BTM 373: TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

FACILITATION MATERIAL

ORGANIZED BY

2021 CLASS

EMAIL: [email protected]

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE ONE

OVERVIEW OF TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This lecture introduces travel geography. It defines the relevant terms and creates basic shows
the interrelationship between the terminologies. The facts that tourism involves travel from one
place to another, and occurs in places that are often shaped intentionally by the tourism industry,
also make it very geographical in nature. Geography then is at the centre of travel and tourism
discipline and industry

1.2 MEANING OF TOURISM

Tourism lacks a water-tight universally binding definition. The majority definitions of tourism
underscore short tenure at the destination and non-remuneration for activities undertaken at the
destination. However, these definitions cannot withstand serious probity and scrutiny. There no
agreed definition, but there are some outstanding which includes;

1. The World Tourism Organization (2002) defines tourism as “Activities of persons

traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one
consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an
activity remunerated from within the place visited.”

2. Mathieson and Wall (1982) created a good working definition of tourism as "the
temporary movement of people to destinations outside their normal places of work and
residence, the activities undertaken during their stay in those destinations, and the
facilities created to cater to their needs."

3. According to McIntosh and Goeldner (1986) tourism is "the sum of the phenomena and
relationships arising from the interaction of tourists, business suppliers, host governments
and host communities in the process of attracting and hosting these tourists and other
visitors."

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 4. Hunziker and Krapf (1942) defined tourism as "the totality of the relationship and
phenomenon arising from the travel and stay of strangers, provided that the stay does not
imply the establishment of a permanent residence and is not connected with remunerative
activities".

NOTE

From the above definitions of tourism… the idea of temporally movement from source (home) to
destination makes travel a very geographical phenomenon.

1.3 MEANING OF TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Travel geography is that branch of science which deals with the study of travel and its impact on
places. It is the study of travel and tourism, as an industry and as a social and cultural activity.
Tourism/travel geography covers a wide range of interests including the environmental impact of
tourism, the geographies of tourism and leisure economies, answering tourism industry and
management concerns and the sociology of tourism and locations of tourism.

Geography is fundamental to the study of tourism, because tourism is geographical in nature.

Tourism occurs in places, it involves movement and activities between places and it is an activity
in which both place characteristics and personal self-identities are formed, through the
relationships that are created among places, landscapes and people. Physical geography provides
the essential background, against which tourism places are created and environmental impacts
and concerns are major issues that must be considered in managing the development of tourism
places.

1.4 THE ROLE OF TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

As the importance and popularity of tourism increased, especially in the last two or three
decades, becoming one of the biggest industries in the world, so did the role of tourism in
geography and its study. While before there were few mentions of tourism related facts in any
book or research of geography, today we cannot imagine any geographical descriptions without a
separate chapter on tourism. Still rather raw and simple, L. Merlo (1969) considers this science
as being a branch of geography that studies the position and appearance of tourist centers, their
individual natural and cultural-historical characteristics, the attractions and traditions in the

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

context of the area where they are found, the transportation network assuring the accessibility
and the links with other tourist centers. Tourism is essentially a geographical phenomenon,
regarding the transfer of people and services through space and time, so a special domain
dedicated to the research of the interconnections between tourism and geography was inevitable.
Although the scientific field is new, the connections of geography and travel can be traced to
ancient times, when geographers had no other way of describing the world than traveling and
seeing it for them.

1.5 THE CONNECTION BETWEEN TRAVEL AND GEOGRAPHY

The connections between travel and geography are linked to specific terms such as place,
location, space, accessibility, scale and others. This science also has an integrative character,
containing key elements from all fields of geography, physical, human and economic. Besides
this, travel geography also has many common points with other sciences, including history,
geology, biology, art, economy and so on. In more modern times, the tourism geography has
become to achieve a broader definition, regarding the study of the spatial and temporal genesis,
repartition and unfolding of the tourism phenomenon, being considered as a complex and
specific interaction at the level of the geographic environment. As such, travel geography studies
things like the tourist resources (natural or man-made), the tourism infrastructure (transportation,
accommodation, etc.), the types and forms of tourism, the tourist circulation (statistical research),
tourist markets, as well as other domains. The areas of geographical interest in tourism are stated
by S. Williams (1998), including the effect of scale, spatial distributions of tourist phenomena,
tourism impacts, planning for tourism and spatial modeling of tourism development.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE TWO
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY RELATED TO TRAVEL

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Just like geography, travel geography falls into various branches that have an influence on the
travel and tourism industry in destination. This lecture discusses the physical and human
geography and the influences of various branches to the industry.

2.2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Physical geography (also known as geosystems or physiography) is one of the two major
subfields of geography. Physical geography is that branch of natural science which deals with the
study of processes and patterns in the natural environment like atmosphere, biosphere and
geosphere.

Physical Geography can be divided into several sub-fields, as follows:

1. Geomorphology is the field concerned with understanding the surface of the Earth and the
processes by which it is shaped, both at the present as well as in the past. Geomorphology as
a field has several sub-fields that deal with the specific landforms of various environments
e.g. desert geomorphology and fluvial geomorphology, however, these sub-fields are united
by the core processes which cause them; mainly tectonic or climatic processes.
2. Hydrology is predominantly concerned with the amounts and quality of water moving and
accumulating on the land surface and in the soils and rocks near the surface and is typified by
the hydrological cycle. Thus the field encompasses water in rivers, lakes, aquifers and to
extent glaciers, in which the field examines the process and dynamics involved in these
bodies of water.
3. Glaciology is the study of glaciers and ice sheets, or more commonly the cryosphere or ice
and phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology groups the latter (ice sheets) as continental
glaciers and the former (glaciers) as alpine glaciers. Although, research in the areas are
similar with research undertaken into both the dynamics of ice sheets and glaciers the former
tends to be concerned with the interaction of ice sheets with the present climate and the latter
with the impact of glaciers on the landscape. Glaciology also has a vast array of sub-fields

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 examining the factors and processes involved in ice sheets and glaciers e.g. snow hydrology
and glacial geology.
4. Biogeography is the science which deals with geographic patterns of species distribution and
the processes that result in these patterns. Biogeography emerged as a field of study as a
result of the work of Alfred Russel Wallace, although the field prior to the late twentieth
century had largely been viewed as historic in its outlook and descriptive in its approach. The
main stimulus for the field since its founding has been that of evolution, plate tectonics and
the theory of island biogeography.
5. Climatology is the study of the climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged
over a long period of time. Climatology examines both the nature of micro (local) and macro
(global) climates and the natural and anthropogenic influences on them. The field is also sub-
divided largely into the climates of various regions and the study of specific phenomena or
time periods e.g. tropical cyclone rainfall climatology and paleoclimatology.
6. Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on
weather processes and short term forecasting (in contrast with climatology). Studies in the
field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until
the eighteenth century. Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events which
illuminate and are explained by the science of meteorology.
7. Pedology is the study of soils in their natural environment. It is one of two main branches of
soil science, the other being edaphology. Pedology mainly deals with pedogenesis, soil
morphology, soil classification. In physical geography pedology is largely studied due to the
numerous interactions between climate (water, air, temperature), soil life (micro-organisms,
plants, animals), the mineral materials within soils (biogeochemical cycles) and its position
and effects on the landscape such as laterization.
8. Palaeogeography is a cross-disciplinary study that examines the preserved material in the
stratigraphic record in order to determine the distribution of the continents through geologic
time. Almost all the evidence for the positions of the continents comes from geology in the
form of fossils or paleomagnetism. The use of this data has resulted in evidence for
continental drift, plate tectonics and supercontinents. This in turn has supported
palaeogeographic theories such as the Wilson cycle.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

9. Coastal geography is the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land,
incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and
oceanography) and the human geography of the coast. It involves an understanding of coastal
weathering processes, particularly wave action, sediment movement and weathering, and also
the ways in which humans interact with the coast. Coastal geography although predominantly
geomorphological in its research is not just concerned with coastal landforms, but also the
causes and influences of sea level change.
10. Oceanography is the branch of physical geography that studies the Earth's oceans and seas.
It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics
(biological oceanography); ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics (physical
oceanography); plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor (geological oceanography);
and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and
across its boundaries (chemical oceanography). These diverse topics reflect multiple
disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and
understanding of processes within it.
11. Environmental geography is a branch of geography that analyzes the spatial aspects of
interactions between humans and the natural world. The branch bridges the divide between
human and physical geography and thus requires an understanding of the dynamics of
geology, meteorology, hydrology, biogeography, and geomorphology, as well as the ways in
which human societies conceptualize the environment. Although the branch was previously
more visible in research than at present with theories such as environmental determinism
linking society with the environment. It has largely become the domain of the study of
environmental management or anthropogenic influences.

2.3 INFLUENCES OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ON TRAVEL

 They act as tourist attraction e.g. mountains, lakes etc

 They are sites for tourism accommodation e.g. mountain and beach resorts
 Lakes and channels provide medium of transport
 Oceans, lakes and rivers provide water for domestic use
 Oceans, lakes and rivers are sources of food e.g. fish and other sea foods
 Climate influence seasonal movement of tourist

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

  Weather changes affect some tourism activities e.g. hiking, mountain climbing

2.4 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

Human Geography combines economic and cultural geography to explore the relationships
between humans and their natural environment, and to track the broad social patterns that shape
human societies. Human geography is one of the two major sub-fields of geography. It is the
study of human use and understanding of the world and the processes which have affected it.
Human geography broadly differs from physical geography in that it has a greater focus on
studying intangible or abstract patterns surrounding human activity and is more receptive to
qualitative research. It has the following field;

a) Culture

Cultural geography is the study of cultural products and norms and their variation across and
relations to spaces and places. It focuses on describing and analyzing the ways language,
religion, economy, government, and other cultural phenomena vary or remain constant from one
place to another and on explaining how humans function spatially.

b) Development

Development Geography is the study of the Earth's geography with reference to the Standard of
living and the Quality of life of its human inhabitants, study of the location, distribution and
spatial organization of economic activities, across the Earth. The subject matter investigated is
strongly influenced by the researcher's methodological approach.

c) Economic

Economic geography examines relationships between human economic systems, states, and other
actors, and the biophysical environment.

d) Health

Health geography is the application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to

the study of health, disease, and health care.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 e) Historical

Historical Geography is the study of the human, physical, fictional, theoretical, and "real"
geographies of the past. Historical geography studies a wide variety of issues and topics. A
common theme is the study of the geographies of the past and how a place or region changes
through time. Many historical geographers study geographical patterns through time, including
how people have interacted with their environment, and created the cultural landscape.

f) Political

Political geography is concerned with the study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of
political processes and the ways in which political processes are themselves affected by spatial
structures.

g) Population

Population geography (also known as demography) is the study of the ways in which spatial
variations in the distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to
the nature of places.

h) Transport

Transport Geography is concerned with movement of good and services through various modes
and means.

i) Urban

Urban geography is the study of urban areas with specific regards to spatial and relational
aspects and theories. That is the study of areas which have a high concentration of buildings and
infrastructure. These are areas where the majority of economic activities are in the secondary
sector and tertiary sectors. They probably have a high population density.

NOTE

Travel geography is the study of travel as an industry, as a human activity, and especially
as a place-based
ROLLEX APONDI experience.
OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY
2.6 INFLUENCE OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY ON TRAVEL

 Culture of the people influence the type of tourist and tourism attraction found in a
region.
 The levels of destination development determine the type and spending powers of tourists
 Economic activities like agriculture, fishing and forestry greatly influence types and
levels of tourism
 Historical developments in terms of how people survived in the past provide us with us
with tourist attractions
 Health issues affect tourism, the emergence of the epidemics like the Mad Cow Disease,
Bird Flu, SARS Ebola influence consumptive habits and movement of tourist to
destinations.
 Political situation ,status, and stability influence the viability of tourism destination
 Demographic composition of population in terms of age, sex, mortality and birth rates
greatly influence the type of tourism in a given region.
 Transport networks and their levels of development do greatly influence movement of
tourists
 The degree of urbanization in countries greatly enhance the consumption patterns of
people, and increase the chances of the need to ‘escape’ to cleaner , less polluted areas.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE THREE

CONCEPT OF LEISURE, RECREATION AND TOURISM

3.1 CONCEPT AND WORKING DEFINITIONS

Leisure, recreation and tourism and are generally seen as a set of interrelated and overlapping
concepts. While these are interrelated concepts, definitions of leisure, recreation and tourism
remain contested in terms of how, where, when and why they are used (Tribe, 2011). The
understanding of these concepts can be illustrated in Figure 1.1 which forms the discussion
below;

TIME OTHER

LEISURE WORK

RECREATION

HOME-BASED RECREATION

RECREATION AWAY FROM TOURISM

HOME
Figure 1.1: The relationship between leisure, recreation, and tourism

a) Concept of Leisure

Leisure is free time that can be used for rest, recreation, etc. It is the free time as a result of
temporary exemption from work or duties. According to Stockdale (1985) in Hall and Page
(2006), he identified three main ways in which the concept of leisure is used:

a) As a period of time, activity or state of mind in which choice is the dominant feature.
b) An objective view in which leisure is perceived as the opposite of work and is defined as
non-work or residual time

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 c) A subjective view which emphasizes leisure as a qualitative concept in which leisure
activities take on a meaning only within the context of individual perceptions and belief
systems and can therefore occur at any time in any setting.

According to Herbert (1988) in Hall and Page (2006) argues that leisure is therefore best seen
as time over which an individual exercises choice and undertakes activities in a free, voluntary
way. The ideas from these definitions include;

a) The condition of having one's time free from the demands of work or duty.
b) Freedom or spare time provided by the cessation of activities;
c) A time at one's own command that is free of engagements or responsibilities;
d) A period of unemployed time;
e) Opportunity provided by free time.

b) Concept of Recreation

There is some consensus on the definition of recreation. Recreation is an activity that people
engage in during their free time, that people enjoy, and that people recognize as having socially
redeeming values. Unlike leisure, recreation has a connotation of being morally acceptable not
just to the individual but also to society as a whole, and thus we program for those activities
within that context. While recreation activities can take many forms, they must contribute to
society in a way that society deems acceptable. This means that activities deemed socially
acceptable for recreation can change over time.

a) Definition of recreation
Recreation is any form of play, amusement, etc. used for refreshment of body or mind. It the
refreshment of one’s mind or body after work through activity that amuses or stimulates the
ideas includes;

i. Recreation is “refreshment of the strength and spirits after toil; amusement; diversion;
sport; pastime.”
ii. Recreation is “an activity that diverts or amuses or stimulates.”

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 iii. Refreshment by means of some pastime, agreeable exercise, or the like.
b) Classification of recreation
Recreation is classified into two; home based and away from home recreation;

1. Home-based recreation
These activities include:

i. Listening to music
ii. Watching television and videos
iii. Listening to the radio
iv. Reading
v. Do it yourself (DIY)
vi. Gardening
vii. Playing games
viii. Exercise
ix. Hobbies
x. Leisure use of computers.
2. Recreation away from home
These activities include:

i. Sports participation
ii. Watching entertainment
iii. Hobbies
iv. Visiting attractions
v. Eating and drinking
vi. Betting and gaming

3.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEISURE, RECREATION AND TRAVEL

GEOGRAPHY

The relationship between leisure, recreation and tourism can be illustrated as below;

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Figure 1.2: Relationships between leisure, recreation and tourism (Source: Hall & Page, (2006)

Figure 1.2 indicates the considerable overlap that exists between leisure, recreation and tourism
geography. Tourism involves spatial movement from source to destinations to engage in
recreation during leisure time

CONCLUSION

Leisure in postindustrial society is no longer seen as chiefly a means of recuperating from the

travail of the job…If leisure is to become, for many, an improvement over work as a way of

finding personal fulfillment, identity enhancement, self-expression, and the like, then people

must be careful to adopt those forms with the greatest payoff. The theme in this document is that

we travel through geographic space to achieve this.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE FOUR
4.1 TRAVEL PRODUCT

These covers all attractions and services that can be sold to visitors, destination products consist
of building and natural attractions, tours and packages, services for travelers for example
shopping, restaurants accommodations and activities.

The destination management process requires a destination to develop products, cultural, natural
or intangible in nature to meet market demands, it’s not acceptable to assume that if you build
facilities and products the market will come so there is clear relationship between nature of the
products and market relationship.

