Neurologic/Nervous

Cells of the Nervous System

CNS (central nervous system) - brain and Neurons (boss)
spinal cord • receive stimuli, conduct action potentials,
PNS (peripheral nervous system) - nerves and transmit signals to other neurons or
and ganglia outside the cns effector organs.
Glial cells (secretary)
Nervous System Functions • supportive cells of the CNS and PNS,
1. Receiving sensory input meaning these cells do not conduct action
(senses) potentials. Instead, glial cells carry out
2. Integrating information different functions that enhance neuron
3. Controlling muscles and function and maintain normal conditions
glands within nervous tissue.
4. Maintaining homeostasis
5. Establishing and Neurons
maintaining mental activity A neuron (nerve cell) has a:
• Cell body - which contains
Main Divisions of Nervous System 1 a single nucleus
Central nervous system (CNS) • Dendrite - which is a
• brain and spinal cord cytoplasmic extension from the cell body,
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) that usually receives information from
• All the nervous tissue outside the CNS other neurons and transmits the
Sensory division (input) information to the cell body
• Conducts action potentials from sensory • Axon - which is a single
receptors to the long cell process that leaves the cell body
CNS at the axon hillock and conducts sensory
Motor division (output) signals to the CNS and motor signals
• Conducts action potentials to effector away from the CNS
organs, such as muscles and glands Types:
Multipolar : many dendrites and an axon
Bipolar : a dendrite and an axon
Somatic nervous system (voluntary) Psudo-unipolar : an axon and no dendrites
• Transmits action potentials from the CNS
to skeletal muscles. Glial Cells
Autonomic nervous system (automatic) • Glial cells are the
• Transmits action potentials from the CNS supportive cells of the CNS and PNS.
to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and • Astrocytes serve as the
glands major supporting cells in the CNS.
Sympathetic - fight or flight (E and NE) • Astrocytes can stimulate
(adrenaline rush) (everything is high and or inhibit the signaling activity of nearby
fast except gastrointestinal and neurons and form the blood-brain barrier.
genitourinary) • Ependymal cells line the
Parasympathetic - Rest and digest (pag cavities in the brain that contains
walang ginagawa) (everything is low and cerebrospinal fluid.
slow) • Microglial cells act in an
Enteric nervous system immune function in the CNS by removing
• A special nervous system found only in bacteria and cell debris.
the digestive tract.
 • Oligodendrocytes provide • In nerve cells, this change
myelin to axons of neurons in the CNS. is a means by which the cell
• Schwann cells provide communicates with other cells.
myelin to axons of neurons in the PNS. • The changes in
membrane potential that nerve cells use to
Myelin Sheath communicate with other cells are called
• Myelin sheaths are action potentials.
specialized layers that wrap around the
axons of some neurons, those neurons Gated Membrane Channels
are termed, myelinated. • The stimuli that cause
• The sheaths are formed action potentials activate gated channels
by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and which are closed until opened by specific
Schwann cells in the PNS. signals.
• Myelin is an excellent • The opening and closing
insulator that prevents almost all ion of gated ion channels changes the
movement across the cell membrane. permeability of the membrane to ions and
• Gaps in the myelin sheath, can therefore change the membrane
called nodes of Ranvier, occur about potential.
every millimeter. • Action potentials may
• lon movement can occur result.
at the nodes of Ranvier.
• Myelination of an axon Unmyelinated and Myelinated Axon Action
increases the speed and efficiency of Potentials
action potential generation along the axon. • Action potentials in
• Multiple sclerosis is a unmyelinated axons travel more slowly
disease of the myelin sheath that causes than in myelinated axons.
loss of muscle function. • Action potentials along
unmyelinated axons occur along the entire
Organization of Nervous Tissue membrane in a process called continuous
• Nervous tissue varies in conduction.
color due to the abundance or absence of • Action potentials on
myelinated axons. myelinated axons occur in a jumping
• Nervous tissue exists as pattern at the nodes of Ranvier.
gray matter and white matter. • This type of action
• Gray matter consists of potential conduction is called saltatory
groups of neuron cell bodies and their conduction.
dendrites, where there is very little myelin.
• White matter consists of Axon Conduction Speed
bundles of parallel axons with their myelin • The speed of action
sheaths, which are whitish in color. potential conduction varies widely, even
among myelinated axons; it is based on
Nerve Cell Communication the diameter of axon fibers.
