Chapter IV.

The Global Interstate system

The state has traditionally been the subject of most interest to scholars of global politics because it is
viewed as "the institution that creates warfare and sets economic policies for a country." Furthermore,
the state is a political unit that has authority over its own affairs. In other words, its borders are
recognized by other countries. It is assumed that whoever is in charge of those borders has the right to
determine exactly what is going to happen in their country. The Treaty of Westphalia of 1648 established
the notion of the nation-state and the idea of state sovereignty. Today, the globalization of politics
created an atmosphere where the ideas of the nation-state, state sovereignty, government control, and
state policies are challenged from all sides.

With globalization, some scholars suggest a decrease in the power of the state and that other actors are
actually becoming more powerful. These actors include multinational corporations and global civil
society organizations, like the Red Cross, that cross national boundaries.

Is the idea of the nation-state outdated in the contemporary world? If so, what is it that we need to think
about as "replacements"? In this chapter, we will look at regional alliances and worldwide organizations
of states. This manifests the efforts of countries and governments in the world to cooperate and
collaborate together. Next, international and regional economic bond bodies, such as IMF and the World
Bank, must also be considered as they often push for neoliberal reforms in the world. The third kind of
replacement to the traditional nation-state and the idea of national autonomy comes from the non-state
actors. One of these is the private capital groups, including banks and groups of people, with money that
can determine the well-being of people in a particular area. Multinational corporations and non-
governmental organizations, such as the Amnesty International, are significant organizations that put
into question the strength of national autonomy and global politics. The emergence of non-state
organizations, like Al-Qaeda, ISIS, and terrorist organizations, which seek power try to depose a
government and replace the system with their own ideological belief.

Global Governance in the Twenty-First Century

There is a series of specific factors behind the emergence of global governance. The first on the list must
be the declining power of nation-states. If states themselves were "highly contingent and in flux" (Cerny,
2007, p. 854), it would open the possibility of the emergence of some form of global governance to fill
the void.

A second factor is the vast flows of all sorts of things that run into and often right through the borders of
nation-states. This could involve the flow of digital information of all sorts through the Internet. It is
difficult, if not impossible, for a nation-state to stop such flow and in any case, it is likely that such action
would be politically unpopular and bring much negative reaction to the nation-state Involved in such an
effort. For example, China's periodic efforts to interfere with the Internet have brought great
condemnation both internally and externally.

Then, there is mass migration of people and their entry, often illegally, into various nation-states. If states
are unable to control this flow, then there is a need for some sort of global governance to help deal with
the problem. The flow of criminal elements, as well as their products (drugs, laundered money, those
bought and sold in sex trafficking, etc.), is a strong factor in the call for global governance (Levy and
Sznalder, 2006). In these cases and others, there is a need for some degree of order, some sort of
effective authority, and at least some potential for the improvement of human life. These are but a few
of the things that can be delivered by some form of global governance.

Another set of issues that has led to calls for global governance involves horrendous events within
nation-states that the states themselves either foment and carry out, or are unable to control
(Nordstrom, 2004). For example, in Darfur, Sudan, perhaps hundreds of thousands have been killed,
millions of people displaced, and the lives of many disrupted in a conflict that date back to early 2003.
The government of Sudan and its military have been implicated In the conflict between ethnic and tribal
groups and the Sudanese government has been resistant to outside interference in its internal affairs.
One could even go back to WWil and argue that the Holocaust could have been prevented, or at least
mitigated, had there been a viable form of global governance to put pressure on Nazi Germany and
ultimately, to intervene in a more material way, perhaps militarily (Bauman, 1998).

Then, there are global problems that single nation-state cannot hope to tackle on their own. One is the
global financial crises and panic that sweep the world periodically, which nations are often unable to
deal with on their own (Strange, 1996). Indeed, some nations (e.g., the nations of Southeast Asia) have
often been, and are being, victimized by such crises. Unable to help themselves, such nations are in need
of assistance from some type of global governance.

Nation-states have long struggled to deal with problems like these through various interstate systems
(e.g., alliances such as NATO), but the more recent trend is toward the development of more truly global
structures and methods of dealing with various sorts of issues and problems.