Tourism product is a complex amalgamation of different services; each of which must be bought
together and sold to customers. The demand of tourism is first created then satisfied by the
concentrated marketing

4.2 COMPONENTS OF THE TOURISM PRODUCTS

The tourist product can therefore be analyzed in term of its attractions, its facilities and its
accessibility.
1. Attractions
 Of the basic components of a tourist product, attractions are very important. Unless these
are there, the tourist will not be motivated to undertake a travel activity.
 Attractions are elements found in any given tourist destination.
 A tourist attraction is a place of interest where tourists visit, typically for its inherent or
exhibited cultural value, historical significance, natural or built beauty, or amusement
opportunities.
 A physical or cultural feature of a particular place that individual travelers or tourists
perceive as capable of meeting one or more of their specific leisure-related needs.
 Such features may be ambient in nature (e.g. climate, culture, vegetation or scenery), or
they may be specific to a location, such as a theatre performance, a museum or a
waterfall.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 Classification of geographical tourist attraction

a) Cultural-Historical, archeological sites, Monuments, museums, industrial, Cuisine, theater

etc
b) Natural- Flora, fauna, landscapes etc
c) Events- Festivals, community, religious and sport events, Corporate and tradeshows etc
d) Recreation- Sightseeing, golf, camping, hiking, snow sports
e) Entertainment- Amusement/theme parks, shopping, casinos, discos etc
f) Religious –Christianity, Islamic, Hindu etc

These attractions are related to a wide range of activities that can be undertaken in a geographical
tourist destination, these includes;
 Swimming
 Parasailing
 Scuba Diving
 Wind surfing
 Boat Riding
 Bird Watching
 Mountain and Hill Climbing
 Hiking
 Biking
 Cycling

2. Facilities
Facilities are those elements in the tourist product which are necessary to the tourist destination.
Tourist Facilities complement tourist attractions.
These include accommodation and amenities;
a) Accommodation is concerned with where they stay and includes;

 Lodges
 Camps
 Cottages

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

  Apartments
 Banda’s
 Guest houses
 Restaurants
 Motels
b) Amenities or Ancillary Services (support services) complement other tourist
components.
Tourist amenities include the following:
 Travel intermediaries ( tour operators and travel agents)
 Tour Guiding services
 Tourist information services
 Travel insurance providers
 Medical services
 Security services
 Financial and banking services
 Shopping services
 Cyber services(internet)
 Communication service providers
 Entertainment services
 Shopping malls
 Cinema and Theatre
3. Accessibility
Accessibility is another important component in the tourist product.
It is a means by which a tourist can reach any given geographic area.

NOTE

Tourism components can be summarized as the 5As

A= Attractions
A= Activities
A= Accommodation
A= Amenities
A= Accessibility

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

4.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TOURISM PRODUCT
Travel and tourism products are generally considered to be services rather than tangible ‘goods’.
The following are characteristics of services which could be attributed to travel and tourism
services.
a) Intangibility: Tourism product as a service cannot be evaluated or demonstrated on the basis
of touch i.e. you cannot touch the products but only feel them.
b) Non-Measurability: Tourism product in terms of dissatisfaction cannot be measured for
refund.
c) High Sensitivity: Tourism product as a services are highly sensitive in terms of dealing with
human beings and therefore the tourist must be handled in a more professional manner.
d) High Perishability: Tourism as services demand diminishes in value as soon the products
are consumed.
e) Non-Transferability: Tourism services cannot be transferred from one place to another e.g.
a seat in a plane cannot be carried out, animals cannot be carried out of the park; beds cannot
be carried out of the hotels etc.
f) High Seasonality: Tourism products are highly seasonal in terms of demand.
g) High Humanity: Tourists should be treated with human touch e.g. being tender and human
to foreigners.
h) High Dynamism: Tourism product is affected by changes in the environmental sector e.g.
terrorism affects demand for travel.
i) Homogeneity: Tourism products are more or less the same in characteristics e.g. all the
parks are similar; all the hotels are similar, airlines etc.
j) Inseparability: Tourism products work hand in hand with each other e.g. airlines, parks, tour
agents, hotels and accommodation etc

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Geographical Tourist attractions in Kenya

Mount Kenya, Northern and Eastern Region:

Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga - Chania Falls/ Thika Falls – Blue Post Museum – White Water
Rafting - Gichugu (Gods Bridge)/ Sagana Falls along Nyamidi River (Sightseeing) - Thingira
Cultural Village - Embu – Agri Tourism - Thingira Cultural Village - Meru Town – Sacred
Lakes in Meru – Meru National Park –Kora National Park – Bisanadi Game Reserve –
NgareNdare Forest – Mt. Kenya National Park – Mau Mau Caves - Oplejeta Conservancy –
Yaaku Museum - Lewa Conservancy – Samburu National Reserve – Buffalo Hills National
Reserve – Shaba National Reserve - Laikipia Wildlife Forum - Thuguma Museum – Italian War
Memorial Church – Baden Powel Cottages (Paxtu) – Aberdares National Park– Thomson Falls –
Italian Chapel - View Points.

Coastal Circuit North Coast and South Coast:

Tsavo East National Park– Fort Jesus – Mombasa Old-town tour (Places of worship) – Casino -
Bombolulu Workshop and Cultural Centre – Wild Waters – Haller Park – Mombasa Marine Park
- Watamu Marine Park – Gede Ruins – Gede Snake Park – Kipepeo Project – Giriama Cultural
Village – Mida Creek Conservation Project (ArabukoSokoke Schools and Ecotourism Scheme –
ASSETS of A ROCHA Kenya) – ArabukoJamii Villas and Eco camp – ArabukoSokoke Forest –
Malindi Marine Park - Vasco da Gama Pillar – Portuguese Chapel – Malindi Museum – Malindi
Jetty – Malindi Falconry – Sarova White Sands – Kenya Ports Authority- Cruise Liner - Dhow
Ride Expedition - Gazi Marine Conservation Initiatives – Kaya Kinondo – Diani Beach –
KisiteMpunguti Marine Park – Wasini Island – Shimoni Caves – Mombasa Town Markets and
Craft Centres.

Rift Valley, Western and Nyanza Geographical Tourist Circuit:

Lake Elementaita-Community conservation activities-Ecolodge-Lake Naivasha-Elsamere

Conservation-Hells Gate-Longonot Crater-Hyrax Hill-Prehistoric site-Lake Nakuru National
Park (Game drive, viewing lake and Ramsar Site, Baboon Cliff, Lion Hill-Lord Egerton Castle-
Sightseeing at Menengai crater-Lake Bogoria National Park-Lake Baringo National Park -
Kerio-Valley Landscape-High Altitude Training Center-Iten (Lecture on sports tourism)-
Kingwal Swamp-Eldoret Town-Saiwa Swamp National Park-Olof Palme Centre (Agroforestry
/Botanical Gardens)Kitale Museum-Mumias-Nabongo Cultural Site - Kakamega Forest N.
Reserve-Crying Stone of Ilesi-Impala sanctuary/ Impala Ecolodge-Kisumu Museum-Boat Ride
on the Lake-Kit Mikayi-Oginga Odinga Museum,Ndere Island National,Museum,Lake
Kanyaboli,Kogelo Village Abasuba Peace Museum-Mfangano Island, Tom Mboya Musoleum,
Rusinga Island, Gwasi Hills, Ruma National Park-Simbi Nyaima-Thim Lich Ohinga - Tabaka
Soapstone-Rural Based Tourism-Kisii-Bomet-Narok-View Points of the Rift Valley Escarpment

Community managed tourism and conservation initiatives

(Kakamega Forest, ArabukoSokoke, Kayas, environmental clean-up and planting mangroves on

the Mida creek, Gazi Community Mangroves Conservation Project, Wasini Women Mangroves
Conservation Group, volunteerism).

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Example of Geographic tourist circuit guide on parks and game reserves
Kenya Safari Circuits Guide, National Parks and Game Reserves
Central Kenya Region and Nairobi Region
The Central Kenya Safari Circuit Region is offers High Hill Country; a paradise for Daredevils.
This is Kenya's high hill country above Nairobi - a land of mountain peaks, spectacular
waterfalls and remote alpine moors that provide a unique and breath taking African Landscape. It
is also an area of coffee plantations and small farms that make up the region's thriving
agricultural sector.
Parks and attractions to visit while on the Central Kenya
Safari Circuit include;

 Nairobi Animal Orphanage

 Nairobi National Park
 Nairobi Safari Walk
 Aberdares National Park
 Mount Kenya National Park
 Mount Longonot National Park

Activities while on safari to this region include;

game viewing - high chances of seeing all the big five and rare forest antelopes like the bongo,
the endangered black rhino, history of Kenya - settlers and the formation of Nairobi as a city,
scenic views of hills and waterfalls, mountain hiking and trekking

Coastline Region
The Kenyan coastline consist of sun drenched beaches with soft sand, warm waters and
refreshing sea breezes. the Kenya Coast has attractive creeks, sleepy rivers and shady inlets - The
Kenya coast is an ideal place for big game fishing, diving, water sports - or just lazing around on
the beach.
Parks and attractions to visit while on the Coastline
Region of Kenya Safari Circuit include;

 Arabuko Sokoke National Reserve

 Kisite Mpunguti, Kiunga, Malindi and Mombasa
Marine National Parks and Reserves
 Shimba Hills National Reserve
 Tana River Primate Reserve

Activities while on safari to the coastal region include; a

visit to the last major remnant of tropical rain forest -
Arabuko Sokoke and a chance of seeing some of it's rare
bird species, the Tana river rare and endangered primates

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

like the mangebey and red colobus monkeys, the Shimba hills reserve - the only abode of the
sable antelope in Kenya, water sports in Mombasa including, jet ski, scuba diving, snorkeling
and much more

Southern Region
Kenya's Southern region safari circuit is dominated by Tsavo (Tsavo East and Tsavo West)
Kenya's largest national park. Further is Amboseli - Kilimanjaro's home and Chyulu hills rocky
volcanic outcrops harboring a huge amount of game and Lake Jipe - a lake fed by Mount
Kilimanjaro's run-off.
Parks in the southern region safari circuit are close to the
Kenya Coast (The coastline Safari circuit region) making
them ideal for 1 to 4 days safari excursions.

Parks and attraction in this safari circuit region include;

 Amboseli National Park

 Chyulu Hills National Park
 Tsavo East National Park
 Tsavo West National Park

Eastern Region
The Eastern Region Safari circuit is just outside Nairobi and it include Samburu, Shaba and
Buffalo Springs which form a more-or-less contagious parks separated by the Ewaso Nyiro
River.
Further out is the Meru National reserve consisting of
open savannahs and is also adjacent to Bisanadi, Mwingi,
Kora and Rahole National reserves and parks.

 Bisanadi National Reserve

 Buffalo Springs National Reserve
 Shaba National Reserve
 Kora National Park
 Meru National Park
 Ol Donyo Sabuk National Park
 Mwea National Reserve
 Mwingi National Reserve
 Samburu Game Reserve

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

North Rift Region
The North Rift safari circuit region offers remote and sometimes inaccessible attractions, a
reserve of those who wish to explore Kenya at it's most rugged, these regions appeals to visitors
because of their hot springs and bird sanctuaries, Parks and lake attractions like Lake Bogoria,
Baringo, Kamnarock, Turkana, South and Central Island, Nasalot, Sibiloi and Marsabit national
reserve hold fascination for the traveller who like to go off the beaten track.

One of the main event in this circuit is the annual camel

derby, other activities here include game watching ,
ballooning, camel riding, fishing, horse riding and
mountain biking.

 Laikipia National Reserve

 Marsabit National Reserve
 Nasalot National Reserve
 Sibiloi National Park
 South and Central Island National Park
 South Turkana National Reserve

South Rift Region

The Southern Rift comprises of the best known
attractions including Masai Mara, Lake Nakuru and Lake
Naivasha. Activities here include game watching with
chances of spotting all of the Big Five game, bird
watching, Ballooning, Hiking and rock climbing

 Hells Gate National Park

 Lake Nakuru National Park
 Mara Triangle (Masai Mara Conservancy)
 Masai Mara National Reserve
 Lake Naivasha National Park

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Western Kenya Region
The Western Safari Circuit region is Kenya's least visited
in terms of tourism. This is a region of numbers. the
western Kenya region consists of rich forests, swamps
and some of Kenya's rarest animal species. Kakamega
forest is a habitat for over 300 bird species, the
endangered De-Brazza,s moneky, the balck and white
colobus monkey while Ruma national park is the only
home to the roan antelope in Kenya and the Saiwa
swamp is the only home to the endangered semi-aquatic
sitatunga antelope

 Kakamega Forest National Reserve

 Ndere Island National Park
 Kisumu Impala Sanctuary
 Mount Elgon National Reserve
 Ruma National Park
 Saiwa Swamp National Park

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE FIVE

TRAVEL MOTIVATION AND DEMAND DETERMINANTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION
This lecture attempts to answer the question of tourism motivation, facilitators and demand.
Motivation is basically the question of ‘WHY’. Why do some people travel and not others? Why
in a particular country do people engage in tourism than another? The answers to these questions
are given in terms of individual motivation.

5.2 MOTIVATION FOR TRAVEL

Factors that motivate people to travel from region to another are a major aspect of international
tourism. Travel motivator includes;

1. Physical motivators
They are related to physical relation and rest sporting activities, beach recreation and specific
medical treatment. They are connected with individuals body health and well being e.g. to get
away from routine of life, to have a good time away from home, to have a strange experience.

2. Interpersonal motivators
They are related to the desire to visit friends and relatives or to escape from one’s family,
workmates, neighbors, or to meet new people and forge new friendship or to simply escape from
routine of everyday life e.g. to go to places where ones family comes from, to visit places where
friends and family lived in the past.

3. Cultural motivators
They are connected with the individuals’ desire to travel in order to learn about other countries
and the people and their cultural heritage expressed in music, art and craft, folk/ ores, dances
literature and religion.e.g to see how people in other countries live, work and play, to enjoy
scenic beauty and cultural sites, to attend special events festivals and cultural functions, to gain a
better understanding of what is going on.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 4. Status and prestige motivators
They are identified with the need for personal esteem and developments, related to travel for
business or professional interests’ conventions, study and the pursuit of hobbies. Travel can
fulfill the desire for recognition, attention and appearance. Many people undertake travel with a
view to talk about it to their friends and relatives. They like to impress them by relating their
experience in various places visited this is because they think travel is fashionable and show that
they can afford it.

NOTE
Motivation is the study of the relationship between the driving force and the object or condition
towards which that driving force is directed. Motivation arises out of the felt wants/ needs of an
individual.

5.4 FACTORS AFFECTING TOURISM DEMAND

5.4.1 DEMOTIVATORS / BARRIER TO TRAVEL

The reasons s to why some people do not travel extensively or do not travel at all can be
summarized as follows:

1. Cost
Most people do not afford the expenses of travel due to its high costs. People operate within
monetary convents and travel must complete with other allocation of funds. Saying that travel is
too costly is an indirect way of saying that travel is not important.

2. Lack of Time
This is the characteristic of those who are not in a position to live their jobs/ businesses or
professions for the purposes of a vacation.

3. Health Reasons
Many people escape the old cannot travel due to poor health and other physical limitations.

4. Family Stage
Parents of very young children may not do able to travel because of family obligations and the
inconveniences in either traveling with the children or living them behind.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 5. Ignorance
Unawareness/ lack of knowledge about other places and people is a major barrier to travel.

6. Lack of Interest
Those to whom travel is part of their hobby and interest undertake traveling. One has to have
interest in traveling so as to seek information about travel destinations that would bring
pleasurable satisfaction.

7. Fear and Safety

Things unknown are often feared. In travel much is often not familiar to whoever is to travel.
War, political unrest, negative publicity about an area would doubt and fear in the minds of the
prospective travelers.

8. Traditions
Some traditions do not allow certain people to travel e.g. the Indian girls or Islamic societies.

9. Economic Factors
Economic factors may make a country to put restrictions on the number of people moving out for
fear of draining out money.