• Nerve cells are excitable. • Medium-diameter, lightly
• The resting membrane myelinated axons, characteristic of
potential can change in response to a autonomic neurons, conduct action
stimuli. potentials at the rate of about 3 to 15
meters per second (m/s).
 • Large-diameter, heavily • This allows information
myelinated axons conduct action transmitted in more than one neuronal
potentials at the rate of 15 to 120 m/s. pathway to converge into a single
pathway.
Synapse
• A neuroneuronal synapse Neuronal Pathway (Diverging)
is a junction where the axon of one neuron • A diverging pathway is a
interacts with another neuron. simple pathway in which an axon from one
• The end of the axon forms neuron divides and synapses with more
a presynaptic terminal and the membrane than one other postsynaptic neuron.
of the next neuron forms the postsynaptic • This allows information
membrane, with a synaptic cleft between transmitted in one neuronal pathway to
the two membranes. diverge into two or more pathways.
• Chemical substances
called neurotransmitters are stored in It means that all neurons are connected
synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic with one another showing communication
terminal.
• An action potential reaching Spinal Cord
the presynaptic terminal causes • Extends from the foramen
voltage-gated Ca2+ channels to open, and magnum to the 2nd lumbar vertebra
Ca2+ moves into the cell. • Protected by vertebral
• This influx of Ca2+ causes column
the release of neurotransmitters by • Spinal nerves allow
exocytosis from the presynaptic terminal. movement
• The neurotransmitters • If damaged paralysis can
diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind occur (paraplegia pag upper/lower limbs)
to specific receptor molecules on the (Quadriplegia both upper and lower)
postsynaptic membrane.
• If Nat channels open, the Gray Matter and White Matter
postsynaptic cell becomes depolarized, Gray Matter:
and an action potential will result if • center of spinal cord
threshold is reached. • looks like letter H or a
• If K+ or Cl channels open, butterfly
the inside of the postsynaptic cell tends to White Matter:
become more negative, or hyperpolarized, • Outer layer of spinal cord
and an action potential is inhibited from • contains myelinated fibers
occurring.
• There are many White Matter in Spinal Cord
neurotransmitters, with the best known Located in the white matter of the CNS are
being acetylcholine and norepinephrine. three columns: dorsal, ventral, and lateral.
Columns contain ascending and
Neuronal Pathway (Converging) descending tracts.
• The CNS has simple to Ascending tracts: sensory
complex neuronal pathways. • axons that conduct action potentials
• A converging pathway is a toward the brain
simple pathway in which two or more Descending tracts: motor
neurons synapse with the same • axons that conduct action potentials
postsynaptic neuron. away from the brain
 • A stretch reflex occurs
Gray Matter in Spinal Cord when muscles contract in response to a
The gray matter has a letter H shape with stretching force applied to them.
horns. • The knee jerk reflex, or
Posterior horns: patellar reflex is a classic example of a
• contain axons which synapse with stretch reflex.
interneurons The cremasteric reflex is a superficial
Anterior horns: reflex found in human males that is elicited
• contain somatic neurons when the inner part of the thigh is stroked
Lateral horns: The Babinski reflex occurs after the sole of
• contain autonomic neurons the foot has been firmly stroked. The big
Central canal: toe then moves upward or toward the top
• fluid filled space in center of cord surface of the foot. The other toes fan out.
• The withdrawal reflex, or
Reflexes flexor reflex, is to remove a limb or
• A reflex is an involuntary another body part from a painful stimulus.
reaction in response to a stimulus applied • The sensory receptors are
to the periphery and transmitted to the pain receptors, and stimulation of these
CNS. receptors initiates the reflex.
• Reflexes allow a person to
react to stimuli more quickly than is Spinal Nerves
possible if conscious thought is involved. • Arise along spinal cord
• Most reflexes occur in the from union of dorsal roots and ventral
spinal cord or brainstem rather than in the roots.
higher brain centers. • Contain axons of sensory
• A reflex arc is the and somatic motor neurons.
neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs • Located between
and has five basic components. vertebra.
Under anethesia, may reflex pa rin • Categorized by region of
vertebral column from which it emerges (C
Reflex Arc Components for cervical).