Effects of Globalization to Governments

One of the key aspects of state sovereignty is the government. It is a group of people who have the
ultimate authority to act on behalf of a state. Each state has its own right to self-determination and that
other country should not Intervene in the affairs of that state unless there are extraordinary reasons to
do so. Other countries must recognize sovereignty or the right to goven one's own territorial borders.
Each state is autonomous unto itself and responsible within its own system of government to those who
are governed. The decisions, the conflict, and the resolution of that conflict are done through the
institutions of government established and codified in that particular state, whether or not through
elections. Elections, especially in democratic society, provide the leadership of the state. In addition, the
policy is developed and implemented in the interest of the people of a state by a specific government. A
civil society within a state can also act as a counterweight or as a supplement to government. Civil
society includes the private economy, educational institutions, churches, hospitals, fraternal
organizations, and other non-profit organizations.

There have been several challenges to the government and ultimately, to state autonomy. We can divide
these challenges into four: traditional challenges, challenges from national or identity movements, global
economics, and global social movements.
Traditional Challenges

External intervention can generally be described as invasion by other countries. For example, when
Saddam Hussein was the ruler of Iraq in 1990, he decided he was going to take over the oil fields of
Kuwait. He invaded Kuwalt and took it over. As a result, he was dislodged by an international coalition
led by the United States.

These days, we can see external intervention in other forms. Russia's external intervention into the
affairs of Ukraine, a sovereign state in the post

Soviet era, is another instance of intervention in the autonomy of the state. Russia Intervenes in the
affairs of people in Crimea who want to become part of Russia again even though they are part of
Ukraine. Crimea declared its independence from Ukraine and re-affiliated with Russia. This is a case of
how there might be a national identity within a country that is assisted by a neighboring country. Ukraine
argues to have autonomy to determine the case for Crimea. As a result, there is current conflict between
Ukraine, not recognizing Crimea's severeignty, and Russia, not recognizing Ukraine's sovereignty over
Crimea.

Internal political challenges can also happen. For example, after the Arab Spring in Egypt, a new
constitution was created and a government was elected. That government was more fundamentalist and
rejected the notion of a plural society that included religious diversity. The military staged a coup that
deposed the government in order to restore stability. Other examples include the Taliban's efforts to
control the government of Afghanistan. In Syria, the original rebellion against Assad came from the
country's own internal dissenters who wanted to replace the government even though they were also
Syrian nationals.

There are also regional organizations challenging state autonomy. The United Nations Intervened in
Sudan because of the several years of civil war. More recently in Europe, specifically in Greece, it also
interfered in the Greek debt crisis.

Challenges from National/Identity Movements

The next challenges are part of a national identity or movement. It is important to know that a nation
has cultural identity that people attached to, while a state is a definite entity due to its specific
boundaries. However, different people with different identities can live in different states. For example,
the Kurds reside in several different countries including Iraq, Iran, and Turkey. The Catalans live primarily
in Spain but we can also find some of them in France. Scottish nationalism is another example that
challenges the traditional notions of state sovereignty. In 2014, Great Britain had a vote in Scotland to
decide whether Scotland was going to become its own autonomous state apart from Great Britain. They
voted against it but Scotland has a significant degree of autonomy now as compared to more than two
decades years ago.

Global movements, such as the Al-Qaeda and ISIS, are another example of national or identity
movements. In this case, they are structured around the fundamentalist version of Islam.

Global Economics
The third major source of challenge comes from global economics. Global economy demands the states
to conform to the rules of free-market capitalism. Government austerity comes from developments of
organizations that cooperate across countries, such as WTO and regional agreements, such as NAFTA,
the European Union (EU), and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

Neoliberal economics or neoliberal capitalism started in the 1980s. It focuses on free trade and
dismantling trade barriers. It made sure that governments did not impose restrictive regulations on
corporate presence, as well as on the free flow of capital and jobs. Free trade was seen as the ideal or
the normative belief, that is, the best economy is one where there is free trade everywhere. Laws and
standards that would interfere with the flow of capital in a particular country, including environmental
regulations, were deemed to discourage economic growth. Neoliberal economics requires a state to
cooperate in the global market through the free flow of capital, the privatization of services, and fiscal
austerity or constraint. In tum, the government's role is diminished as it relates to the market. Neoliberal
economics is seen as a threat, in general, because a state cannot protect its own economic interest as a
sovereign state.