5.5 TRAVEL FACILITATORS

In order to take a holiday the tourist requires time and money. These factors do not motivate in
themselves but they make it possible for prospective tourists to indulge in their desires. Such
factors are known as travel facilitators, they include:

a) Availability of more money means a wider choice for destinations of the tourists.
b) Good infrastructure means better accessibility to the destination.
c) Favorable exchange rates against the local currency, the lower the rates the better.
d) Easier entries without political barriers, the lesser the documentation the better for the
travelers.
e) Peace and stability, areas that are peaceful are likely to hosts more tourists for long
periods than areas of unrests.
f) Well trained staff, they will provide better services and products to the tourists and
therefore make stay more interesting.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 g) Friendly and welcoming local community, tourists like to be hosted by a hospitable local
community, which is welcoming and concerned about the tourists’ interests.

5.6 TOURISM DEMAND

Tourism demand refers to the number of people/ visitors who are willing to travel to a particular
destination or to consume some specific tourism products. There are various types of tourism
demand i.e.

a) Actual / Aggregate/ Effective Demand

Refers to the total number of people traveling from one destination to another. It can be easily
visualized by reference to tourism statistical resources. Tourism suppliers require demand for
their products but too much effective demand poses the problem of exceeding the supply of the
product.
b) Suppressed Demand
Can be sub divided into two: -
 Potential Demand
 Differed Demand
With those who may be classified as potential demand they are more likely to become actual
demand in future when circumstance allow. Potential demand related specifically with the
individual. The reason for differed demand is problem associated with the supply side. It may be
accommodation shortages, transportation difficult.

c) No Demand
This refers to those who do participate in tourism at all and do not have any willingness to travel.
The reason may be lack of interest, ignorance or lack of money.

5.7 FACTORS INFLUENCING TOURISM DEMAND

1. Education
An informed person has knowledge and is more informed as far as travel products are concerned.
He/ she is not sold on pricing and any issues related to tourism thus are more likely to engage in
travel than an ignorant person.

2. Family Stage and Size

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Traveling with young children may be inconvenient mother as they may require special facilities
and attentions. It is also hard to make travel arrangement for very large families traveling
together as compared to the cost of traveling with a small family.

3. Availability of free/ leisure time

Availability of free time is the time left after influence our travel patterns. Some people have
money and are willing to travel but have time for the same.

4. Change in Lifestyle
Changes in fashions and lifestyle create some demand for certain tourism products e.g. healthy
living and physical fitness has created the need for health spars in accommodation facilities.

5. Prestige and Status

People like visiting places where their friends have visited before, or go to places with an aim of
talking about it. They also do things for social acceptance.

6. Incentive travel and paid Holidays

The availability of paid holidays and incentive travels that are becoming popular in both the
developed and developed countries are likely to make people to travel more.

7. Health Complications
They are people who travel for the purposes of medication.

8. Hospitality of the Host Community

A host community that is hospitable will attracts more repeat visit and even some new clients.

5.8 ECONOMIC FACTORS DETERMINING TOURISM DEMAND

1. Income and Employment
Availability of more disposable income will enable one to have some extra to spend on tourism.

People who live above the poverty line tend to travel more.

2. Economic Growth and Strategy

Countries with good economic growth and stability tend to attract more investors and as a result
the local population has more income to spend on tourism.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 3. Currency Fluctuations
Tourists wish to travel to countries with stable currencies. Currency fluctuations make tourism
products cheaper or expensive to the potential tourists. When the currency is string demand may
be diverted.

4. Distance and Transport

The physical distance between the source market and the destination will affect tourism demand
because it will affect the total cost travel products.

5. Infrastructure and Superstructure

There should be proper infrastructure and superstructure at the destination. This will enable the
tourist to be more comfortable and feel the worth of his investment in travel.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE SIX

6.1 TRANSPORT FOR TRAVEL AND TOURISM

Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another.
The term is derived from the Latin trans ("across") and portare ("to carry"). Industries which
have the business of providing equipment, actual transport, transport of people or goods and
services used in transport of goods or people make up a large broad and important sector of most
national economies, and are collectively referred to as transport industries.

6.2 The elements of transport

If interaction does take place, a transport system will be needed. Faulks (1990) has identified
four basic physical elements in any transport system.
 The way
 The terminal
 The carrying unit
 Motive power
The way: is the medium of travel used by the various modes of transport. It may be artificial,
such as roads, railways, tramway and cableways. It may be a natural way such as air, the sea,
lakes and rivers or it can be a combination of two, such as inland waterways.
The terminal: a terminal gives access for the users, while a terminus is the furthest point to
which that system extend. Terminals can also act as interchanges where travelers transfer from
one mode to another (e.g. from aircraft to coach/train).
The carrying unit: each type of way demands a particular type of carrying unit. Aircraft for
airways, ships and smaller vessels for water ways, cars and buses/coaches and other vehicles for
the roads and rolling stock for the railways. All units are designed in a particular specification to
ensure safety and comfort.
Motive power: motive power combines with the way and the carrying unit to determine the
speed, rage and capacity of the transport mode in question. The motive power for most transport
mode is now dependent on petroleum as the energy source.
6.3 Aspects of transport

The field of transport has several aspects: loosely they can be divided into a triad of
infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Infrastructure includes the transport networks (roads,
railways, airways, waterways, canals, pipelines, etc.) that are used, as well as the nodes or
terminals (such as airports, railway stations, bus stations and seaports). The vehicles generally
ride on the networks, such as automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, aircraft. The operations deal
with the way the vehicles are operated on the network and the procedures set for this purpose

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

including the legal environment (Laws, Codes, Regulations, etc.) Policies, such as how to
finance the system (for example, the use of tolls or gasoline taxes) may be considered part of the
operations.

6.4 Historical Perspective

In 1841 Thomas Cook realized the first organized travel using train with steam power engine.
From that time transportation became inseparable part of tourism.Tourism is being elsewhere
and transport bridges the gap between origin and destination. Transportation links diverse
destinations and ferries people commodities and services between these places. Tourism is much
about travel and therefore the role of transportation in its operation is vital. The advent of air
travel has shrunk the world and the motor vehicle have made traveling anywhere a possibility
this reality together with changing work patterns and innovative marketing have propelled
international mass tourism throughout the years.

Culpan(1987) identified transportation mode and management as: “important ingredient of

international tourism system,” acknowledging that connection by air, sea and land is essential for
the operations as well as the availability of support services like fuel stations, auto repair, motels
and rest facilities for land travel. Advances in transportation have widely eased travel. Without
fear of contradiction it can be sufficiently stated that widespread growth of nature tours can be
attributed to the ease and availability of modern transport.
Transportation in tourism is just seen as a part of tourism system for bringing tourists to their
destinations and leaving those destinations once the duration is over. Page and Lumsdon (2004)
agrees that transportation system of a tourist destination has an impact on the tourism experience
which explains how people travel, their choice on forms of holiday, destination and transport
mode. The improvement of modes of transportation coupled with low fares has seen accessibility
of areas once seen as off-the-beaten-path rise. Access to a specific tourism site differs according
to the nature of the site, state of infrastructure, and the efficiency of public transport system.
Transport policies and government decisions can make a ruling on the destinations available to
tourists. Failure of public sector to cope with demand concerning transport infrastructures may
mean lack of tourism development in such areas.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Historical Timeline of Transportation

3500 BC Fixed wheels on carts are invented - the first wheeled vehicles in history.
Other early wheeled vehicles include the chariot.

3500 BC River boats are invented - ships with oars

2000 BC Horses are domesticated and used for transportation.

181-234 The wheelbarrow is invented.

770 Iron horseshoes improve transportation by horse

1492 Leonardo da Vinci first to seriously theorize about flying machines - with
over 100 drawings that illustrated his theories on flight

1620 Cornelis Drebbel invented the first submarine - an human oared submersible

1662 Blaise Pascal invents the first public bus - horse-drawn, regular route,
schedule, and fare system

1740 Jacques de Vaucanson demonstrates his clockwork powered carriage

1783 First practical steamboat demonstrated by Marquis Claude Francois de

Jouffroy d'Abbans - a paddle wheel steamboat

1783 The Montgolfier brothers invent the first hot air balloons

1787 Steamboat invented

1769 First self-propelled road vehicle invented by Nicolas Joseph Cugnot

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

1790 Modern bicycles invented

1801 Richard Trevithick invented the first steam powered locomotive (designed for
roads)

1807 Isaac de Rivas makes a hydrogen gas powered vehicle - first with internal
combustion power - however, very unsuccessful design

1807 First steamboat with regular passenger service - inventor Robert Fulton's
Clermont

1814 George Stephenson invents the first practical steam powered railroad
locomotive

1841 Thomas Cook realized the first organized travel using train with steam power
engine. Henceforth, transportation became inseparable part of tourism.

1862 Jean Lenoir makes a gasoline engine automobile

1867 First motorcycle invented

1868 George Westinghouse invents the compressed air locomotive brake - enabled
trains to be stopped with fail-safe accuracy

1871 First cable car invented

1885 Karl Benz builds the world's first practical automobile to be powered by an
internal combustion engine

1899 Ferdinand von Zeppelin invents the first successful dirigible - the Zeppelin

1903 The Wright Brothers invent and fly the first engined airplane

1907 Very first helicopter - unsuccessful design

1908 Henry Ford improves the assembly line for automobile manufacturing

1908 Hydrofoil boats co-invented by Alexander Graham Bell & Casey Baldwin -
boats that skimmed water

1926 First liquid propelled rocket launched

1940 Modern helicopters invented

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

1947 First supersonic jet flight

1956 Hovercraft invented

1964 Bullet train transportation invented

1969 First manned mission (Apollo) to the Moon

1970 First jumbo jet

1981 Space shuttle launched

All forms of transport involve technology. Modern technology has even made it possible to
travel into space. Possibly the most important technological advancement of all time occurred
over 5000 years ago. This was the invention of the wheel. Without the wheel modern transport
would not exist. People and goods would not be able to be transported all over the world.

6.5 Advances in technology

There have been many important advances in technology that have changed the way we use
transport. The invention of the internal combustion engine in the mid-1800s led to the
development of cars, trucks, motorcycles and planes. Cars, trucks and trains then needed roads,
railways, bridges and tunnels to be built. Other important developments include the invention of
the jet engine, the widespread use of electricity for electric trains and trams and the use of cargo
ships, oil tankers and semitrailers to carry freight.

a) Land transport

There are many machines that we use for transporting people and goods on land.

 Cars: the first cars were developed in 1885 in Germany but became very popular in 1908
when Henry Ford invented the Model T car. Henry Ford developed mass production
methods that made the car more affordable. By 1913, Ford's factory in Detroit in the
United States could make a complete Model T car in 93 minutes and it sold for $500.
 Buses or coaches: the first buses were horse-drawn but now they are now powered
by petrol, diesel, gas or electricity. There are local buses to travel around cities and towns
and there are also buses, called coaches, which travel long distances.
 Trucks: trucks and semitrailers are used to transport most goods. In Australia, road trains
are used to transport cattle or sheep or other goods. Road trains consist of several trailers
being pulled by a diesel engine.
 Trains, including light rail, electric trains, freight trains, monorails and magnetic
levitated (maglev) trains. Maglev trains use powerful electromagnets that lift the train

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 above or below the track. Other magnets propel and guide the train. Maglev trains can
travel very fast as there is no friction between the tracks and the train. See image 1

Image 1: Maglev trains

 Trams: the first trams, called streetcars or trolley cars, appeared in American cities in the
1830s. The first trams were horse-drawn but were later powered by electricity.
 Motorcycles, including mini-bikes. The first successful motorbike was produced in 1897
and the first sidecar in 1903.
 Bicycles: the first pedal bike was invented in 1863.
 Skateboards, scooters, segways and roller skates are mainly used for pleasure and for
travelling short distances.
 There are also carts, coaches, buggies and other vehicles that are pulled by animals.

b) Water transport

A number of machines are used for transport on the ocean and waterways.

 Ships, including cruise ships and steamships. Steamships began to take over from sailing
ships in the 1850s. They are used to transport passengers and freight across the seas and
waterways.
 Paddle-steamers: these were mainly used to transport products along inland rivers. River
transport declined from the 1880s but is still used in some areas today.
 Ferries, including passenger ferries and car ferries.
 Cargo ships, including container vessels, tankers and bulk carriers. These allow large
amounts of freight to be transported across the ocean. The containers are large metal
waterproof boxes which can be carried by train or semitrailer to the port. Oil and other
liquids can be transported by ships called tankers.
 Naval ships: are used to defend countries and in war.
 Hydrofoils, hovercrafts and catamarans: mainly used to transport people.
 Speed boats and other pleasure craft are used for water-skiing and fishing.
 Houseboats
 Submarines: mainly used in the navy.
 Boat-cars, such as the Aquada: a recent invention in 2003 that drives on both land and
water. See image 2

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 Image 2: Boat Car

Drive on water: The Panther, created by Californian manufacturer WaterCar, can go from car to
boat in 15 seconds. It reaches speeds of 80mph on land and 45mph in the water. It went on sale
on July 2013 costing $155,000 (£96,000. The amphibious vehicle had an 18 month backlog of
orders and the car comes equipped with a 3.7 litre V6 engine - meaning that when it comes to
speed, it's more than a match for it's more traditional sea-fairing companions.Its unique
amphibious nature has made it a must-have status symbol and WaterCar have received an influx
of orders from the super-rich, including Silicon Valley billionaires and the crown prince of
Dubai - who is reported to own several. WaterCar spokesman Michael March, 30, said: 'We have
sold cars to some of the wealthiest and powerful people imaginable.

You never know who is sending in a deposit until we begin building the car for that somebody
and realise who they are.
'Most requests have been colour schemes that match personal helicopters, mega yachts,
luxury cars, county colors, and even just plain and subtle so that nobody would even
know the car is amphibious.'
The Panther is fully customisable - meaning the buyer has control over everything from hull
colour to paint, interior, dashboard, gauges, steering wheel and seats. March added: 'The best
part about the Panther is it drives better than most boats on water and can travel more places on
land than most cars.
c) Air transport

Many machines are used for transport through the air.

 Passenger planes: after the first flights, people realised that air travel could be used for
regular passenger services.
 Freight planes: used for transporting goods quickly over long distances.
 Fighter planes: used in the air force.
 Hot-air balloons: aviation began in Australia in 1858 when William Deane flew over
Melbourne in a hot air balloon.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

  Airships, sometimes called the zeppelin. These were primarily used before 1950 and
were filled with hydrogen gas that weighs less than air, so they floated. They are no
longer used to transport people.
 Helicopters: these can fly straight up, forwards, backwards or hover in one place.
 Sea-planes
 Jump jets: these do not need a runway to take off and land. See image 3
 Hang gliders and other gliders.
 Spacecraft including rockets and the space shuttle. Space travel is a relatively new form
of transport, which began in the 1960s.

Future:There will continue to be technological advancements in transport. All sorts of

things could be invented that will help us to move people or goods from one place to another.
We may see different sources of energy, such as solar power, being more widely used in our
transport. We may also see passenger flights to space or have our own car that flies through the
air. What machines would you like to see invented?