1. A sensory receptor • 31 pairs organized in 3
2. A sensory neuron (taga plexuses.
interpret)
3. Interneurons, which are Cervical Plexus
neurons located between and • Spinal nerves C1-4
communicating with two other neurons • Innervates muscles
4. A motor neuron (alam attached to hyoid bone and skin of neck
yung action) and back of head.
5. An effector organ • Contains the phrenic
(muscles or glands). nerve which innervates diaphragm.
Note: The simplest reflex arcs do not
involve interneurons. Brachial Plexus
• Originates from spinal
Reflexes nerves C5-1.
• The simplest reflex is the • Supply nerves to the
stretch reflex. upper limbs, shoulders, hand.
Lumbosacral Plexus Pons
• Originates from spinal • Location: above medulla,
nerves L1 to S4. bridge between cerebrum and cerebellum
• Supplies nerves lower • Function: breathing,
limbs. chewing, salivation, swallowing, relay
station between cerebrum and cerebellum
Bakit walang plexus yung thoracic? kasi Midbrain
thoracic cavity na siya • Location: above pons
• Function: coordinated eye
Dermatome movement, pupil diameter, turning head
• The nerves arising from toward noise
each region of the spinal cord and • Other: the dorsal part has
vertebral column supply specific regions of the four colliculi which are involved in
the body. visual and auditory reflexes
• A dermatome is the area Reticular Formation
of skin supplied with sensory innervation • Location: scattered
by a pair of spinal nerves. throughout brainstem
• Each of the spinal nerves • Function: regulates
except C1 has a specific cutaneous cyclical motor function, respiration,
sensory distribution. walking, chewing, arousing and
maintaining consciousness, regulates
The Brain sleep-wake cycle
The four major regions of the brain are:
• the brainstem Cerebellum
• the cerebellum Location:
• the diencephalon • attached to the brainstem by the
• the cerebrum cerebellar peduncles
Characteristics:
Brainstem • means "little brain"
Components: • cortex is composed of
• Medulla oblongata gyri, sulci, gray matter Functions:
(breathing, blood pressure) • controls balance
• Pons (movement) • muscle tone
• Midbrain (emotions) • coordination of fine motor
function
Brainstem Components
Medulla oblongata Diencephalon
• Location: Located between the brainstem and
• continuous with spinal cerebrum
cord Components:
• Function: • Thalamus
• regulates heart rate, blood • Hypothalamus
vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing, • Epithalamus
vomiting, hiccupping, coughing, sneezing, Diencephalon Components
balance Thalamus
• Other: • Characteristics:
• pyramids: involved in • largest portion of
conscious control of skeletal muscle diencephalon
 • Function: Left hemisphere:
• regulates sensory input • controls right side of body
traveling from the spinal cord and (motor)
brainstem to the cerebral cortex • responsible for math,
• influences moods and analytic, and speech
detects pain Right hemisphere:
Epithalamus: • controls left side of body
• Location: (motor)
• above thalamus • responsible for music, art,
• Function: abstract ideas
• emotional and visceral Corpus callosum:
response to odors • connection between the two
• contains the pineal gland hemispheres
which is an endocrine gland that plays a
role in controlling some long-term cycles Lobes of the Brain 1
that are influenced by the light-dark cycle Frontal lobe
Hypothalamus • Location: anterior
• Location: • Function: controls
• below thalamus voluntary motor functions, aggression,
• Characteristics: moods, smell
• controls pituitary gland and Parietal lobe
is connected to it by infundibulum • Location: top
• Function: • Function: evaluates
• controls homeostasis, sensory input such as touch, pain,
body temp, thirst, hunger, fear, rage, pressure, temperature, taste
sexual emotions Occipital lobe
• Location: posterior
Cerebrum Characteristics • Function: vision
Largest portion of brain Temporal lobe
Divisions: • Location: lateral
• Right hemisphere • Function: hearing, smell,
• Left hemisphere memory
separated by longitudinal fissure
Lobes: frontal(creative critical thinking), Sensory Functions
parietal (taste and smell), occipital(mata), • CNS constantly receives
temporal (nasa side), insula (fifth lobe) sensory input
Cerebrum Surface Features • We are unaware of most
Longitudinal fissure: sensory input
• divides cerebrum into left and right • Sensory input is vital of
hemispheres our survival and normal functions
Gyri:
• folds on cerebral cortex that increase Ascending Tracts
surface area • Ascending pathways are
Sulci: sensory tracts carrying impulses up the
• shallow indentations spinal cord to specific areas of the brain.