A specific example to expand global economic influence is the use of IMF and the World Bank in forcing
government reforms in poorer country. Furthermore, the regional economic development efforts
focused on expanding free trade and market liberalization. Businesses from developed countries put
their factories and pay people to build factories and produce goods in developing countries worldwide.
These corporations will sell the products in developing countries. This exacerbates rising Inequality in the
world. Greece is one example that explains how neoliberal economics can threaten the sovereignty of a
state. It began in 1981 when Greece joined the EU. As a larger alliance, the EU broke down all kinds of
barriers among its member states, including Greece, like passports, visas, and license plates. It allowed
people to travel across European borders and encouraged economic cooperation and collaboration of
member states. Twenty years later, Greece adopted the euro as its own currency and got rid of the
drachma. The government of Greece borrowed money for infrastructure improvements, largely linked to
their hosting of the 2004 Olympics. This put Greece in a large debt. In 2007 and 2008, the worldwide
financial crisis made Greece's economy to collapse.

Aside from high debt that burdened the government, Greece had several of its employees struggling
with pensions. Tax revenues were lower, and as a result, they could not pay their debts back. In 2009,
their credit rating dropped which made it harder for them to pay back their debt. This led to a series of
austerity packages in Greece which meant that there was less government spending. IMF bailed them
out from the crisis in exchange for more austerity. In conclusion, economic crises can force government
to subscribe to the terms and conditions of the global financial market and of other nations that can help
them regain economic stability.

Global Social Movements

Finally, we have global social movements. Most of the time, they are not seen as a threat but they
definitely challenge state sovereignty. Social movements are movements of people that are spontaneous
or that emerge through enormous grassroots organization. These social movements are transnational
movements which means they occur across countries and across borders. Therefore, states have less
control over them.
For example, human rights movements create a public sentiment, value, and agenda. The idea is that
there are certain rights that states cannot neglect or generally, what we call human rights. If a country
decides that they are going to have a particular policy and if that policy violates the international
standard of human rights, there is a challenge to the ability of states to fully Implement it. An example is
the United States' position on the death penalty. There is an international consensus, with a few
dissenting countries like China, South Africa, and Russia, against the death penalty. This means that if
somebody is sentenced by death penalty and somehow he is in a country around the world, there are
rules against that state extraditing into the United States.

The environmental movement is another example of global social movements related to public policy. A
specific case is the so-called Blockadia or the state where social movements emerging in local areas fight
back as a response to the controlling efforts by the apparatus of government to protect the interest of
neoliberal capitalists. Consensus on women's rights is another example in many countries. Arguably, the
biggest conflict between the West and the fundamentalist Islam is over the role of women in society, as
well as women's autonomy. Rights of personal autonomy are another example and this includes Issues
on homosexuality, same-sex marriage, and gender equality.

There is also an increased role in international organizations like the United Nations and the
International Criminal Court in Hague, the role of non-governmental organizations like Doctors Without
Borders or Amnesty International, and the role of global media.

The Relevance of the State amid Globalization

The state is a distinctive political community with its own set of rules and practices and that is more or
less separate from other communities. It has four elements: people, territory, government, and
sovereignty. The first element of a state is a permanent population. This population does not refer to a
nomadic people that move from one place to another in an indefinite time. This permanent presence in
one location is strengthened by the second element of a state, a defined territory. A territory has clear
boundaries. A territory is effectively controlled by the third element, government. The government
regulates relations among its own people and with other states. This means that the state is a formally
constituted sovereign political structure encompassing people, territory, and its institutions on the one
hand, and maintaining its autonomy from other states on the other hand.

It is important to differentiate the idea of nation from state. Nation refers to a people rather than any
kind of formal territorial boundaries or institutions. It is a collective identity grounded on a notion of
shared history and culture. If we talk about the Philippines as a state, we may refer to the Philippine
government, the Philippine territory, and its internal and external sovereignty. If we talk about the
Phillippines as a nation, we refer to our shared collective notion of democracy, our history, and our
collective identity. In other words, the state is a political concept, while a nation is a cultural concept.
States, through its formalized institutions, more or less reflect nations. This would allow states to have a
certain people with their own collective identity. In turn, they should be allowed to form their own
political state. This is the principle of national self-determination.

This brings us to the concept of the nation-state. It is a territorially bounded sovereign institution that
governs individuals sharing a collective history, identity, and culture. In reality, it is difficult to think of any
nation as having any shared national identity. The Philippines, although formally a state, has a variety of
ethnic traditions.
A variety of arguments are made including that nation-states continue to be the major players on the
global stage (Gilpin, 2001), that they "retain at least some power in the face of globalization" (Conley,
2002, pp. 378-399), that they vary greatly in "their efficacy in the face of globalization" (Mann, 2007, p.
472), and that the rumors of the demise of the nation-state are greatly exaggerated.