6.6 Transport modes, routes and networks

Each transport mode has different operational characteristic, based on the different ways in
which technology is applied to the four elements of any transport system (air, rail, sea and
road).The technology determines the appropriateness of the mode for a particular type of
journey.
The routes depend on the physical and economic conditions and each transport network is made
up of a series of links and nodes. The accessibility of a place on a network is of particular interest
to transport and travel tourism as once a node is linked to another it becomes accessible.
6.7 Transport costs and pricing
Transport cost and pricing are fundamental to the geography of tourism. The distinctive cost
structure of each mode influences consumer choice and thus determines the volume of traffic on
route. There are two basic types of transport cost:
1.Social and environmental costs; these costs are not paid for by the transport operators
or user but are borne by the community.
An example would be the unquantifiable cost of aircraft noise to residents living near an
international airport or the carbon emissions from cars.
2. Private costs: those who operate the transport system pay private costs, which are then
passed on to the customer as fares. A basic distinction need to be made here between fixed and
variable costs. The total cost of operating a company, including transportation companies, is
usually broken into fixed and variable costs.
a. Fixed costs (or overheads) are incurred before any passengers are carried or indeed
before carrying unit moves along the way. Such costs include interest on capital invested in the
system and depreciation of assets. Fixed costs do not depend on production levels or the degree

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

of equipment utilization (i.e., the fixed cost remains the same irrespectively of whether the
equipment is kept idle or utilized). Aircrafts, trucks, trains, computers, and offices cost a fixed
amount of money.
b. Variable or running costs: do depend on the level of services provided, distance
traveled, and the volume of traffic carried. Here costs include fuel, crew wages, and
maintenance. The more the equipment is utilized, the more labor is necessary to operate them,
the more fuel is needed to produce propulsion, and the more maintenance is required due to the
increased wear and tear. These costs, which depend on the degree of utilization, are known as
variable costs.
The absolute magnitude of the fixed cost as well as the magnitude of the variable cost relative to
the fixed cost determines the existence of economies of scale. In simple term, when economies
of scale are present, production increases lower cost per unit production and increase the profit
per unit.
6.8 Modes and categories

Modes are combinations of networks, vehicles, and operations, and include walking, the road
transport system, rail transport, ship transport and modern aviation.

a) (Non-human) animal-powered transport

Animal-powered transport is a broad category of the human use of non-human working animals
(also known as "beasts of burden") for the movement of people and goods. Humans may ride
some of the larger of these animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or
harness them, singly or in teams, to pull (or haul) sleds or wheeled vehicles.

b) Air transport

A fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane or aeroplane, is a heavier-than-air craft where

movement of the wings in relation to the aircraft is not used to generate lift. The term is used to
distinguish from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the
aircraft generates lift. A more rare type of aircraft that is neither fixed-wing nor rotary-wing is an
ornithopter. A heliplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing.

c) Rail

Rail transport is the transport of passengers and goods along railways or railroads. A typical
railway (or railroad) track consists of two parallel steel (or in older networks, iron) rails,
generally anchored perpendicular to beams (termed sleepers or ties) of timber, concrete, or steel
to maintain a consistent distance apart, or gauge. The rails and perpendicular beams are usually
then placed on a foundation made of concrete or compressed earth and gravel in a bed of ballast

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

to prevent the track from buckling (bending out of its original configuration) as the ground
settles over time beneath and under the weight of the vehicles passing above. The vehicles
traveling on the rails are arranged in a train; a series of individual powered or unpowered
vehicles linked together, displaying markers. These vehicles (referred to, in general, as cars,
carriages or wagons) move with much less friction than on rubber tires on a paved road, and the
locomotive that pulls the train tends to use energy far more efficiently as a result.

In rail transport, a train consists of rail vehicles that move along guides to transport freight or
passengers from one place to another. The guideway (permanent way) usually consists of
conventional rail tracks, but might also be monorail or maglev. Propulsion for the train is
provided by a separate locomotive, or from individual motors in self-propelled multiple units.
Most trains are powered by diesel engines or by electricity supplied by trackside systems.
Historically the steam engine was the dominant form of locomotive power through the mid-20th
century, but other sources of power (such as horses, rope (or wire), gravity, pneumatics, or gas
turbines) are possible.

6.9 Road transport

a) Automobile

An automobile is a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Different types of
automobiles include cars, buses, trucks, and vans. Some include motorcycles in the category, but
cars are the most typical automobiles. As of 2002 there were 590 million passenger cars
worldwide (roughly one car for every ten people) of which 170 million in the U.S. (roughly one
car for every two people).

The automobile was thought of as an environmental improvement over horses when it was first
introduced in the 1890s. Before its introduction, in New York City alone, more than 1,800 tons
of manure had to be removed from the streets daily, although the manure was used as natural
fertilizer for crops and to build top soil. In 2006, the automobile is recognized as one of the
primary sources of world-wide air pollution and a cause of substantial noise pollution and
adverse health effects.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 c) Water transport

Watercraft

A watercraft is a vehicle designed to float on and move across (or under) water. The need for
buoyancy unites watercraft, and makes the hull a dominant aspect of its construction,
maintenance, and appearance.

Most watercraft would be described as either ships or boats; although nearly all ships are larger
than nearly all boats, the distinction between those two categories is not one of size per se.

A rule of thumb says "a boat can fit on a ship, but a ship can't fit on a boat", and a ship usually
has sufficient size to carry its own boats, such as lifeboats, dinghies, or runabouts.

Often local law and regulation will define the exact size (or the number of masts) that
distinguishes a ship from boats.

Traditionally submarines, being small, were called "boats"; in contrast, nuclear-powered

submarines' are large, much roomier, and classed as ships.

Another definition says a ship is any floating craft that transports cargo for the purpose of
earning revenue; in that context, passenger ships transport "supercargo", another name for
passengers or persons not working on board. However, neither fishing boats nor ferries are
considered ships, though both carry cargo (their catch of the day or passengers) and lifeboats.

English seldom uses the term watercraft to describe any specific individual object (and probably
then only as an affectation): rather the term serves to unify the category that ranges from small
boats to the largest ships, and also includes the diverse watercraft for which some term even
more specific than ship or boat (e.g., canoe, kayak, raft, barge, jet ski) comes to mind first.
(Some of these would even be considered at best questionable as examples of boats.)

Ship transport

Ship transport is the process of moving people, goods, etc. by barge, boat, ship or sailboat over a
sea, ocean, lake, canal or river. This is frequently undertaken for purposes of commerce,
recreation or military objectives.

A hybrid of ship transport and road transport is the historic horse-drawn boat. Hybrids of ship
transport and air transport are kite surfing and parasailing.

The first craft were probably types of canoes cut out from tree trunks. The colonization of
Australia by Indigenous Australians provides indirect but conclusive evidence for the latest date

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

for the invention of ocean-going craft; land bridges linked southeast Asia through most of the
Malay Archipelago but a strait had to be crossed to arrive at New Guinea, which was then linked
to Australia. Ocean-going craft were required for the colonization to happen.

Early sea transport was accomplished with ships that were either rowed or used the wind for
propulsion, and often, in earlier times with smaller vessels, a combination of the two.

Ship transport was frequently used as a mechanism for conducting warfare. Military use of the
seas and waterways is covered in greater detail under navy.

In the 1800s the first steam ships were developed, using a steam engine to drive a paddle wheel
or propeller to move the ship. The steam was produced using wood or coal. Now most ships have
an engine using a slightly refined type of petroleum called bunker fuel. Some specialized ships,
such as submarines, use nuclear power to produce the steam.

Recreational or educational craft still use wind power, while some smaller craft use internal
combustion engines to drive one or more propellers, or in the case of jet boats, an inboard water
jet. In shallow draft areas, such as the Everglades, some craft, such as the hovercraft, are
propelled by large pusher-prop fans.

Although relatively slow, modern sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting large
quantities of non-perishable goods. Transport by water is significantly less costly than transport
by air for trans-continental shipping.

In the context of sea transport, a road is an anchorage.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Modes of Transportation

As indicated earlier, a diversity of transport modes are the means by which people and freight
achieve mobility. This includes one of three basic types, depending on over what surface they
travel – land (road, rail and pipelines), water (shipping), and air.

Each mode offers advantages and disadvantages on key transportation features that include:

 Product Options - This feature is concerned with the number of different products that can
realistically be shipped using a certain mode. Some modes, such as pipeline, are very limited
in the type of products that can be shipped while others, such as truck, can handle a wide-
range of products.
 Speed of Delivery - This refers to how quickly it takes products and passengers to move
from the origin to destination or from shipper’s location to the buyer’s location.
 Accessibility – This transportation feature refers to whether the use of a mode can allow final
disembarking/ delivery to occur at the destination/ buyer’s desired location or whether the
mode requires passenger transfer/ delivery to be off-loaded onto other modes before arriving

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 at the destination/ buyer’s destination. For example, most journeys/ deliveries made via air
must be continued/ loaded onto other transportation modes, often taxis or shuttles/ trucks,
before they can be delivered to the destination/ final customer.
 Safety
 Environmental Impact
 Cost – The cost of travel/ shipment is evaluated in terms of the mileage/ cost per item to
cover some distance (e.g., mile, kilometer). Often for large shipments of tangible products
cost is measured in terms of tons-per-mile or metric-tons-per-kilometer.
 Capacity – Refers to the number of passengers/ amount of product that transported/ can be
shipped at one time within one transportation unit. The higher the capacity the more likely
transportation cost can be spread over more individual passengers/ products leading to lower
transportation cost per passenger/ per-item shipped.
 Intermodal Capable – Intermodal transportation/ shipping occurs when two or more modes
can be combined in order to gain advantages offered by each mode. For instance, in an
intermodal method called piggybacking truck trailers are loaded onto railroad cars without
the need to unload the trailer. When the railroad car has reached a certain destination the
truck trailers are off-loaded onto trucks for delivery to the customer’s location.

Air transport
Historically, air travel is the newest mode of transportation and has been growing steadily since
the first commercial flight.
Development in civil aviation has done most to bring about far-reaching changes in the nature of
international tourism and the structure of travel industry since the Second World War. Few parts
of the world are now more than 24 hours flying time for any other part, and it is estimated by UN
World Tourism Organization that around 20% of international tourists use air transport.
Air transport is the most effective in terms of speed but due to the high cost only a small
proportion of people worldwide use it.
Long journeys can be made in a minimal time and with this a tourist can afford to visit different
places in a limited time if the cost factor is ignored.
Advantages of air transport mode
 The way allows the aircraft a direct line of flight unimpeded by natural barriers like
mountains, ranges, oceans, desserts or jungles.
 This mode is fast terminal-to-terminal transportation. It is the fastest for long distance
deliveries.
 Air transport has a high passenger capacity and is the fastest for long distance deliveries
thus ideally suited to journeys of over 500kms.
 Attention to the customer (in-flight service and entertainment), customer perception is
high thus easy for order fulfillment.
 Superior speed can be reached in everyday services

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

  Reliable service with improved service levels.
 Very safe mode of transport
 Reduces lead time on suppliers
 Smooth ride along with the automated and efficient handling facilities.
Disadvantages of air transport mode
 It requires a large terminal area
 It is expensive due to the large amounts of power expended and the high safety standards
demanded
 Environmental Pollution - It has a negative impacts to the air (emissions to the air)
 It is venerable to terrorism and to fluctuating fuel prices.
 Potential for flight delays and/or cancellations
 Customs and Excise restrictions
 Unsuitable for some goods, only advisable for certain size/weight products
 Limited routes and inflexible timetables
 Limited frequency of flights with potential for flight delays and/or cancellations
 Poor service to small cities.
 Long travel times to and from the airports.
 Long wait times increase the overall travel time.
 Capacity restrictions.
 Airport taxes
 Expensive compared other modes
 High fixed costs and variable cost
Land transport
Unlike air transport, which is truly worldwide in its scope, travel by road or rail is constrained to
some extent by national boundaries.
Road transport
Motor carriers (trucking industry or coach transportation) constitute the most ubiquitous mode of
freight transportation. The extensive roadway network is the major cause of the popularity and
efficiency of the mode. Motor travel is the most widely used and the most dominant in the world
tourism notably due to its flexibility, price and independence with the availability of cars at even
cheaper prices means an increase in availability of this mode of transport and hence the growth
of tourist volume.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Advantages
 Motor carriers are able to provide door-to-door service to both the shipper and the consignee
as well as passengers (taxis, shuttle buses from airports)
 Its passenger capacity can be low or high
 This mode of transportation is high speed and high accessibility. It provides fast delivery and
ideal for short distances.
 Truck transportation is certainly faster than railroad transportation, and in many cases it is
faster than air transportation for hauls up to 1500 km due to the limited flight schedule and
the pick-up and delivery times incurred by air cargo carriers.
 Ideal for transporting perishables (i.e. fruit and vegetables)
 Easy to monitor location of goods
 Easy to communicate with driver
 Ideal for sending by courier shortages to customers
 Ideal for transporting perishables (i.e. fruit and vegetables)
 Private and provides freedom to travel at will
 Cost effective – The are perceived to be an inexpensive form of travel, especially for family
groups, because running costs and vehicle depreciation are not seen as part of the cost of
individual trips
 The allow for unparalleled viewing
 They can comfortably contain luggage, pets, and recreational equipment as well as people
(including the elderly or the handicapped who otherwise may not have access to tourism
destinations)
 They can be used to tow caravans, trailer tents and boats
 They act as a secure base for the tour – whilst picnicking, or enjoying an attraction
 The relatively smooth ride and timely delivery, which makes this type of transportation
appropriate for delicate or high value products (i.e., produce, electronic equipment).
 Motor carriers link transportation terminals (i.e., ports and docks, airports, railroad yards)
with shippers or receivers and thus provide an essential link for intermodal transportation.
 This industry is characterized by low fixed (management, overhead, vehicle fleet)
 Disadvantages
 Transport subject to traffic delays and vehicle breakdown
 Many users share the roads which results to congestions during peak demands

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 Goods susceptible to damage through careless driving
 Weather delays
 Driving regulations can cause delays
 Pollutes the environment to a greater degree than other modes because of volume of trucks
on roads and highways
 Less safe than alternatives
 Can incur additional expenses such as road congestion and toll road fees
 Limitations in volume and weight.
 The rates charged are higher compared with the railroads, particularly for heavy hauls over
1500 km.
 There are no economies of scale in this industry as there are for railroads and pipelines.
There are, however, economies of utilization (i.e., large companies tend to utilize terminals
and management specialists at a higher rate) as well as discounts for the purchase of vehicles,
parts, tires, and insurance).
 High variable costs (drivers, fuel, maintenance, insurance, tires, licenses, fleet depreciation).
Rail transport
Rail travel is another transport mode used by tourists. With the introduction of high speed
electric trains as compared to the old locomotive steam engines transport is made faster more
reliable and comfortable and this contributes positively to the tourism sector.
Railroads are large volume and high weight mode of transportation.

Advantages
 Fast delivery
 Convenience
 Flexibility in capacity - In contrast to the road, the railway track is not shared and extra
carriage can be added or removed to cope with demand
 Cost effective
 Safe mode of transport
 Reliable
 More environmentally friendly than alternatives
 Does not add to congestion
 Ideal for heavy goods

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 Wide range of applications
 Large geographic coverage and the low rate charged.
 Railroads are more energy efficient and friendlier to the environment in terms of energy used
and pollution emitted per ton-km carried, compared with motor carriers.
 Railroads are most suited to chemical products, pulp and paper products, forest products, and
manufactured products such as vehicles, machinery, parts and equipment.
 Automation and computerization has helped railroads to overcome major problems of car
availability and distribution, as well as empty back haul.
 Variable costs include labor, fuel, electricity, insurance, taxes, depreciation, and equipment
maintenance and upgrading; they are relatively low.

Disadvantages

 Potential of damages from shunting

 Subject to unforeseen delays
 Reliance on rail freight operator's timetable
 Suppliers/customers are not always located near a rail freight depot and delivery to/from the
depot can be costly and time consuming
 Limited routes, inflexible routes and timetables
 Railroads are characterized by high fixed costs because they own and maintain their ROW,
tracking, bridges, tunnels, switches, terminals and rolling stock.

Water-Borne transport

Water transportation is the oldest form of mass freight transportation and passenger
transportation overseas or long distances.
At present water transportation is an important mode for luxury cruises, shipping raw materials,
crude oil, and manufactured products among domestic and international destinations as well as
points of trade.
Advantages
 Ships expend relatively little power
 Ships can be built to much larger specifications than any vehicle
 They can also provide a high degree of comfort

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 Domestic water carriers complete with railroads for the shipment of heavy and bulky
commodities such as oil, grain and coal and with pipelines for the shipment of liquid
commodities.
 Suitable for products with long lead times
 It offers low cost by slow service thus inexpensive making it ideal for large volumes at once.
 Domestically, the capacity of vessels far exceeds the capacity of railcars and trucks. It is
ideal for shipping a large amount of goods at once.
 Water transportation is the second least labor-intensive compared with other modes.
 Due to benefits in taxes, labor, and safety requirements, ships are registered in countries that
provide such shelters and economic benefits to ship owners.

Disadvantages

 Very slow, longer lead/delivery times - water-borne transport is slow compared to air
travel.
 Difficult to monitor exact location of goods in transit
 Customs and Excise restrictions
 Could be costly for small volume/high value shipments
 Inflexible routes and timetables
 Port duty/taxes
 Requires inland transportation for door-to-door delivery
 Weather delays
Pipeline Transport
Pipelines are mainly an underground form of transportation. They are often referred to as the
hidden giants of the freight transportation in industry.