Fissure: • Each tract is involved with
• deep indentations a limited type of sensory input, such as
Cerebral Hemispheres
pain, temperature, touch, position, or • Voluntary movements
pressure. result from the stimulation of neural
• Tracts are usually given circuits that consist of two motor neurons:
composite names that indicate their origin upper and lower motor neurons.
and termination. • Upper motor neurons have
• The names of ascending cell bodies in the cerebral cortex and
tracts usually begin with the prefix spino-, project down the spinal cord to synapse
indicating that they begin in the spinal with lower motor neurons.
cord, such as the spinothalamic. • Lower motor neurons
• Sensory tracts typically have cell bodies in the anterior horn of the
cross from one side of the body in the spinal cord gray matter or in cranial nerve
spinal cord or brainstem to the other side nuclei.
of the body. • The axons of lower motor
• The left side of the brain neurons leave the central nervous system
receives sensory input from the right side and extend through spinal or cranial
of the body, and vice versa. nerves to skeletal muscles.

Sensory Areas of Cerebral Cortex Motor Areas of Cerebral Cortex

Primary sensory areas: Primary motor cortex:
• where ascending tracts • frontal lobe
project • control voluntary motor
• where sensations are movement
perceived Premotor area:
Primary somatosensory cortex: • frontal lobe
• general sensory area • where motor functions are
• in parietal lobe organized before initiation
• sensory input such as Prefrontal area:
pain, pressure, temp. • motivation and foresight to plan and
initiate movement
Somatic Motor Functions
Somatic motor neurons innervate skeletal Descending Tracts
muscles. • Descending tracts are
The somatic motor system is responsible motor tracts carrying impulses down the
for: spinal cord, either terminating there or in
• maintaining the body's the brainstem.
posture and balance • The corticospinal tracts
• moving the trunk, head, are considered direct because they extend
limbs, tongue, and eyes directly from upper motor neurons in the
• communicating through cerebral cortex to lower motor neurons in
facial expressions and speech the spinal cord.
• Reflexes mediated through • Some tracts are
the spinal cord and brainstem are considered indirect because they originate
responsible for some body movements in the brainstem but are indirectly
that are involuntary. controlled by the cerebral cortex, basal
• Voluntary movements are nuclei, and cerebellum.
consciously activated to achieve a specific
goal, such as walking or typing. Basal Nuclei 1
Group of functionally related nuclei
Plan, organize, coordinate motor • Short-term memory is
movements and posture transferred to long-term memory, where it
Corpus striatum: may be stored for only a few minutes or
• deep in cerebrum become permanent, by consolidation.
Substantia nigra: • Consolidation is a gradual
• in midbrain process involving the formation of new
May neurotransmitter na dopamine and stronger synaptic connections.
• The length of time
Speech memory is stored may depend on how
Mainly in left hemisphere often it is retrieved and used.
Sensory speech (Wernicke's area): • Declarative memory, or
• parietal lobe explicit memory, involves the retention of
• where words are heard facts, such as names, dates, and places,
and comprehended as well as related emotional undertones.
Motor speech (Broca's area): pagboka ng • Procedural memory, or
bibig reflexive memory, involves the
• frontal lobe • development of motor skills, such as riding
• where words are a bicycle.
formulated
Limbic System and Emotions
Brain Waves and Consciousness (Physiological system, di makikita)
• Used to diagnose and • The olfactory cortex and
determine treatment for brain disorders certain deep cortical regions and nuclei of
• Electroencephalogram the cerebrum and the diencephalon are
(EEG): grouped together under the title limbic
• Electrodes are placed on system.
scalp to record brain's electrical activity. • The limbic system
influences long-term declarative memory,
Brain Waves emotions, visceral responses to emotions,
Alpha waves: motivation, and mood.
• person is awake in quiet state • A major source of sensory
Beta waves: input to the limbic system are the olfactory
• intense mental activity nerves.
Delta waves: • The limbic system is
• deep sleep connected to, and functionally associated
Theta waves: with, the hypothalamus.