Beland (2008) argued that "the role of the state is enduring-and even increasing in advanced industrial
societies" (p. 48). He saw greater demands being placed on the state because of four major sources of
collective insecurity: terrorism; economic globalization, leading to problems such as outsourcing and
pressures toward downsizing, as well as the current economic crisis; threats to national identity due to
immigration, and the spread of global diseases such as AIDs, Further, the state does not only respond to
these threats, but may also exaggerate or create dangers, thereby making its citizens more insecure
(Glassner, 2000). A good example is the U.S. and British governments arguments prior to the 2003 war
with Iraq that Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) that posed a direct threat to
the United States and United Kingdom. The United States even claimed that Iraq could kill millions by
using offshore ships to lob canisters containing lethal chemical or biological material into American cities
(Isikoff and Com, 2006). The collective insecurity created by such outrageous claims helped foster public
opinion in favor of invading Iraq and overthrowing Saddam Hussein.

The other side of this argument in support of the nation-state is that global processes of various kinds
are not as powerful as many believe. For example, global business pales in comparison to business
within many countries. In addition, some question the porosity of the nation-state by pointing, for
example, to the fact that migration to other countries has declined substantially since its heights In the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Gilpin, 2001).

A related point is that it would be a mistake simply "to see globalization as a threat to, a constraint on,
the nation-state; it can also be an opportunity for the nation-state" (Conley, 2002, pp. 378-399). For
example, the demands of globalization were used as bases to make the needed changes in Australian
society, specifically allowing it to move away from protectionism and in the direction of neoliberalization,
to transform state enterprises into private enterprises, and to streamline social welfare. With this, the
rhetoric of globalization, especially an exaggeration of it and its effects, was useful to those politicians
who were hopeful of such changes.

Institutions That Govern International Relations

There are several international organizations that governments of countries around the world and
Individuals participate in. These include the United Nations, the International Court of Justice, NAFTA,
and NATO, There are also non- governmental organizations promoting social and economic growth. Let
us look at them one by one.

Peace Treaties and Military Alliances: The UN and NATO

Global politics entails relationship of countries and different governments and non-governmental
organizations. The United Nations (UN) is one of the leading political organizations in the world where
nation-states meet and deliberate. However, it remains as an independent actor in global politics. The
premise for its establishment was the restructuring of the world devastated after the Second World War.
The term "United Nations" was coined by former U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1943 (United
Nations, 2011). Its operations began on October 24, 1945. It started with 50 representatives from
different countries. Generally, it functions in four areas: military issues, economic issues, environmental
issues, and human protection. It is made up of close to 200 countries from around the world, 193
member states to be exact, with the Republic of South Sudan as its latest member (United Nations,
2011). The UN, with its headquarters in New York City, was designed to be a place where countries could
come to discuss their issues without resorting to violence and war, which had plagued our planet for
several years in the past. Maintaining peace and building friendships is the number one goal of the UN,
as well as providing a forum where countries could gather to discuss global Issues. The General Assembly
is the gathering of all of these countries. It is held in an auditorium where speeches are given.
Representatives from different member states can vote on issues.

Maintaining international peace and security became the central mission of the UN after the war. Up to
this day, the UN is the major force in governing interstate relations (Ritzer, 2015). According to the UN
(2011), peace and security are maintained "by working to prevent conflict; helping parties in conflict
make peace; peacekeeping; and creating the conditions to allow peace to hold and flourish." The UN
also has what is known as the Security Council. This group of countries decides what to do when two or
more countries are waging war or are on the verge of fighting. There are five permanent members of the
UN Security Council-the United States, Britain, Russia, China, and France. In addition to the five
members, 10 additional countries join the permanent members for two-year terms, making a total of 15
countries. The Security Council tries to be the arbiter In ceasefires between two sides. They can pass
sanctions like block trade with another country as a punishment. They can send troops or observers and,
if worst comes to worst, they can use military force. In the past, UN peacekeepers have been sent to
Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. The "big five" permanent members have a veto power, which means
that one member can stop the entire council from taking action against a country. This has come up
recently during the Syrian Civil War in which Russia and China, who are allies with Syrian leader Bashar
Al-Assad, have been able to stop the other members from stepping in to deal with the Syrian leader who
was accused of using biological weapons against his own people.