Advantages
 Low operating cost
 Safe and dependable service
 Little opportunity for accidents or weather-related days
 Does not add to congestion
 Sophisticated monitoring of facilities with computers as well as significant protection
from the elements result in minimal loss and damage.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

  Variable costs which include mostly labor, administration and insurance are relatively
low.
Disadvantages
 The service is slow.
 They have a limited geographic coverage.
 One-way transportation only.
 Limited number of products (natural gas, crude oil, petroleum products, water and chemicals)
 Challenging to construct
 The number of pipelines companies is limited largely because of the high capital costs
required for establishing a pipeline (substantial initial investment).
Other services related to transport and travel
Express Package Carriers
Express package carriers are essentially a form of privately owned operated mail service, which
serve the general public.

Intercity Passenger Travel

Major Modes
The basic purposes generating intercity transportation are business, vacation, and personal
reasons.
Travel modes that are available to serve intercity travelers include air travel via scheduled
airlines, charter flights (tourist groups), or private aircrafts. Travel agencies, taxi and limousine
service companies, mass transit authorities, airport and terminal authorities, car rental
companies, local sightseeing services, hotels and restaurants, as well as the entertainment
industry facilitate and complement intercity transportation modes.
Choice of Mode
The choice of appropriate mode of transport by the consumer is influenced by:
• distance and journey time
• status and comfort
• safety
• price
• geographical position of desired destination
• range of services
• environmental impact
• levels of competition.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

The choice of mode for long-distance travel is heavily depend on
- The sensitivity of the traveler with respect to time and cost.
- By and large, business travel is time-sensitive, vacation travel is price-sensitive, whereas
travel for personal reasons may be either time or price-sensitive, or both.
- The basic attributes of each mode are schedule, speed, cost, service offered, and
perceptions regarding the service offered.
- Schedule and speed prescribe the ability of the mode to serve passengers at the times they
want and the speed (or travel time) they require.
- Cost is the major consideration for most passengers.
- Service is another important factor.
- Perceptions of passengers regarding the overall service offered by a mode compared with
other modes or among providers of the same mode affect the choice of modes and
carriers.
Setting costs aside, the competitiveness of mode can be judged by their ability to provide fast
service from origin to destination on a door-to-door basis (i.e., from the office in town A to
the meeting place in Town B, or from the house in town X to the hotel room in town Y.
Comparison among Modes
This chapter presented the major modes of transportation. Motor carriers are ubiquitous and
provide door-to-door service.
Railroads are best suited for transporting bulky products in large quantities.
For liquid commodities pipelines offer fast, reliable, and inexpensive, transportation.
Inter-continental transportation of freight is almost exclusively made by ocean liners and tankers.
Air carriers provide fast transportation of people over long distances and high value, low volume
goods.
Express package carriers offer fast and guaranteed delivery mail and package shipping service.
Transport integration
Travelers on complex journeys suffer from the lack of co-ordination between transport operators
as regards time tables and the sitting of terminals, and this causes frequent delays. An integrated
transport would make travel much more convenient. Transport needs to be integrated with other
issues affecting tourism in policy making.
Transport is a very important component for a destination to grow; this is because people can
only move to a destination when it’s accessible.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE SEVEN

IMPACTS TOURISM IN GEOGRAPHICAL DESTINATIONS

7.1 INTRODUCTION
This lecture discusses tourism impacts and their considerable effects on the destination and the
people who live there. These impacts may be positive or negative; they may be economic, socio -
cultural or environmental impacts. Understanding tourism impacts in a destination enable
tourism planners to adopt sustainable tourism development in maximize the benefits of tourism
while at the same time minimize the positive impact.

7.2 ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF TOURISM

The most significant reason cited for the development of tourism is the association with
economic gains. However tourism may also generate positive and negative economic aspects.

a) Positive economic impacts

These are the major types of tourism impacts that are supportive to economic development. They
include:

1. Contribution to foreign exchange earning

A lot of foreign exchange is earned from the sale of goods and provision of services to the
tourists and international visitors.

2. Development of infrastructure
Tourism development leads to development of infrastructure, which may be widely shared by
other sectors of the economy. This may provide a basis for the encouragement of greater
diversification and economic development and grounds.

3. Employment
Tourism calls for manpower on a large scale and thus can be a clear solving for the problem of
under development and unemployment especially in developing countries. Thus tourism industry
provides employment to thousands of people and thus provides a source of livelihood to many.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 4. Contribution to government revenue
The government receives direct and indirect revenue from tourism. Direct revenue includes:
charging taxes on income generated on tourism business and employment. Indirect revenue
includes range of taxes and duty levied on goods and services supplied to the tourists.

5. Balance of Payments
This refers to the country’s trade with the rest of the world. Its thus a statement of income and
expenditure on international account. Receipts from tourism forms form an invisible export.
Most of the developing countries have a problem of balance of payments as they export raw
materials to developed countries. Tourism has the potential to reduce such imbalances.

6. Regional Development and Balance

Marginal areas, which are relatively undeveloped economically and isolated, may have few
alternatives for economic development. Such regions may greatly benefit from tourism
development especially if they contain areas of scenic beauty and cultural attractions. These
areas may be developed for use by visitors and can bring a lot of prosperity to the locals.

7. Market for other goods

Tourism provides a good market for other goods and products from different sectors.

8. Diversification of the economy

Tourism development helps a country to diversify its economy and thus can help reduce
overdependence on one sector or independent.

9. Higher living standards

Tourism may lead to higher standards of living as the facilities that are put in place to serve
tourists also serves the local people. Income earned from tourism activities also improves the
living standards of the local population.

10. Technological Advancement

Tourism development leads to technological advancement especially in the communication
centre.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 11. Multiplier Effects
The flow of money generated by tourism spending multipliers as it passes through various
sectors of the economy. The concepts of multiplier in tourism refer to the additional economic
gain created as a result of an additional in tourists’ expenditure.

a) Negative economic impacts

1. Inflation
Tourism development can lead to inflation or an increase in prices of land, housing, food and
other services.This usually occurs when tourism place extra demand on local services at a
tourists destination e.g. a beach plot may cost even four times the costs of a plot at an area that
has low tourism potential.

2. Creates Leakages
Sometimes foreign exchange generated by tourism activities may not benefit the destination.
Foreign investors who dominate the tourism business receive substantial proportions of tourists’
expenditure. Leakages may occur through;

i) Repatriation of profits generated from foreign capital investment.

ii) Inadequate distribution systems. This leads to holiday payments being made in the
generating countries.
iii) Lack of industries producing goods and services to support tourism.
iv) Remittance of wages to expatriates.
v) Costs of overseas promotions.
vi) Mismanagement of local businesses.
vii) Payments to overseas carriers and travel companies.

3. Opportunity cost
This refers to the cost of engaging in tourism rather than another form of economic activity.
Tourism may have negative economic impacts in that it may divert funds from more promising
forms of economic development.

4. Over dependence on Tourism

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

This occurs when tourism is seen by the government as the best method of economic
developments overemphasis on tourism will in turn make a country become dependant on
tourism revenue to the extent that any change in demand will have a huge effects on the
receiving country.

5. Staff Over-exploitation
Although tourism created a lot of employment most jobs in the tourism industry are manual,
seasonal, and low paying. The local population is poorly remunerated despite the fact that the
jobs are very demanding. Expatriate mainly occupies most of the well-paid jobs, as foreigners
own most of the tourism businesses.

6. Tourism development creates excess demand to the economy of a country

Tourism requires good infrastructure and superstructure. The cost of maintaining these is very
high and may thus lead to an increase in taxation for the local people.

NOTE

Tourism has both positive and negative impacts, the challenge in international tourism
management is to maximize positive impacts and minimize negative impacts through
adopting sustainable tourism practices.

7.3 SOCIO – CULTURAL IMPACTS OF TOURISM

Social – cultural impacts relate to changes in individual behaviours, societal values, social
relationship, and lifestyles etc.

a) Positive social cultural impacts

1. Tourism development leads to improvement of social facilities, which are also utilized
by the local community at the destination.
2. Tourism promotes peaceful co- existence between people of different nations.
3. Tourism promotes cooperation and better understanding between people from different
cultures and backgrounds.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 4. Tourism creates a good international image for the destination country. This may in turn
promote foreign investments.
5. Tourism development facilitates the establishment of development programme that is
consistent with culture of the nation.
6. Tourism facilitates the process of modernization thus harmful practices are discarded and
modern knowledge is acquired.
7. Tourism facilitates preservation of traditions and cultures for both tourism and for future
generations.
8. Tourism provides a better alternative use of leisure time.
9. Tourism promotes social stability and improves individual working capacity.
10. Tourism can encourage immigration and movement giving people the opportunity for
positive lifestyle.
b) Negative social cultural impacts

1. Tourism development may cause social problems such as increased rate of crime e.g.
robberies, theft.
2. Increased cases of drug trafficking and consumption especially by the youthful
population at the destination.
3. Increased rates of school dropouts to seek manual jobs in the tourism industry.
4. Increased levels of prostitution, which may in turn lead to spread of venereal diseases.
5. Tourism development may lead to overcrowding at certain destination making it difficult
to access services that were previously easy to access.
6. Tourism results into transformation of cultural events into commercialize products or
spectacles, which are devoid off all meaning.
7. Tourism may lead to commercialization of religious building and events. This creates
conflicts between the local worshippers, devoted visitors and the site seen.
8. Tourism development may lead to displacement of people so as to put up facilities for the
tourists.
9. Tourism degrades the cultural environment. The local community tends to emulate the
practices of the tourist thus the local practices may die out.
10. Tourism is affected by the problem of seasonality, which causes a lot of problem during
the low season to those who depend on tourism.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 11. Tourism development may create land use conflicts.

7.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF TOURISM

a) Positive environmental impacts

1. Tourism leads to preservation or restoration of ancients monuments and historical and pre
– historical sites.
2. Tourism leads to preservation and protection of wildlife through creation of parks and
reserves and creation of appropriate policies to government these sites.
3. Tourism contributes to environmental education and awareness to the local population,
which in turn leads to improved environmental quality.
4. Tourism helps provide better amenities in a particular destination area.
5. The development of well-designed tourists facilities may enhance a natural or a landscape
which is otherwise dull and uninteresting e.g. Haller park.
b) Negative environmental impacts

1. Tourism may result in overcrowding and traffic congestion at the destination.

2. Tourism may lead to improper disposal of litter, which degrades the authentic value of
the destination and harms wildlife.
3. Tourism may cause water pollution through improper discharge of waste materials into
rivers and lakes.
4. Vehicle émissions may cause air pollutions.
5. Tourism leads to destruction of the vegetation in order to construct tourist facilities e.g.
lodges, tented camps, and picnic areas e.t.c.
6. Tourism activities such as sport hunting, water sports may result into killing animals.
7. Tourism may also disrupt the normal lifestyle and breeding habits of animals.
8. High tourist traffic in protected areas may seriously harm the delicate ecosystem.
9. Tourism may give rise to establishment of unplanned structures at the destination area.
10. Mass tourism may lead to destruction of infrastructure and thus increase the cost of
maintenance.
11. Over use of historical and archaeological sites may cause damage through ware and tear.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE EIGHT
TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The sheer size of Africa is at once an asset and a hindrance to developing tourism industry. On
the one hand, most of the continent is sparsely populated, offering wide-open spaces, an almost
unique wealth of wildlife, spectacular scenery and tribal cultures that have fascinated travellers
for centuries. Yet apart from North Africa, which has taken advantage of its proximity to Europe,
and South America, with its well-developed infrastructure, the continent’s tourism potential is
largely untapped.

8.2 GENERAL INFORMATION OF AFRICA

Overview

Africa is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. At about
30.2 million Km² (11.7 million sq mi) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total
surface area and 20.4% of the total land area.[2] With a billion people (as of 2009, see table) in
61 territories, it accounts for about 14.72% of the world's human population. The continent is
surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, both the Suez Canal and the Red Sea along
the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to
the west. The continent has 54 sovereign states, including Madagascar, various island groups,
and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, a member state of the African Union whose
statehood is disputed by Morocco.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 Figure 6.1: Map of Africa

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

8.3 GEOGRAPHICAL FACTS AND FIGURES OF AFRICA

a) Geographical
Africa, second-largest of the Earth's seven continents - covering about 30,330,000 sq km
(11,699,000 sq mi), which makes up about 22 per cent of the world's total land area.
b) Smallest Country
The smallest African country is The Seychelles covering an area of 453 sq km but Gambia is the
smallest of the mainland African states, covering an area of 11,300 sq km (4,363 sq mi).
c) Largest City
Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is the largest city in Africa with an estimated 9.2 million population
d) Highest Point
Mount Kilimanjaro - Uhuru Point - (5895m/19,340 ft) in Tanzania
e) Lowest Point
The lowest is Lake 'Asal (153 m/502 ft below sea level) in Djibouti
f) Northernmost tip
Is Cape Blanc (Ra's al Abyad;) in Tunisia
g) Southernmost tip
is Cape Agulhas in South Africa
h) Largest Lake
Lake Victoria is the largest lake in Africa and the is the world's second-largest freshwater lake -
covering an area of 69,490 sq km (26,830 sq mi) and lies 1,130 m (3,720 ft) above sea level. Its
greatest known depth is 82 m (270 ft).
i) Deepest Lake
Lake Tanganyika is the deepest lake in Africa reaching at its greatest depth is 1,436 m (4,710 ft),
making it the second deepest freshwater lake in the world after Lake Baikal.
j) Longest River
The River Nile drains north-eastern Africa, and, at 6,650 km (4,132 miles), is the longest river in
Africa and in the world. It is formed from the Blue Nile, which originates at Lake Tana in
Ethiopia, and the White Nile, which originates at Lake Victoria.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 k) The Great Africa Rift Valley
The Rift Valley extends more than 4,830 km (3,000 mi) from Syria in south-western Asia to
Mozambique in south-eastern Africa.The width of the valley ranges from a few miles to more
than 160 km (100 mi). In eastern Africa, the valley splits into two branches: the Eastern Rift and
the Western Rift.The fault in which the Rift sits is still moving: the western side of the rift is
pulling away from the eastern ridge at about 6 mm per year, while in the south it is moving
together at a rate of 2 mm per year.
l) Lake Malawi
Lake Malawi contains the largest number of fish species of any lake in the world, probably over
500 from ten families. Particularly noteworthy are the Cichlidae, of which all but five of over
400 species are endemic to Lake Malawi. The lake contains 30% of all known cichlid species. Of
particular interest is the 'mbuna' rock fish.
m) Namib Desert
The Namib is the world's oldest desert, and the only desert in Africa inhabited by elephant, rhino,
giraffe and lion
n) Namibia - Fish River Canyon
The Fish River canyon is the second largest canyon in the world.
o) The Sahara Desert
The Sahara Desert alone is expanding southwards at an average of 0.8 km (½ mile) a month.
p) Wildlife
Four of the five fastest land animals live in Africa - the cheetah (70 mph), wildebeest, lion, and
Thomson's gazelle (all about 50 mph).
1. Chameleons
Madagascar is the home of the worlds largest as well as the smallest chameleons! Almost half of
the world’s chameleon species live on the island of Madagascar.
2. Seals
The largest seal colony in the southern hemisphere is a Cape Cross in Namibia.
3. Frogs
The world's biggest frog is found in Cameroon. Named the goliath frog, their body can be one-
foot long.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 4. Nile Crocodiles
The Nile crocodile is Africa's largest living reptile - growing to an average length of 5 m per year
5. African Elephants
The African elephant is the largest living land mammal. An elephant can weigh up to 6-7 tons
and has no natural enemies for he is not a predator and there is none large enough to challenge
him. Did you know elephants drink up to 160 liters of water per day and a mature elephant can
carry up to 6.8 liters of water in its trunk. An African elephant possesses such "manual" dexterity
in his/her trunk tip that he/she can actually turn the pages of a book with it.
6. Giraffes
Did you know that the tongue of a giraffe can be as long as 45 cm. Giraffes are 6 ft tall when
they are born? Even though their necks can be 6-7 feet in length, Giraffe have the same number
of vertebrae in their necks as humans (7). The tallest animal on earth is the giraffe - its horn tops
being up to 6 metres above ground level.
7. Gorillas
The Gorilla is the largest of the living primates, male gorillas’ weight up to 200 kg, yet are shy
and retiring. They are endemic to Africa.
8. Cheetahs
The cheetah is the fastest land animal at 95 km/h (60 mph).
9. Beetles
The world's largest and heaviest beetle, the Goliath Beetle is found in tropical Africa. It can
reach a length of 5 inches and weigh up to ¼ lb.
10. Butterfly
Having a wingspan of only ½", the smallest butterfly is in the world is found in South Africa. It
is know as the Dwarf Blue Butterfly
11. Fish
The only place where schools of fresh water sardines are found is in Lake Tanganyika.
q) Culture
1. Ancient Egyptians
The ancient Egyptians slept on pillows made of stone. (find out more about Ancient Egypt )
2. Beer

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 Apart from Muslim nations, Ghana has the lowest per capita consumption of beer in Africa, yet
its brewery industry is one of the most competitive.
3. Weddings
Did you know that in Africa it is almost impossible to hold a small wedding? The idea of a
private wedding is unknown and is greatly frowned upon. Friends and relatives expect to be
invited to a wedding and to play a role in the ceremony.
4. Health
i. Malaria
90% of all malaria cases are in sub-Saharan Africa
3,000 children under the age of five die each day from malaria in Africa
1-5% of GDP in Africa covers costs of malaria control and lost labour days
Did you know, that Africa would have been an estimated US $100 billion better off in 1999 if
malaria had been eliminated years ago?
ii. Aids
17 million people in sub-Saharan Africa have died of AIDS. At least 25 million people in Africa
are HIV-positive. 12 million children who have lost their parents to AIDS face a precarious
future.
iii. Hospitals
The world's biggest hospital is in Soweto.