• in children • Lesions in the limbic
system can result in voracious appetite,
Memory increased (often perverse) sexual activity,
• Working memory occurs and docility (including loss of normal fear
when the brain briefly stores information and anger responses)
required for an immediate performance of
a task. It lasts only a few seconds to Meninges 1
minutes. • The meninges are three
• Short-term memory lasts connective tissue layers that surround the
longer than working memory and can be brain and spinal cord.
retained for a few minutes to a few days. • The outermost (most
superficial) meningeal layer is the dura
mater, which is the toughest of all the flow: It starts from the lateral, third,
meninges. cerebral aquiduct, fourth
• The dura (eldest,
protective)mater forms two layers around Cerebrospinal Fluid
the brain and only one layer around the • Cerebrospinal Fluid
spinal cord. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bathes the brain
• The second meningeal and spinal cord, providing a protective
membrane is the very thin, wispy cushion around the CNS.
arachnoid (mukha siyang spider) mater. • The ependymal cells
• The space between the located in the choroid plexuses of the
dura mater and the arachnoid mater is the ventricles produce the CSF.
subdural space, which is normally only a • CS fills the brain
potential space containing a very small ventricles, the central canal of the spinal
amount of serous fluid. cord, and the subarachnoid space.
• The third meningeal • The CSF flows from the
membrane, the pia mater, is very tightly lateral ventricles into the third ventricle
bound to the surface of the brain and and then through the cerebral aqueduct
spinal cord. into the fourth ventricle.
• Between the arachnoid • A small amount of CS
mater and the pia mater is the enters the central canal of the spinal cord.
subarachnoid space, which is filled with • The CSF exits the fourth
cerebrospinal fluid and contains blood ventricle through small openings in its
vessels. walls and roof and enters the
subarachnoid space.
Ventricles • Masses of arachnoid
• The CNS contains tissue, called arachnoid granulations,
fluid-filled cavities, called ventricles. penetrate the superior sagittal sinus, a
• Each cerebral hemisphere dural venous sinus in the longitudinal
contains a relatively large cavity called the fissure, and CSF passes from the
lateral ventricle. subarachnoid space into the blood
• The third ventricle is a through these granulations.
smaller, midline cavity located in the
center of the diencephalon between the Cranial Nerves 1
two halves of the thalamus and connected • 12 pair of cranial nerves
by foramina (holes) to the lateral • Named by roman
ventricles. numerals 2 categories of functions:
• The fourth ventricle is sensory and motor
located at the base of the cerebellum and
connected to the third ventricle by a
narrow canal, called the cerebral
aqueduct.
• The fourth ventricle is
continuous with the central canal of the
spinal cord. O, O, O, to touch and feel very good
• The fourth ventricle also velvet ah
opens into the subarachnoid space Olfactory Optic Oculomotor Trochlear
through foramina in its walls and roof. Trigeminal Abducens Facial
Vestibulocochlear Glossopharyngeal
Vagus Accessory Hypoglossal
Se Se Mo Mo Mi Mo Mi Se Mi Mi Mo Mo

* Cranial Nerve I (Olfactory) is a pure

sensory nerve for smell
* Cranial Nerve Il (Optic) is a pure sensory
nerve for vision
* Cranial Nerve III (Occulomotor) is a pure
motor nerve for eye movement
* Cranial Nerve IV (Trochlear) is a pure
motor nerve for eye movement
* Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal) is both a
motor and sensory nerve. It is sensory for
pain, touch, and temperature for the eye
and lower and upper jaws. It is motor for
muscles of chewing.
* Cranial Nerve VI (Abducens) is a pure
motor nerve for eye movement
* Cranial Nerve VII (Facial) is both a
sensory and motor nerve. It is sensory for
taste and motor for facial expression.
* Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal) is both a
motor and sensory nerve. It is sensory for
pain, touch, and temperature for the eye
and lower and upper jaws. It is motor for
muscles of chewing.
* Cranial Nerve VI (Abducens) is a pure
motor nerve for eye movement
* Cranial Nerve VII (Facial) is both a
sensory and motor nerve. It is sensory for
taste and motor for facial expression.
* Cranial Nerve XI (Accessory) is a pure
motor nerve for the trapezius,
sternocleidomastoid, and muscles of the
larynx.
* Cranial Nerve XII (Hypoglossal) is a pure
motor nerve for the tongue