The main deliberative body, the General Assembly, provides a forum for member states to express their
views and reach a consensus. In 1991, the UN's military role was put into question during its intervention
in Iraq's invasion of Kuwait wherein the Security Council authorized the use of force (Ritzer, 2015). Aside
from this, the UN intervened in the civil wars of less developed countries, such as Cambodia and East
Timor, through "election and human rights monitoring, disarmament, and even the assumption of state
functions" (Weiss and Zach, 2007, p. 1219).

The UN is not all about fights. It has a program called UNICEF or the United Nations Children's
Emergency Fund. Its primary goal is to help children around the world. They collect funds to distribute
emergency relief from famine and poverty and disease. It also provides education programs in areas
where there are no schools. While UNICEF is part of the United Nations, they operate semi-
independently and rely on fundraising.

In terms of economic issues, the main focus of the UN is the reduction of global inequality. The
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) cover a range of concems for the improvement of all aspects of
life. According to the UN (2017), sustainable development encompasses economic prosperity, social
well-being, and environmental protection. Since the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) did not end
poverty for all people, the UN's post-2015 sustainable development agenda showcases the vision of the
organization when it comes to broader issues such as climate change, disaster risk reduction, and gender
equality.

Environmental issues, such as pollution and hazardous wastes, are addressed through United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). The increasing rate of greenhouse gas emissions, rising sea level, and
occurrence of extreme weather patterns are the effects of climate change. As a response, the UN's
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) took efforts that can mitigate climate change like
assessment of climate science, facilitation of climate agreements, and giving assistance to countries to
reduce emissions (UN, 2011).

The UN also has the International Court of Justice (ICI), usually referred to as the World Court. It is
located in the Netherlands in a town called The Hague. This is where countries can settle disputes in a
court of law, as well as a place where war criminals and rulers who have done terrible things to their
people can be put to trial for their crimes. Aside from this, there are also a variety of International courts
and tribunals created by the UN such as the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the International
Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS). The problem is, sometimes, getting the violators all the way to
Europe to face trial because there is no actual police force to go out and get them. As more and more
countries interact with one another, people are looking for the ICJ to play a bigger role in the future of
our global world.

Finally, the UN promotes and protects human rights through different organizations and mechanisms.
Since 1948, human rights have been brought into the realm of international law. This is reflected in the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A variety of UN-sponsored human rights treaties and agreements
have been done for human protection. Other mechanisms include the Office of the UN High
Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), the Human Rights Council, human rights treaty bodies, the
UN Development Group's Human Rights Mainstreaming Mechanism (UNDG-HRM), and the Special
Advisers on the Prevention of Genocide and the Responsibility to Protect (UN, 2011). There are also legal
instruments that help the organization like the International Bill of Human Rights which consists of three
legal documents: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. The UN also
believes in democracy and that it is interdependent with development and respect for all human rights.

The UN is being criticized as being weak and is unable to stop wars. Because of this, the next institution
that we are going to discuss continues to play a big role in foreign conflicts. This is NATO. It is a defensive
treaty or a military alliance between the United States, Canada, and 25 European countries. This treaty
and international organization is based on the idea of collective security. The countries in this
organization basically agreed to combine their militarles and announce to the world that if a country
messes with one of its members, the other countries will come to their defense. NATO was created after
the Second World War, mostly during the beginning of the Cold War. With the collapse of the Soviet
Union in the early 1990s, former Soviet states, like Poland and Croatia, had joined NATO, making the
present-day Russia feel more threatened. NATO has sent troops and undertaken military operations in
Afghanistan, Kosovo, Iraq, and Africa. The United States with, by far, the most advanced military in the
world makes up the bulk of NATO forces and operations. Many of these wars or conflicts are considered
to be strictly U.S. wars.