NOTE

Africa tourism development has been slow in the last decades, but now there is remarkable growth
despite several challenges

8.4 TOURISM IN AFRICA

According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), worldwide arrivals in
2012 exceeded the 1 billion mark for the first time in history with 1,032 billion tourists crossing

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

borders and staying overnight, up from 995 million in 2011. Many of these visitors arrived from
emerging markets in Asia, Africa, Central and Eastern Europe that lead growth in tourism
demand.

While Europe continues to be the most popular destination worldwide, Asia and the Pacific
recorded the strongest growth in arrivals, followed by Africa. In fact, in 2012, Africa recovered
well from its setback of the previous year when arrivals declined, largely due to a reduction in
tourists traveling to North Africa. Whereas Africa attracted just 17.4 million international visitors
in 1990, this rose to 63.6 million in 2012.

Table 6.1: Tourist Arrivals 2012 (UNWTO)

REGION TOTAL TOURIST LONG HAUL RECEIPTS (US$M)

ARRIVAL ARRIVAL
North Africa 26,554,000 24,383,000 $ 18,296

Southern Africa 11,048,000 2,599,000 $ 10,090

East Africa 7,621,000 2,727,000 $ 7,596

West Africa 6,611,000 4,838,000 $ 3,412

Central Africa 667,000 475,000 $ 674

Total 52,501,000 35,022,000 $ 40,068

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Table 6.2: Top Six Africa Countries for International Tourist Receipts (US$M)

COUNTRY 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Egypt 10,958 10,755 12,528 8,707 9,940

South Africa 7,925 7,543 9,070 9,547 9,994

Morocco 7,168 6,557 6,703 7,281 6,711

Tunisia 2,953 2,773 2,645 1,914 2,183

Tanzania 1,289 1,160 1,255 1,353 1,564

Mauritius 1,449 1,117 1,282 1,488 1,477

8.5 FACTORS INHIBITING GROWTH OF TOURISM IN AFRICA

a) Accessibility
Before the advent of air travel, much of the interior of Africa was virtually inaccessible.
Although air transport has shown substantial growth, air traffic control and airport infrastructure
are deficient by Western standards, and many experts consider this is holding back the
development of tourism. The same is true of surface transport. There are very few natural
harbours along the coast, and even penetration up the largest rivers – the Congo or Zambezi for
example – is blocked by rapids and waterfalls. Road and rail infrastructure is generally
inadequate in most African countries, so that touring holidays can be a major undertaking.
In the absence of adequate public transport, improvised alternatives, such as the ‘bush taxis’ of
the Gambia and the matatus of Kenya; can be used by more adventurous independent travellers.
b) A low level of economic development
Most African countries fall in the ‘least developed’ category, with only a few having reached the
intermediate level of development. They tend to be rural in character, although the populations of
the national capitals are expanding faster than the provision of jobs or public services. Levels of

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

poverty and illiteracy generally mean that outbound travel is restricted to elite, while the volume
of domestic tourism is insignificant compared to Western countries. Although some countries do
see tourism as an important source of foreign currency and a stimulus to the economy, many
governments give tourism a low priority for investment compared to other economic sectors.

c) Poor organization
There is a generally poor level of organization, particularly at the regional level. Governments
also place bureaucratic obstacles in the way of tourists, making travel between countries
difficult. Education and training for the tourism sector is of a poor standard, and marketing
budgets are inadequate.
d) Political instability
Some of the world’s ‘trouble spots’ are located in Africa, fuelled by tribal unrest, ethnic rivalries,
or border disputes, as the political boundaries drawn up in the colonial era rarely correspond to
natural features or tribal territories. Few African countries are therefore nation-states in the
European sense. This instability has led to concern in the Western media over the physical
security of tourists, and has also discouraged Western investment in the tourism industry.
e) Perceived health and safety risks

The high incidence of AIDS, as well as insect borne diseases such as malaria and yellow fever,
is due in large measure to the inadequate infrastructure of public health services in most of
Africa.

f) Sceptical investment environment

Investors are often reluctant to invest in tourism in countries where the political climate is
changeable, where a return on their investment is not guaranteed, and price inflation is not under
control. All these constraints and structural weaknesses have frustrated Africa’s ability to
capitalize on the growing long-haul market, and it is clear that tourism is still a fledgling
industry. This is borne out by the statistics – for the whole of sub-Saharan

Africa there were less than 20 million international tourist arrivals in the early years of the
twenty-first century – less than international arrivals to the UK in an average year, while North
Africa attracted a further 10 million. Indeed, for a continent that contains 15 per cent of the
world’s population and a third of the land area, it receives a small share of the tourist market,

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

amounting to only 4 per cent. Out of more than 50 countries considered in the region, less than
half have developed significant tourism industries. In the remaining countries, hotel
accommodation is rarely found outside the national capital.

8.6 POSITIVE FACTORS THAT CAN BOOST AFRICA’S TOURISM

a) Interest in African peoples and cultures
b) The increasing pace and variety of tourism development
c) Africa will be attractive to segments of the population in the tourism-generating markets
who have both the time and the income to travel
d) The growing importance of ethnic ties between Africa and Europe; there has, for Example,
been a considerable emigration since the 1990s from North and West Africa to Europe, and
also a two-way flow of migrants between Britain and South Africa
e) The growth of sport tourism, bringing together participants from many countries In the
region, as shown by the Africa Cup of Nations football event and the All Africa Games
f) The pursuit of free market economic policies in many African countries and Improved
access

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE EIGHT
TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern
hemispheres. It covers 8.6% of the Earth's total surface area (or 29.9% of its land area) and with
approximately 4 billion people. It hosts 60% of the world's current human population. During the 20th
century Asia's population nearly quadrupled.

8.2 OVERVIEW OF GENERAL INFORMATION OF ASIA

Asia is traditionally defined as part of the landmass of Eurasia with the western portion of the
latter occupied by Europe to the east of the Suez Canal, east of the Ural Mountains and south of
the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian and Black Seas. Eurasia, in turn, is part of the yet larger
landmass of Afro-Eurasia, whereby Eurasia is joined to Africa at the Isthmus of Suez. It is
bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean and on the north by
the Arctic Ocean. Given its size and diversity, dating back to classical antiquity has more a
cultural concept incorporating a number of regions and peoples than homogeneous physical
entities. The wealth of Asia differs very widely among and within its regions, due to its vast size
and huge range of different cultures, environments, historical ties and government systems.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Figure 8.1: Map of Asia

9.3 TOURISM IN ASIA
Tourism is a very important economic sector in the Asian and Pacific region as it generates
employment in many related sectors (from construction to agriculture or telecommunications)
and contributes to the overall economic growth. In some countries, the role of tourism in national
economy is vital. Tourism also has impacts on society and the environment. These dynamics
have turned tourism into a key driver for socioeconomic progress. Over recent years, the region
has become a major tourist destination. It is important to develop the tools for managing tourism
properly in order to enhance its benefits and restrict any negative effects.

Although Europe remains the region that receives the largest number of tourism arrivals, with
44.5 per cent of total tourism arrivals worldwide, Asia and the Pacific receives the second largest
number of tourism arrivals, with 28.4 per cent of the world’s total. In 2011, 283.9 million
arrivals were recorded, which is an increase of 21.5 million tourism arrivals from 2010. Between
2005 and 2011 the average annual growth in tourism arrivals was 6 per cent. Within the region in
2011, East and North-East Asia had the highest number of arrivals thanks to China, followed by
South-East Asia.

Several countries reported double-digit figures in the growth rate of tourism arrivals between
2010 and 2011, including Bhutan (61 per cent), Sri Lanka (31 per cent), Myanmar (26 per cent)
and Nepal (22 per cent). Both the Republic of Korea and Hong Kong, China, posted an 11 per
cent increase in arrivals. In absolute terms, Thailand recorded the largest increase, with over 3
million more tourism arrivals for each year between 2010 and 2012.

9.4 FACTS AND FIGURES

1. Economy
The economy of Asia comprises more than 4 billion people (60% of the world population) living
in 46 different states. Six further states lie partly in Asia, but are considered to belong to another
region economically and politically.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 2. The number of Countries in Asia - forty six (46)
3. Culture
The culture of Asia is human civilization in Asia. It features different kinds of cultural heritage
of many nationalities, societies, and ethnic groups in the region, traditionally called a continent
from a Western-centric perspective, of Asia. The region or "continent" is more commonly
divided into more natural geographic and cultural sub-regions, including the Central Asia, East
Asia, South Asia (the "Indian subcontinent"), North Asia, West Asia and Southeast Asia.
Geographically, Asia is not a distinct continent; culturally, there has been little unity or common
history for many of the cultures and peoples of Asia.

Asian art, music, and cuisine, as well as literature, are important parts of Asian culture. Eastern
philosophy and religion also plays a major role, with Hinduism, Taoism, Confucianism,
Buddhism, Christianity and Islam; all playing major roles. One of the most complex parts of
Asian culture is the relationship between traditional cultures and the Western world.
NOTE

The tourism development in Asia is fast growing due to emergence of the “Asian Tigers” and
the ever growing economy of the most populated country in the world- China. Kenya has a
need to explore these emerging markets in terms of diversifying her source markets from the
9.5 SELECT COUNTRIES
traditional ‘west’ to ‘east’.
i. INDIA
India is one of the oldest civilizations in the world with a kaleidoscopic variety and rich cultural
heritage. It has achieved all-round socio-economic progress during the last 62 years of its
Independence. India has become self-sufficient in agricultural production and is now one of the
top industrialized countries in the world and one of the few nations to have gone into outer space
to conquer nature for the benefit of the people.

It covers an area of 32,87,263 sq. km, extending from the snow-covered Himalayan heights to
the tropical rain forests of the south. As the 7th largest country in the world, India stands apart
from the rest of Asia, marked off as it is by mountains and the sea, which give the country a
distinct geographical entity. Bounded by the Great Himalayas in the north, it stretches

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

southwards and at the Tropic of Cancer, tapers off into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of
Bengal on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west.

Language: Official language is Hindi which is spoken by over 30% of the population. English
is widely spoken and the native languages are recognized in the Indian 17 states Religion: 80%
Hindu 11% Muslim with Sikh, Christian, and Buddhist minorities

Currency: Indian rupee

Food and Beverage: India boasts one of the rosy aromatic and tasty cuisines in the world. The
cuisine varies from region to region like curry, jasmine, rose, coconut and multitude of other
spices
Major Attractions:
1. New Delhi- is the India’s capital and the seat of the government. It is a beautiful city
with tree-lined boulevard and spacious parking
2. Old Delhi is a centuries old city with narrow winding streets, temples, mosques and
bazaars.
3. Red fort and Jama Masjid-the India’s largest mosque.
4. The Taj mahal in Agra is a marvel in white and probably the world’s most famous
mausoleum and is one of the wonders of the world.

ii. CHINA

Geography
1) Total area: 9,596,961 sq. km. (about 3.7 million sq. mi.).
2) Cities: Capital--Beijing. Other major cities--Shanghai, Tianjin, Shenyang, Wuhan,
Guangzhou, Chongqing, Harbin, Chengdu.
3) Terrain: Plains, deltas, and hills in east; mountains, high plateaus, deserts in west.
4) Climate: Tropical in south to subarctic in north.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

People

1) Nationality: Noun and adjective--Chinese (singular and plural).

2) Population (July 2010 est.): 1,330,141,295.
3) Population growth rate (2010 est.): 0.494%.
4) Language: Mandarin (Putonghua), plus many local dialects.
5) Education: Years compulsory--9. Literacy--93%.
6) Labor force (2009 est.): 812.7 million. Labor force by occupation (2008 est.): Agriculture
and forestry--39.5%, industry--27.2%, services--33.2%.

Government

7) Type: Communist party-led state.

8) Constitution: December 4, 1982; revised several times, most recently in 2004.
9) Economy
GDP (2009): $4.814 trillion (exchange rate-based).
10) Per capita GDP (2009): $3,678 (exchange rate-based).
11) GDP real growth rate (2009): 8.7%.

Major attractions
Historical Monuments
1. Great Wall of China
2. Forbidden City
3. Temple of Heaven
4. Summer Palace
5. Leshan Giant Buddha
6. Terra-cotta Warriors
7. Potala Palace

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Natural Scenery

1. Li River
2. Huangguoshu Waterfall
3. Jiuzhaigou Ravine
4. Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot
5. Mt. Huangshan Scenic Spot
6. Tiger Leaping Gorges
7. Yellow River

Museums and Parks

1. Beihai Park
2. Shaanxi History Museum
3. Shanghai Museum
4. Suzhou Silk Museum
5. Banpo Museum
6. Henan Museum
7. Sanxingdui Museum

Following its success, other luxury and tourist trains have been started on other routes in the
country.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE TEN
TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Australia appeals to almost every type of traveler. Adventure seekers will enjoy the vast outback,
mountains and water activities available on both coasts of Australia. Entertainment seekers will
enjoy the main cities of Sydney, Melbourne, Perth and Brisbane. History and Religious travelers
will be interested in Australia’s short yet fascinating history and cultural development.

10.2 FACTS AND FIGURES

 Anthem: Advance Australia Fair

 Capital: Canberra
 Largest city; Sydney
 Official language(s): None
 National language: English (de facto)
 Demonym: Australian, Aussie (colloquial)
 Government: Federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy
 Monarch: Queen Elizabeth II
 Governor-General: Quentin Bryce
 Prime Minister: Kevin Rudd
 Independence from the United Kingdom
 Constitution: 1 January 1901
 Statute of Westminster: 11 December 1931
 Statute of Westminster Adoption Act : 9 October 1942 (with effect from 3 September
1939)
 Australia Act: 3 March 1986
 Area - Total: 7,617,930 km2 (2,941,299 sq mi)
 Population - 2010 estimate: 22,159,655
 2006 Census 19,855,288
 Density: 2.833/km2 - 7.3/sq mi

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

  GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate $799.054 billion
 Per Capita $36,918
 GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate $1.013 trillion
 Per Capita: $46,824
 HDI (2007) 0.970
 Currency: Australian Dollar (AUD)
 Time Zone various (UTC+8 to +10.5)
 Summer (DST): various (UTC+8 to +11.5)
 Drives on the Left
 Internet TLD .au
 Calling code +61
NOTE

Australia provides varied tourism attraction raging from beaches, unique wildlife and
different cultures which make the area world tourism destination.

