500 cm3 sample at 20 oC and 100KPa has a mass of 0.66 g.

6. At 25 oC and 100KPa a gas occupies a 20 dm3. Calculate the new temperature of the gas if
a) the volume is decreased to 10 dm3 at constant pressure.

b) the pressure is decreased to 0.5 KPa at constant volume.

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Exam-style questions: Multiple-choice questions

1. What will happen to the volume of a fixed mass of gas if the pressure and the Kelvin temperature are both doubled?

A. It will remain the same.

B. It will be double its initial volume.

C. It will be one-half its initial volume.

D. It will be four times its initial volume.

2. The temperature in Kelvin of 1.0 dm3 of an ideal gas is doubled and its pressure is tripled.

What is the final volume of the gas in dm3?

1
A.
3
2
B.
3
3
C.
2

1
D.
6

3. A cylinder of gas is at a pressure of 40 kPa. The volume and temperature (in K) are both doubled. What is the
pressure of the gas after these changes?

A. 10 kPa

B. 20 kPa

C. 40 kPa

D. 80 kPa

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4. A fixed mass of an ideal gas has a volume of 800 cm3 under certain conditions. The pressure (in kPa) and
temperature (in K) are both doubled. What is the volume of the gas after these changes with other conditions
remaining the same?

A. 200 cm3

B. 800 cm3

C. 1600 cm3

D. 3200 cm3

5. The temperature in Kelvin of 2.0 dm3 of an ideal gas is doubled and its pressure is increased by a factor of four.
What is the final volume of the gas?

A. 1.0 dm3

B. 2.0 dm3

C. 3.0 dm3

D. 4.0 dm3

6. Under what conditions would one mole of methane gas, CH4, occupy the smallest volume?

A. 273 K and 1.01×105 Pa

B. 273 K and 2.02×105 Pa

C. 546 K and 1.01×105 Pa

D. 546 K and 2.02×105 Pa

7. For which set of conditions does a fixed mass of an ideal gas have the greatest volume?

Temperature Pressure
A. low low
B. low high
C. high high
D. high low

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8. Which change in conditions would increase the volume of a fixed mass of gas?

Pressure /kPa Temperature /K

A. Doubled Doubled
B. Halved Halved
C. Doubled Halved
D. Halved Doubled

9. What will happen to the volume of a fixed mass of gas when its pressure and temperature (in Kelvin) are both
doubled?

A. It will not change.

B. It will increase.

C. It will decrease.

D. The change cannot be predicted.

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