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

Another example of an international organization that was developed out of war is the Red Cross (Red
Crescent in Muslim countries). It is considered as a non-governmental organization (NGO), NGOs are not
tied to any country. This allows them to operate freely throughout the world. They provide emergency
relief such as food, water, and medical supplies for those whose homes or towns have been destroyed by
disaster or war. They also monitor the treatment of prisoner of wars and go to conflicts to make sure that
no war crimes are taking place. In fact, the Red Cross began as an organization to help those who were
wounded during wars. The big Red Cross worn by NGOs is the identification that they are not soldiers.
Part of why it is important for the Red Cross to be an NGO is that they remain neutral and would help the
wounded from both sides of war. Since they are neutral, governments are more likely to let them come
into their countries to help. While the headquarters of the international Red Cross is in Geneva,
Switzerland, they have branches all around the world.

In addition to the Red Cross, there are many NGOs dedicated to helping people around the world.
Doctors Without Borders provides free emergency healthcare in disaster areas; Oxfam fights famine and
disease; Amnesty International speaks out for human rights and political prisoners; and Save the
Children helps kids get health care and education.

Global Economic Associations: The WTO and NAFTA

The next group is an economic association-WTO. It is made up of 162 countries around the world and
was created with the goal of increasing free trade. Countries, therefore, can buy and sell goods from one
another without placing taxes on imports or tariffs. In addition, tariffs are used to protect businesses and
companies inside their country. Though good in nature, WTO is not without criticism. In fact, a protest in
Seattle at a 1999 WTO Conference led to a major riot as some said that WTO was more about helping
large companies and corporations than it was about helping people.

Another famous economic organization is NAFTA. This is an economic treaty between the United States,
Canada, and Mexico in which the three countries trade freely without taxing each other. NAFTA is not
without critics either. Some American autoworkers protested against NAFTA as several car companies
moved their factories to Mexico in search for cheaper labor, NAFTA, like WTO, represents the challenge
In America of keeping manufacturing factories.

Globalization and Globalism

You probably think about links, connections, and interrelatedness of things, people, and countries when
you encounter the word "globalization." However, when compared to the term "globalism," globalization
would be better described as the "increase or decline in the degree of globalism" (Nye, 2002, p. 1). What
then is globalism? Globalism refers to the network of connections that transcends distances of different
countries in the world. In other words, the links among countries and people are better associated with
globalism while the speed in which they become linked with one another is globalization.

If we are to make a stark contrast between globalism and globalization by saying that globalization
means connectedness while globalism is not, it will lead to a confusion that the present is the only time
in which people got connected while in the past they were not. But even before the industrial
Revolution, the world was already connected. Through the conquests of different empires, such as those
of the Romans, many parts of the world became under one rule. Today, however, the contemporary
world is characterized by being connected through the Internet, modem transportation, and advanced
communication technologles. This is to say, therefore, that societies in the world have always been
connected; what makes the contemporary world different from the past is the type and speed of
connection that people and societies experience.

We can also differentiate globalism and globalization in terms of its "thickness" (Nye, 2002). Globalism is
thin. As it becomes thicker, globalization happens. This means that being able to connect countries in the
world through a more dynamic and faster way is globalization. Let us take global trade as an example. In
the past, the Silk Road served as the trade routes among countries In Europe and in Asia. Aside from the
trade of silk between the continents, other products, even illegal ones, were exchanged among traders
and consumers. In addition, cultural interactions among people were made through their trades.
However, they were felt by a relatively small group of people, most especially those who were actually
on the road and did the trades. The connections were not intense nor "thick." In contrast to the
contemporary world, "globalism. becomes increasingly thick" (Nye, 2002, p. 1).

This is where globalization comes in. If we look at the global trade today, It has reached a greater
number of people around the world. For example, the selling products are not solely done through
physical transactions but can be done online as well. This allows one, who has access to computers and
the World. Wide Web, to be connected with millions of people around the world. Aside from the
number of people, the speed was also affected by the transition from thin globalism to thick
globalization. In the past, if you were a European trader taking the Silk Road going to China, it would take
you days or weeks to sell your products. But today, it would only take a few seconds or minutes to sell,
buy, and exchange products and services with other people even if they are a thousand miles away from
you. A concrete example of this is the change in the price of oll which can happen overnight depending
on its price in the world market.

Although globalism and globalization are often understood in terms of the economy, Nye (2002) gave
"four distinct dimensions of globalism: economic, military, environmental, and social" (p. 2). Like
economic globalism, the three other dimensions also become thicker and faster as globalization
intensifies. The enormous speed of potential conflict and threat of nuclear war is an example of military
globalism. In terms of environmental globalism, global warming continues to accelerate. The last
dimension, social and cultural globalism, "involves movements of ideas, information, images, and of
people who carry ideas and information with them" (Nye, 2002, p. 2). For instance, religious ideas have
spread throughout the world at greater scope and speed. Religious teachings are delivered today though
the mass media, such as televisions, radio, and the Internet. Unlike before, religious leaders had to walk
by foot and had to deliver their messages in a face-to-face manner.