Figure 9.1: Map of Australia

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

10.3 MAIN ATTRACTIONS

1. The Gold coast around Brisbane - a modern resort area with good sunshine
2. The Great Barrier Reef- one of the most well known wonders of the natural world
3. Uluru (also known as Ayers Rock) and officially gazetted as Uluru / Ayers Rock, is a large
sandstone rock formation in the southern part of the Northern Territory in central Australia.
4. The Omni theatre planetarium
5. Art Gallery of Western Australia
6. Aborigine or aboriginal generally refers to Indigenous peoples in general. relating to
aborigines often capitalized : of or relating to the indigenous peoples of Australia

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE ELEVEN

TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Europe is a western appendage of the vast Eurasian land masses consisting of peninsulas
and islands partially of completely surrounded by water. Other than Switzerland, Austria
and microstates like Luxembourg, Andorra, Liechtenstein, San Marino and other, the rest of
the western European countries face the Atlantic Ocean and adjoining seas. Rivers Rhine,
Rhone and Danube rivers provide easy water routes to the interior parts of Europe. It
neighbors is Africa to the South and Asia to the East.

11.2 GENERAL INFORMATION OF EUROPE

The use of the term "Europe" has developed gradually throughout history. In antiquity, the Greek
historian Herodotus mentioned that the world had been divided by unknown persons into the
three continents of Europe, Asia, and Libya (Africa), with the Nile and the river Phasis forming
their boundaries—though he also states that some considered the River Don, rather than the
Phasis, as the boundary between Europe and Asia. Flavius Josephus and the Book of Jubilees
described the continents as the lands given by Noah to his three sons; Europe was defined as
between the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar, separating it from Africa, and the Don,
separating it from Asia.

11.3 FACTS AND FIGURES

Area: 10,180,000 km2

Population: 731,000,000 (2009)
Population density: 70 persons per km
Countries: 50

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

NOTE

Europe enjoys the largest share of world tourism with countries like Spain receiving one of
the largest shares.

11.4 SELECTED COUNTRIES

i. France
France is the top tourism destination in the World due to the variety of attractions the country has
to offer. France offers a spectacular variety of scenery from the mountain ranges of Alps and the
Pyrenees to the beautiful river valleys of the Loire, Rhone and Dordogne and the flatter country
side of Normandy and the Atlantic Ocean coast.
Language: French
Religion: Predominantly Catholic with a protestant minority
Currency: French Franc and Euros
Attractions include:
1. Palace of Versailles-One of the most visited and Stunningly beautiful attractions in France
2. The Loire Valley-The Longest river in France dotted with the most beautiful castles in
France
3. Important Castle include Chinon, Chambord and Chenonceau

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

4. The French Riviera-The French Riviera stretches along Mediterranean coast at the very foot
of the Alps and is one of the World’s popular tourist destinations
5. The most fascinating cities of the region are Nice, St. Tropez and Cannes

ii. German
Introduction
Germany officially the Federal Republic of Germany is a country in Western Europe. It is
bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and
the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France,
Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands.

The territory of Germany covers 357.021 km2 and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate.
With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state of the European Union, and
home to the third-largest number of international migrants worldwide.

 Capital (and largest city): Berlin

 52°31′N 13°23′E / 52.517°N 13.383°E / 52.517; 13.383
 Ethnic groups: 91.5% German, 2.4% Turkish, 6.1% other
 Government: Federal parliamentary republic with President and Chancellor
 German: Official language(s)
 Holy Roman Empire: 2 February 962
 Unification: 18 January 1871
 Federal Republic: 23 May 1949
 Reunification: 3 October 1990
 EU accession: 25 March 1957
 Area: 357,021 km2
 Water: 2.416 %:
 Population: Jan. 1, 2010 estimate 81,757,600 million; 1995 census 81,642,000 Million
 Density: 229/km2
 Currency: Euro (€)[4] (EUR)

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

  Drives on the right
1. Calling code: 49

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE TWELVE

TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA

12.1 INTRODUCTION

This lecture discusses North America with a special reference to the United States of
America and Mexico as major tourist attraction destinations.

12.2 GENERAL INFORMATION

North America (Spanish: América del Norte or Norteamérica; French: Amérique du Nord) is the
northern continent of the Americas,situated in the Earth's northern hemisphere and in the
western hemisphere. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North
Atlantic Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific
Ocean; South America lies to the southeast.

North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles),
about 4.8% of the planet's surface or about 16.5% of its land area. As of July 2008, its
population was estimated at nearly 529 million people. It is the third-largest continent in area,
following Asia and Africa, and the fourth in population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Figure 11: Map of North America
NOTE

North America continent comprising United States, Mexico and Canada has the largest
domestic tourism among the three states. Notably Mexico has varied attractions like historical
monuments, beautiful beaches among other which make Mexico the largest domestic tourism
destination.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

12.3 SELECT COUNTRIES
1. United States of America

The United States of America (USA or U.S.A.), commonly referred to as the United States (US
or U.S.), America, and sometimes the States, is a federal republic consisting of 50 states and a
federal district. The 48 contiguous states and Washington, D.C., are in central North America
between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is the northwestern part of North America and
the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also has five populated and
nine unpopulated territories in the Pacific and the Caribbean. At 3.71 million square miles (9.62
million km2) and with around 318 million people, the United States is the world's 3rd or 4th-
largest country by total area and third-largest by population. It is one of the world's most
ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many
countries. The geography and climate of the United States is also extremely diverse, and it is
home to a wide variety of wildlife.

Facts and figures

 Language: English
 Area: 3,615,123
 Religion Many
 Literacy: 91%
 Capital: Washington
 Currency: Dollar
 Time Zone: GMT-5 through -7
 National airlines: Many
 Government: federal

Major Attractions

a) Walt Disney World Resort

It is the largest and most visited recreational resort in the world, containing four theme parks,
many themed hotels and numerous shopping, dining, entertainment and recreation venues.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Owned and operated by the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts segment of The Walt Disney
Company, it is located in Lake Buena Vista and Bay Lake, Florida, outside the city limits of
Orlando.
b) Niagara falls.
The Niagara Falls are voluminous waterfalls on the Niagara River, straddling the international
border between the Canadian province of Ontario and the U.S. state of New York. The falls are
27 km north-northwest of Buffalo, New York and 75 miles (120 km) south-southeast of Toronto,
Ontario, between the twin cities of Niagara Falls, Ontario, and Niagara Falls, New York.

The enormous waterfalls are by far the most spectacular attraction in Niagara Falls State Park.
But we offer so many ways to experience the Falls. You can have a wet and wild adventure,
reaching out and touching the Falls at the Cave of the Winds. It’s all here to explore, in
Attractions and Adventures.
c) Statue of liberty
Located in New York Harbor, the Statue of Liberty was a gift of international friendship from
the people of France to the people of the United States and is one of the most universal symbols
of political freedom and democracy. The Statue of Liberty was dedicated on October 28, 1886
and was designated a National Monument on October 15, 1924. The Statue was extensively
restored in time for her spectacular centennial on July 4, 1986
d) Grand Canyon National Park
Is one of the United States' oldest national parks and is located in Arizona. Within the park lies
the Grand Canyon, a gorge of the Colorado River, considered to be one of the major natural
wonders of the world. The park covers 1,902 mi² (4927 km²) of unincorporated area in Coconino
County and Mohave County.

2. MEXICO

Facts and figures

Language: Spanish
Area: 651,604
Population: 101 millions
Religion: Roman Catholics, Protestant

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Literacy: 83%
Capital: Mexico City
Currency: Peso
Time Zone: GMT-6 through -8
National airlines: Air Mexico
Government: federal

Tourism Attractions

a) Meso-American ruins
The central and southern parts of Mexico was host to several pre-Hispanic civilizations, with the
most prominent being the Aztec, Mayan, and the Olmec. There are numerous tourist destinations
where these ruins can be viewed.

b) Mexico City
It is the capital of Mexico and is popular with tourists as an ancient Meso-American city and the
site of many popular tourist attractions such as the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the
Moon.
c) Guadalajara
The second-largest city by population in the Republic, is home of some of Mexico's best known
traditions, such as tequila, mariachi music and charros, or Mexican cowboys.
d) Acapulco Bay
The coastlines of Mexico harbour many stretches of beaches that are frequented by sun bathers
and other visitors.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE THIRTEEN
TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH AMERICA

13.1 INTRODUCTION

This lecture discusses South America with a special reference to the Argentina and Brazil as
major tourist attraction destinations.

13.2 GENERAL OVERVIEW

South America the southern continent of the Americas situated in the Western Hemisphere and
mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere.
It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean;
North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest. The word America was coined in
1507 by cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann, after Amerigo Vespucci,
who was the first European to suggest that the lands newly discovered by Europeans were not
India, but a New World unknown to Europeans.

South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometres (6,890,000 sq mi), or almost 3.5% of
the Earth's surface. As of 2005, its population was estimated at more than 371,090,000. South
America ranks fourth in area after Asia, Africa, and North America and fifth in population after
Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Figure 12.1: Map of South America

NOTE

For the past decades South America did not attract very large tourists due to political
instabilities but due to political stability in Brazil and Argentina and economic development
among the South American states the continent has experienced massive tourism activities.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

13.3 SELECTED COUNTRIES
1. ARGENTINA

Introduction
The name of the country, traditionally called the Argentine in English, is derived from the Latin
argentum (silver), The first use of the name Argentina can be traced to the 1602 poem "La
Argentina conquista del Río de la Plata" (English: The Argentina and the conquest of the Río de
la Plata by Martín del Barco Centenera. Although this name for the Platine region was already in
common usage by the 18th century, the area was formally called Viceroyalty of the Río de la
Plata in 1776.

Facts and figures

Official Language: Spanish
Capital City: Buenos Aires
Lies 34°36′S 58°23′W / 34.6°S 58.383°W / -34.6; -58.383
Largest city: São Paulo
Ethnic groups: 86.4% European (mostly Italian and Spanish), 8% Mestizo, 4% Arab and East
Asian, 1.6% Amerindian
Government Federal representative presidential republic
President and Vice-President
Legislature
National Congress
Upper House Senate
Lower House Chamber of Deputies
Independence from Spain
May Revolution: 25 May 1810
Declared: 9 July 1816
Area: Total 2,766,890 km2
Water: 1.1 %
Population
2009 estimate 40,134,425[4] (31st)
2001 census 36,260,130

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Density 15 persons per Km2
Drives on the right (trains ride on the left)
Internet TLD .ar
Calling code +54

Major Attractions
a) Argentina has a wide variety of landscapes like Pampas, which Lakes and forests, beaches,
mountains, tundra and ice as well as attractive tradition-minded provincial city which is filled
with folklore and cultural heritage.
b) Argentina boasts of numerous festivals, cattle ranches, gauchos and football.
c) The Argentina’s tourism focuses on several attractions that include national parks, lakes,
glaciers, skiing, hunting and fishing.
d) Food and Beverage: Local food is combination of Basque, Spanish an Italian. Visitors to
Argentina should not miss out on dinning at a Parillada or grill room. At this grill rooms
they can sample a large variety of barb Dishes, with beef being popular. Good Argentina
Wines and rums from the region are also available.

e) The National Art Museum

f) Folk art museum
g) Teatro museum
h) La Bocca –one of the oldest district in Buenos Aires and the home of the tango dance
i) Iguazu falls on the border with Brazil and Paraguay- The largest water falls in the World
j) Cordoba, salta, and Tucuman are famous and ornate Cathedrals
k) Villa Gezel, Pinamar, Miramar and Necochea- reputed as the largest casinos in the World

2. BRAZIL

Introduction
Brazil" come from the brazilwood, a timber tree whose many sailors traded from Brazilian
regions to Europe in the 15th century. In Portuguese brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the
word brasil commonly given the etymology "red like an ember", formed from Latin brasa
("ember") and the suffix -il (from -iculum or -ilium).Officially the Federative Republic of Brazil

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by
geographical area and by population. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas
and the largest lusophone country in the world.

Facts and figures

Official Language: Portuguese
Capital City: Brasília
Lies 15°45′S 47°57′W / 15.75°S 47.95°W / -15.75; -47.95
Lies 15°45′S 47°57′W / 15.75°S 47.95°W / -15.75; -47.95
Largest city: São Paulo
Ethnic groups (2008: 48.43% White, 43.80% Brown (Multiracial), 6.84% Afro-Brazilian, 0.58%
Yellow, 0.28% Amerindian
Government Presidential Federal republic
President and Vice-President

Legislature
National Congress
Upper House Federal Senate
Lower House Chamber of Deputies
Independence from Kingdom of Portugal
Declared: 7 September 1822
Recognized: 29 August 1825
Republic: 15 November 1889
Current constitution: 5 October 1988
Area 8,514,877 km2
Water (%) 0.65

Population
2009 estimate 192,272,890[2] (5th)
2007 census 189,987,291
Density 22/km2 (182nd)

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

GDP (PPP) 2009 estimate
Currency Real (R$) (BRL)
Documentation: PassPort, Visa
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .br
Calling code +55

Major attraction
1. Amazon jungle
2. Major cities
3. Soccer
4. Fauna and flora

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE FOURTEEN
SECURITY AND SAFETY PROTOCOLS FOR TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Recommended Measures for Tourism Safety

Approved by resolution A/RES/284(IX) of the General Assembly of the World Tourism
Organization at its ninth session (Buenos Aires, Argentina, 30 September - 4 October 1991)

I. Scope

1. The Recommended Measures for Tourism Safety, hereinafter referred to as "Recommended

Measures" are designed to ensure safety in particular of international tourists and excursionists
(same-day visitors), although it is understood that such measures equally benefit national tourists
and other users of tourist facilities.

2. For the purpose of these Recommended Measures the term "international tourist", hereinafter
referred to as "tourist", shall mean a person:

(a) Who travels to a country other than that in which he or she has his or her usual
residence;
(b) Whose main purpose of travel is a tourist visit or stay not exceeding one year;
(c) who does not engage in remunerated activity in the country visited; and
(d) who, at the end of said tourist visit or stay, leaves the country visited, either to
return to the country where he or she has his or her usual place of residence or to
travel to another country.
3. The term "tourist" does not include persons who, after entering the country for a tourist visit or
stay seek to prolong their length of visit or stay, so as to establish residence and/or to engage in a
remunerated activity there.
4. The Recommended Measures should not be interpreted to benefit persons who abuse their
tourist status, particularly by committing serious criminal offences, such as attempts against the
physical security of other persons, participation in organized crime, terrorist activities, drug
trafficking or theft of cultural property.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

5. Nothing in the Recommended Measures should be interpreted as putting at a disadvantage or
restricting the interests and rights to security and protection of internal tourists, the suppliers of
tourism services or the host communities of tourists.
6. No provision of the Recommended Measures should be interpreted in a manner that limits or
invalidates national legislation and international agreements regarding the rights, privileges and
duties of foreigners, the prevention of crime and the treatment of offenders, including tourists
accused of crime or imprisoned in foreign countries.
II. Preventative Measures
1. Every State should access and monitor the scope and degree of threat to the life and health,
property and economic interests of tourists within its territory and should develop a national
policy on tourism safety commensurate with the prevention of tourist risks.
2. Every State should undertake necessary measures to :
(a) identify potential tourist risks in specific types of travel, specific tourism
receiving sectors and specific tourism sites;
(b) adopt safety standards and practices in tourism facilities and sites, and ensure
that they are observed by operators, with particular reference to:
(i) fire protection,
(ii) food safety,
(iii) sanitary and health requirements,
(iv) environmental safeguards;

(c) establish guidelines for use by operators of tourism facilities in the event of
unlawful interference in the operation of such facilities;

(d) ensure adequate protection by law enforcement bodies of tourism sites and
facilities so as to detect and prevent offences directed against tourists;

(e) provide to the public, both going on trips abroad and arriving in the country, as
well as staying in tourism facilities, appropriate documentation and information
on tourism safety, so that such information could address, among other matters:

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 (i) basic regulations regarding tourism safety,
(ii) good security practices at tourist transport points (airports, train
and bus stations, other transport terminals),
(iii) warnings with respect to possible threats at tourism sites and
facilities,
(iv) possible health hazards and means of self-protection,
(v) services available to tourists when assistance is required;
(f) protect tourists from illicit drug trafficking and protect the means of tourist
transport from being used for carrying and smuggling illicit drugs;
(g) ensure that the staff of tourism establishments and tourism-oriented services is
adequately trained in matters of tourism safety;
(h) foster the development of travel assistance insurance as well as information
which facilitates access to, and selection of, such insurance by tourists;
(i) foster the development of liability rules in tourism establishments and ensure
that information on such rules is readily available to tourists and their
representatives;
(j) develop national policies and services with regard to tourist health, including
reporting systems on health problems of tourists.