With the advent of modern mass communication, computers, and social networking sites, it seems that
the connections made through the exchange of Information creates a new kind of network in this
contemporary world. It is at this point that the concept of informationalism will be helpful for us to
discuss.
Informationalism

Globalism is tied to the notion of networks. For Castells (2000), "networks constitute the fundamental
pattern of life, of all kinds of life" (p. 3). It was previously mentioned that in the present and even in the
past, the world is connected. The difference between globalism and globalization is the speed and
thickness or intensity of connections. Nevertheless, people are connected with one another whether as
a small community or as a large country.

The question now is about the type of connection that exists and begins to increase in the contemporary
world. The answer lies on the growth of information as the binding force among people, things, and
places around the globe. This technological paradigm, associated with computer science and modern
telecommunication, that replaces industrialism is called informationalism (Castells, 2004). These are
technology, the media, and the Internet. This is not to say that we do not need to produce material
goods such as factories, clothes, and food; rather, exchanging information and knowledge, which is
clearly immaterial goods, becomes central in the contemporary world (Hardt & Negri, 2000). This is due
to the "three of the most cutting-edge aspects of the social world in general and globalization in
particular" (Ritzer, 2015, p. 134), technology, media, and the Internet.

The creation of the world's first container ship in 1956 and the expansion of airfreight greatly hastened
the transport of goods all around the world. But a notable example of technological advancement is the
founding of Federal Express (FedEx) in the 1970s. It makes use of computer technology in its deliveries.
Computer technology is used to check our health through the Invention of magnetic resonance imaging
(MRis), ultrasound, and CT or CAT scans. Space-based technologies were also made possible through the
use of computers (Ritzer, 2015). The launching of satellites for military surveillance, the use of global
positioning systems (GPS), and the operation of global navigation systems (GNS) are some rensarkable
examples.

McLuhan and Flore (2005) argued that in the New Media Age, the importance lies in the medium, the
way in which the message is transmitted, not necessarily in the content presented through the medium.
This means that televisions, radios, and newspapers have been shaping "individual subjectivity and
culture, not only locally but globally" (Ritzer, 2015, p. 143). In addition, the French social theorist Guy
Deßard (1994) emphasized in his idea of media spectacle the sophistication and ubiqulty of spectacular
visual in televisions. This made TV news a form of entertainment. Although content matters in television
broadcasts, visual spectacle or significance is an important element and perhaps the primary key to catch
the attention of the audience.

When one mentions online social networking, spam, and computer viruses, it is the Internet that binds
them all. The Internet is a mark of the contemporary world. According to Ritzer (2015), "The Internet has
prompted a flat world thesis; anyone can be involved in it, at least theoretically" (p. 150). Having a
computer today in our homes, our schools, our workplaces, and accessing the Internet through our
personal cellphones allow us to be connected with the rest of the world. We can gain information by
accessing different websites, such as Facebook and Wikipedia, through the Internet. In the same manner,
the information about ourselves that we share is also exposed. In order to control Interiet access and
use, there are mechanisms such as personal passwords or in the case of Chinese government, the "Great
Firewall."

While globalization allowed the expansion of information, access to modern technologies is not a
universal matter that is available to every person around the world. The Internet and other technologies
are limited by certain barriers. These barriers include lack of electricity, illiteracy, weak financial systems,
and government regulations.

Global Citizenship

Citizenship is associated with rights and obligations, for instance, the right to vote and the obligation to
pay taxes. Both rights and obligations link the Individual to the state. It also has to do with our attitudes.
We need to be willing to engage and to spend time and effort to the community of which we feel part of.
Community has traditionally been regarded as something very local. How, then, can the idea of
citizenship be transferred to the global level?

Caecilia Johanna van Peski (as cited in Baraldi, 2012) defined global citizenship "as a moral and ethical
disposition that can guide the understanding of individuals or groups of local and global contexts, and
remind them of their relative responsibilities within various communities." Global citizens are the glue
which binds local communities together in an increasingly globalized world. In van Peski's words, "global
citizens might be a new type of people that can travel within these various boundaries and somehow still
make sense of the world" (Baraldi, 2012).

Global citizenship does not automatically entall a single attitude and a particular value with globalization.
We must remember that globalization is not a single phenomenon; rather, there are many globalizations.
While some need to be resisted, others are welcomed and should be encouraged. They are bound to be
multiple futures for multiple globalizations. These globalizations created enemies because according to
one broad view, globalization failed to deliver its promises (Cohen, 2006). The so-called bottom billion
lacks infrastructures and has been disenfranchised. The opponents of globalization blame either
Westernization or global capitalism. Thus, the enemies resist globalization, especially when it comes to
global economy and global governance.

There are three approaches to global economic resistance. Trude protectionism involves the systematic
government intervention in foreign trade through tariffs and non-tariff barriers in order to encourage
domestic producers and deter their foreign competitors (McAleese, 2007). Although there exists a
widespread consensus regarding its inefficiency, trade protectionism is still popular since it shields the
domestic economy from systemic shocks. Fair trade is a different approach to economic globalization,
which emerged as a counter to neoliberal "free trade" principles (Nicholls and Opal, 2005). Følr trade
aims at a more moral and equitable global economic system in which, for instance, price is not set by the
market; instead, it is negotiated transparently by both producers and consumers. While it is popular
among consumers in the North, it has met only limited acceptance among producers (Ritzer, 2015). Its
ability to supply a mass market and its applicability to manufacture products are also doubted. The third
form of resistance to economic globalization relates to helping the bottom billion based on Collier
(2007). Increasing aid is only one of the many measures that are required. International norms and
standards can be adapted to the needs of the bottom billion. The reduction of trade barrters would also
reduce the economic marginalization of these people and their nations.

When it comes to dealing with political globalization, increased accountability (Germain, 2004) and
transparency are the key issues. All political organizations, at different levels, should be more
accountable for their actions because they are now surrounded by an "ocean of opacity" (Holzner and
Holzner, 2006, p. 336). Increased transparency has been alded by various mechanisms such as
transnational justice systems, international tribunals, civil society, and particularly the Transparency
International.

Like globalization, resistance to globalization is multiple, complex, contradictory, and ambiguous. This
movement also has the potential to emerge as the new public sphere, which may uphold progressive
values such as autonomy, democracy, peace, ecological sustainability, and social justice. These forces of
resistance are themselves products of globalization and can be seen as globalization from below (Smith,
2008). According to della Porta et al. (2006), the impetus for such a movement comes from individuals,
groups, and organizations which are oppressed (Le., self-perception) by globalization from above
(neoliberal economic systems or aggressively expanding nations and corporations). They seek a more
democratic process of globalization. However, globalization from below also involves less visible, more
right-wing elements, such as the America First Party and the Taliban.

The World Social Forum (WSF) is centered on addressing the lack of democracy in economic and political
affairs (Fisher and Ponniah, 2003). However, the diversity of elements involved in WSF hinders the
development of concrete political proposals. A significant influence on WSF has been that of
cyberactivism, which is based on the "cultural logic of networking" (Juris, 2005) and "virtual movements,
such as Global Huaren. This cyberpublic was formed as a protest against the violence, discrimination,
and hatred experienced by Chinese residents in Indonesia after the 1997 Asian financial crisis. In 1998,
worldwide rallies condemning the violence were made possible through the Global Huaren which
according to Ritzer (2015) "became an interesting global watchdog for Chinese Interests" (p. 307).

Since there is no single globalization, the future is also multi-dimensional. Some foresee the continuing
expansion of globalization both in general as well as in more specific globalization. Others have a far
more pessimistic vision of "Mad Max" scenarios that could end the current era of globalization (Turner,
2007).

In any case, given that there is no world government, the idea of global citizenship demands the creation
of rights and obligations. Moreover, fulfilling the promises of globalization and the solution to the
problems of the contemporary world does not lie on single entity or individual, but on citizens, the
community, and the different organizations in societies. The dynamics of globalization demands the
efforts of the whole array of inter-govemmental organizations such as the United Nations and the World
Bank; international NGOs like Greenpeace and Amnesty International; and the citizen initiatives and
community action groups that reach above the nation-state level like the World Social Forum and
Occupy Movement. Ultimately, reforms in global governance are required to allow world citizens to take
more part directly in all aspects of human life at the global level.