III. Facilitative Assistance to Tourists

1. Criminal proceedings against the perpetrators of offences against the person or belongings of a
tourist

States should facilitate the possibility of participation by a tourist in such proceedings -

particularly in the case of the most serious offences, such as acts of a violent nature; a
tourist should enjoy a treatment equal to that of citizens of the State where the offence
has been committed.

2. Consumer protection and non-judicial settlement of disputes arising between tourists and the
suppliers of tourism services

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 (a) States should undertake to establish rules for the consumer protection of
tourists, taking into consideration the distinct consumer situation of:

(i) independent tourists, i.e. those entering into direct contractual

relations with the suppliers of single tourism services,
(ii) tourists who buy packages of tourism services prepared by one
organizer.

(b) For independent tourists, States should undertake to establish clear-cut

procedures for the expeditious settlement of consumer disputes, and to designate
bodies to which tourists should have easy access to submit their consumer
complaints.

(c) States should equally undertake to determine clearly the liability of organizers,
retailers or direct suppliers for failures to provide contracted services to tourists
buying packages of tourism services and products.

3. Emergency medical assistance to tourists

States should undertake to designate or indicate appropriate public or private

health services for tourists and make information about such services available to
tourists and their representatives.

4. Access of tourists to their countries' diplomatic and consular representatives and to external
public communications

States should undertake appropriate measures to:

(a) facilitate such access if a tourist seeks assistance and advice from his or her
home country as a result of an emergency situation;

(b) notify the diplomatic or consular representatives of the tourist's country or his
or her family directly when a tourist is a victim of a natural disaster, major
accident or serious offence against his or her person or who suffers a serious
health problem, and as a consequence is unable to make such contacts.

5. Repatriation of tourists
States should undertake appropriate measures to:

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 (a) facilitate repatriation to a tourist's State of origin of a tourist who is a victim of
a natural disaster, an accident, an offence or a health problem and who, because of
his or her impaired condition, cannot continue his or her tourist travel or stay, nor
can undertake to return to his or her home country;
(b) facilitate the tourist's State of origin or its specialized services to repatriate the
body of a tourist who has deceased during his or her trip.

IV. International Cooperation

1. Areas of cooperation
Having due regard to national legislation and international agreements and arrangements
pertaining to safety, crime prevention, and the treatment of offenders and to the general
procedures established in countries to deal with emergencies, States should undertake to
cooperate, on a bilateral and multilateral basis, and, if possible, within the already existing legal
framework, in the areas of:
(a) exchange of information on tourism safety;
(b) international compatibility of safety standards and practices in tourism
facilities and sites;
(c) training of staff for tourism safety;

(d) travel assistance, tourist insurance and civil liabilities;

(e) consumer protection of tourists;
(f) assistance to tourists in emergencies;
(g) tourist health;
(h) suppression of illicit drug abuse and trafficking relating to tourism.
2. Cooperation in the event of unlawful acts against the safety of tourism facilities

States should undertake to cooperate in ensuring that a tourist who is a victim of

an unlawful act against the safety of tourism facilities, including any means of
tourist transport, receives all the necessary assistance and compensation for
damages which such acts may entail. This recommended measure takes due
account of the fact that a number of States are already a party to relevant
international instruments providing for such assistance, as those adopted under the

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 auspices of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the
International Maritime Organization (IMO).

The WTO General Assembly resolution adopting the "Recommended Measures"

1. Drawing inspiration from the Manila Declaration on World Tourism (1980), the Acapulco
Document (1982), the Tourism Bill of Rights and Tourist Code (Sofia, 1985), and The Hague
Declaration on Tourism (1989);
2. Aware that safety is a basic need in all spheres of human activity, including tourism;
3. Considering that ensuring tourism safety arises from the traditional notion of hospitality,
which is shared by all peoples;
4. Solemnly affirming that safe tourism for all contributes to accomplishing the social and
cultural objectives of tourism, and serves international understanding, confidence, peace and
universal respect for, and observance of, all human rights and freedoms;
5. Convinced that safety of tourism should be enhanced in tourism planning and promotion;
6. Further convinced that contemporary mass tourism requires the definition of a set of basic
measures which should be commonly followed so as to make tourism development more stable
and harmonious in the interest of all those who travel, those who supply tourism services and the
populations of the host communities;
7. Agreeing that tourists are particularly vulnerable to hazards on their trips abroad and that
common measures for tourism safety are mutually beneficial to all countries, both tourism
receiving and generating ones;
8. Desirous that such measures generate international cooperation and solidarity with a view, in
particular, to assisting less developed countries in attaining adequate tourism safety standards;
9. Noting the need for periodical review of such measures;
10. Adopts the Recommended Measures for Tourism Safety set forth in the Annex to this
resolution and invites the States to apply them in accordance with the procedures prescribed in
the legislation and regulations of their own countries.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Safety and Security Network and Task Force for Tourism
The World Tourism Organization has created an international service, based on voluntary
identification and the recognition of competence and expertise, to assist countries, tourism
destinations, industry, tourism staff and consumers in dealing with safety and security problems
in tourism activities.

The object of the Network, SAFETY AND SECURITY IN TOURISM, refers to the protection
of life, health and the physical, psychological and economic integrity of travellers, tourism staff
and people constituting host communities, and includes the consideration of security interests of
tourist sending and receiving States and their tourism entrepreneurs and establishment operators.

The aim of the network will be to provide for liaison and collaboration between institutions and
experts engaged in safety and security activities with a view to generating services to the
interested stakeholders in tourism development.

The Task Force, or various task forces, to result from the network will be called upon by the
World Tourism Organization to provide specific public and customized services to the network
beneficiaries.

The Network Scope

The Network scope of activities will be based on the comprehensive definition of tourism and
tourism characteristic activities as defined by the World Tourism Organization and the United
Nations Statistical Commission (see "http://www.world-
tourism.org/statistics/tsa_project/basic_references/index-en.htm").
The issues under review by the Network will be those featuring in the Recommended Measures
for Tourism Safety adopted by the World Tourism Organization General Assembly in 1991.

Members of the Network

As a virtual organization, the network will be constituted by designated focal points and experts
from:

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

  the World Tourism Organization (WTO/OMT) and other intergovernmental
organizations having stakes in safety and security in tourism.
 international tourism industry organizations
 countries and local tourism destinations represented by National Tourism
Administrations (NTAs), National Tourist Organizations (NTOs) and/or local Destination
Marketing Organizations (DMOs) as well as by other pertinent bodies responsible for
safety and security in tourism at national and local government levels
 research and consultant organizations specializing in various aspects of safety and
security in tourism
 insurers
 travel assistance companies
 independent experts/consultants in the field
 the media (including, in particular, the tourism media)

Inclusion in the Network and the modalities and other terms of reference of such inclusion, will
be subject to agreement with WTO.
Pending agreement with the network members, their relevant particulars will be available to
general public in the WTO website.
The potential Network members will be requested to identify themselves by providing the
following particulars:

- Complete name of person or institution

- Position or title of person
- Status of institution (international, national, governmental, non-governmental,
public, private, commercial, non-profit)
- Complete address (postal, telephone, fax, e-mail)
- Relevant own web site(s) on the internet
- Competence in tourist safety and security issues (see the Network Scope above)
- Experience in dealing with tourist safety and security issues
- References/testimonials

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Those interested in becoming candidates for the Network members and requiring additional
information are kindly requested to contact:
Chief, Quality and Trade in Tourism
World Tourism Organization
Capitán Haya 42, 28020 Madrid (Spain)
e-mail: [email protected]

National Tourist Safety and Security Sheets

1. The World Tourism Organization (WTO) has opened its Safety & Security Network for
Tourism. It is aimed for tourism professionals and the public at large. The Network has started
with the publication of national sheets including basic facts on safety and security in tourism in
countries, territories and other tourist destinations. The scope of the information covered varies
from sheet to sheet and may undergo constant updates and modifications, in particular by
including additional data. The number of national sheets may also vary over time.

2. Most national sheets indicate the person who has been designated by the National Tourism
Administration (NTA Focal Point) to respond to queries or otherwise guide inquirers and
network users on issues relating to safety and security in tourism in his or her country, territory
or destination. In asking for the designation of the NTA Focal Point, the WTO Secretariat has
proposed some of their tasks and duties to be as follows:
· "to keep on record basic facts on tourist safety and security in their country or territory (rules
and regulations, identification of tourist risks, travel warnings, research and publications on the
tourist safety and security status and incidents, relevant statistics, experts, etc.)"
· "to be familiar with facilities and institutions, both public and private, assisting international
visitors and outgoing nationals in safety and security problems (police, first-aid, insurance, travel
assistance, consulates, etc.)" "to establish and maintain a working relationship with other
government departments competent in tourist safety and security matters (interior, health,
consumer affairs, judiciary, foreign affairs, civil aviation, civil defence, etc.)"
· "to establish and maintain a working relationship with safety and security focal points at
national tourism industry organizations"· "to be the NTA spokesman before the media and
general public on national tourist safety and security issues"

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

3. Information in the national sheets is provided under the responsibility of the National Tourism
Administration concerned or its Focal Point. The WTO Secretariat responsibility is limited to the
proper processing and presentation of this information. Its publication on the WTO website is not
to be construed as an expression of opinion or endorsement by the World Tourism Organization
or its Secretariat with respect to the tourist safety and security status of the countries, territories
and other destinations concerned, but as a statement of objective facts with a view to achieving
more transparency in this area.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 LECTURE FIFTEEN

EMERGING ISSUES IN TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

15.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this lecture is to explore emerging issues in travel geography, as an industry
the survival of tourism depends on how well we shall prepare for and adjust for future.

14.2 EMERGING ISSUES

Developments have always led to changes in tourist demand and faced service providers in
tourism with substantial need to adjust. These constant challenges have expanded and intensified
considerably in the first few years of the new millennium. War and tourism, extreme weather, the
on-going internationalization of tourism and the ageing of society (increasingly prominent in
public awareness) have emphatically demonstrated the latent vulnerability of tourism as a boom
industry. The survival of the tourist industry depends decisively on recognizing relevant trends
and allowing for understanding them in good time.

1. Demographics

The tourist industry is more than almost any other industry linked to its social and natural
contexts. One parameter for the longer term development of society is obvious – the current and
foreseeable demographic shift. In the tourist system the socio-demographic shift – and
specifically the advancing ageing of society - will result in far reaching changes, particularly on
the demand side.

2. Discretionary income, working hours, leisure

Earlier retirement, falling pension contributions, rising life expectancy and the resulting
prolongation the pension-drawing period during retirement are the causes of the already serious

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

threat to the social security systems. The demographically caused decrease in the working
population threatens to further erode the available contributions. If current conditions persist,
future generations will pay higher contributions while working than current generations do.
There is a similar problem with care insurance. These trends will probably be met by additional
private pension plans. The shift in responsibility for old age and sickness back to private
households would be one possible response to the demographic challenge. However, no matter
which of the numerous proposed reforms is implemented, there are negative impacts on
discretionary income in every case.

3. Senior citizens – tourism's golden hope?

Given the socio-demographic trend, senior citizens will grow as a tourist market segment.
Taking a broader view and considering other markets of origin for tourism (particularly in
Europe), there is further longer term growth potential in the shifting age structure. Identifiable
potential in senior tourism would continue to gain importance if the growth in life expectancy
outstrips the increase in lifetime working hours, so that the period for retirement is at least not
decreased. Improvements in the state of health of older persons or greater technological and
organisational convenience in travel may help activate the potential for tourism which can be
expected from the demographics by 2050.

4. Reorientation in tourist product design and marketing

Tourist product design and marketing must adapt to the fact that its customers are aging.
Together with the expected increase in frequency of travel by this age group, this should have a
positive effect on senior tourism. It should not, however, be forgotten that as society ages the
number of people with health problems will also increase. The growing share of older people in
the total population will be accompanied by an increase in the number of chronically ill old
people. The result of the rising number of older people and rising health and nursing costs will
mean that the younger senior citizens will increasingly be tied by the need to invest time (and
money) in supporting their parents.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 5. Security, risks and crises in tourism

Wars and violent conflicts, international terrorism, new diseases and epidemics and the
increasing number natural disasters and extreme weather conditions have resulted in a current
increase in attention to the need for security. It is reasonable to assume that new security risks
and crises will take on a new scale, because of the growing shift in wars from the state level to,
for example, ethnic and religious armed conflict, because epidemics can spread globally with
extreme rapidity, and finally because extreme weather conditions seem to be becoming an
increasingly frequent feature worldwide, with a growing scale of damage.

NOTE
i.
Destinations worldwide have to develop strategies to cope with emerging issues facing
ii.
tourism development, only then can we maintain destination competitiveness.
iii.

6. Weather, climate and nature

Alongside storms, floods are the most frequent cause of damage and injury from natural events.
Between 1998 and 2003, 800,000 people died in natural disasters worldwide. The tsunami of 26
December 2004 in south-east Asia showed again what devastating and unpredictable force nature
can unleash. Climatic change – the source of critical changes in scenery and nature (e.g.
desertification) – is a particular driver of unexpected extreme natural events and weather
conditions.

7. Terrorism and violence

Where there were formerly attacks or hijacking which affected individual tourists, we are now
seeing terrorism directed against tourists and tourist destinations. Terrorists use the tourist
system to attract global media attention through spectacular attacks on tourists or the tourist
infrastructure. As a result, tourists avoid these destinations, which again impact the tourist
industry. The greatest impact on tourist demand comes from terrorist attacks where tourists and
locals are the direct target or victims of the attack.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

 8. Epidemics and health risks

As a result of the growth of long distance travel to countries with different climatic and hygienic
conditions, travellers are at risk from a very wide range of diseases. In many of the so-called
developing countries which are also often tourist destinations, 50 % of the total mortality rate is
due to infectious diseases. The greater people’s mobility, for example as a result of tourist
activities, the faster the consequences can spread. In the worst case, a local tourist crisis can
spread a virus worldwide with great rapidity, as the global dissemination by travellers of SARS
in early 2003 showed.

13.4 SUMMARY

Tourism is a dynamic industry that will have to deal with emerging issues pertaining to the
industry. The long term goal is to develop mechanisms and strategies for countering the
expected issues if the industry is to remain sustainable

14.0 GLOSSARY
1. Geography - is study of man and environment
2. Tourism - is the traveling to engage in recreational activities during leisure time
3. Travel geography - is concerned with travel to attraction which can have physical,
economic socio-cultural and environmental impacts.
4. Tourism components/ product - comprise the 5A’s of tourist
5. Physical geography- The study of physical processes, features, regions and climate.
6. Human Geography - is branch of Geography concerned with human element.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

15.0 REFERENCES
Boniface, B., & Cooper, C. (2005). Worldwide destination casebook: The geography of travel
and tourism. Oxford: Elsevier.

Boniface, B., & Cooper, C. (2009). Worldwide destinations : The geography of travel and
tourism. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd.

Burton, R. (1995). Travel Geography. Edinburgh: Prentice Hall.

Goeldner, C. R., & Ritchie, J. B. (2012). Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philosophies. Hoboken,
N.J: John Wiley and Sons.

Hall, C. M. (2003). Introduction to Tourism: Dimensions and issues. New South wales: Pearson
Education Australia.

Hall, C., & Page, S. (2006). The geography of tourism and recreation: Environment,Place and
space (3 ed.). London and New York: Routledge:Taylor and Francis.

Holloway, J., Humphreys, C., & Davidson, R. (2009). The business of tourism (8 ed.). Harlow,
England: Prentice Hall.

Inskeep, E. (1991). Tourism Planning:An integrated and sustainable development approach.

New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Ouma, J. G. (1970). The evolution of tourism in East Africa. Nairobi: East African Literature.

Rafferty, M. (1993). A geography of world tourism. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Sinha, P. (1998). Geography and structure of tourism and travel. New Delhi: Anmol
publications PVT Ltd.

Theobald, F. (2013). Global tourism (3 ed.). Elsevier Inc: Oxford.

ROLLEX APONDI OMBAJO – TOURISM TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY