Course Title: Sustainable Development

Course Code: CVS 376

Lecture Notes: 3
POLLUTION AND SELF-PURIFICATION OF STREAMS AND RIVERS
Sources: https://echo2.epfl.ch/VICAIRE/mod_2/chapt_6/text.htm

3.1. Introduction
The life and activities of plants and animals, including humans, contribute to the pollution of the
Earth, assuming that pollution is defined as the deterioration of the existing state. The pollution
of surface water and groundwater may prohibit its different uses in the absence of costly pre-
treatment. The deterioration of water quality is expected to increase further in the next decades,
particularly in resource-poor countries in dry areas, which will further endanger human health
and the environment, while constraining sustainable economic development.
The release of untreated wastewater from expanding human settlements and increasing industrial
production generates physical, chemical and biological pollution, impacting both human and
environmental health. The presence of faecal coliforms, which originate from human and animal
excreta, is used as an indicator of the presence of all potential pathogens in surface waters. Early
findings from the global water quality monitoring programme show that severe pathogen
pollution affects around one third of all river stretches in Africa, Asia and Latin America,
putting the health of millions of people at risk. Even though sanitation coverage has increased
and treatment levels have improved in some countries, such improvements need to happen
simultaneously in order to avoid increased contaminant loadings. This could probably explain
the increased loadings of faecal coliform bacteria (FC) observed in Africa, Asia and Latin
America over the last two decades. Organic pollution (measured in terms of biochemical oxygen
demand – BOD) can have significant impacts on inland fisheries, food security and livelihoods,
severely affecting poor rural communities that rely on freshwater fisheries. Severe organic
pollution already affects around one seventh of all river stretches in Africa, Asia and Latin
America, and has been steadily increasing for years.
The release of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) and agrochemicals from intensive
agriculture and animal waste can further accelerate the eutrophication of freshwater and coastal
marine ecosystems and increase groundwater pollution. Most of the largest lakes in Latin
America and Africa have seen increasing anthropogenic loads of phosphorus, which can
accelerate eutrophication processes. Increased discharges of inadequately treated wastewater,
resulting from economic and industrial development, intensification and expansion of
agriculture, and growing volumes of sewage from rapidly urbanizing areas are contributing to the
further degradation of water quality in surface and groundwater around the world. As water
pollution critically affects water availability, it needs to be properly managed in order to mitigate
the impacts of increasing water scarcity
3.2. Sources of water pollution
3.2.1. Common sources
The most common sources of pollution of the streams and rivers are shown in Figure 3. 1.

Figure 3. 1 Classification of the sources of water pollution (Water Quality control Handbook)

There is an often-cited statistic that wastewater is roughly composed of 99% water and 1%
suspended, colloidal and dissolved solids. Although the exact composition of wastewater
obviously varies between different sources and over time, water remains, by far, its principal
constituent. Different sources of wastewater can present other types of components in varying
concentrations, Table 3. 1. Domestic and municipal wastewater is likely to contain high bacterial
loads, though most of the bacteria present in human faeces are not inherently pathogenic.
However, when an infection occurs, a large number of pathogenic microorganisms (such as
bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminths) are spread in the environment through faeces. In order
to reduce the disease burden, the removal of pathogens is often the primary objective of
wastewater treatment systems.
Table 3. 1 Sources of wastewater and their associated typical components (Source: WWAP, 2017)

Wastewater from industrial and mining activities, as well as from solid waste management (e.g.
landfill leachate), may also contain toxic organic compounds such as hydrocarbons,
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), persistent organic pollutants (POPs), volatile organic
compound (VOCs) and chlorinated solvents. Very small amounts of certain organic compounds
can contaminate large volumes of water. One litre of gasoline (petrol), for example, is enough to
contaminate one million litres of groundwater.
‘Emerging pollutants’ can be defined as “any synthetic or naturally occurring chemical or any
microorganism that is not commonly monitored in the environment but has the potential to enter
the environment and cause adverse ecological and (or) human health effects” (USGS, n.d.). The
main categories of emerging pollutants present in wastewater are pharmaceuticals (e.g.
antibiotics, analgesics, anti-inflammatory drugs, psychiatric drugs, etc.), steroids and hormones
(i.e. contraceptive drugs), personal care products (e.g. fragrances, sunscreen agents, insect
repellents, microbeads and antiseptics), pesticides and herbicides, surfactants and surfactant
metabolites, flame retardants, industrial additives and chemicals and plasticizers and gasoline
additives. Emerging pollutants are rarely controlled or monitored and further research is needed
to assess their impacts on human health and the environment. It is possible to reduce/mitigate the
use and release of certain types of emerging pollutants through government regulation and
private sector engagement.
3.2.2 Point and non-point sources
From spatial perspective, the sources of pollution can be divided as point and non-point sources.
As the name implies, point source pollution represents those activities where wastewater is
routed directly into receiving water bodies by, for example, discharge pipes, where they can be
easily measured and controlled. Examples of point sources include discharges from municipal
wastewater treatment plants and industrial facilities and spills that occur due to accidents.
Mass loading, for example, may be estimated by measuring the flow and solute concentration
associated with a plant's effluent:
𝑊 = 𝑄𝑒 . 𝐶𝑒 (3.1)
Where
𝑊 Mass loading rate (Mass/unit time)
𝑄𝑒 volumetric flow rate for the point source
𝐶𝑒 solute concentration in the effluent
In contrast, non-point source water pollution, once known as "diffuse" source pollution, arises
from a broad group of human activities for which the pollutants have no obvious point of entry
into receiving watercourses. Table 3.2 outlines the classes of non-point sources and their relative
contributions to pollution loadings.

Table 3. 2 Classes of non-point source pollution (International Joint Commission, 1974)

Runoff from all categories of agriculture leading to

surface and groundwater pollution. In northern
Animal
climates, runoff from frozen ground is a major
feedlots
problem, especially where manure is spread during the
Irrigation
winter. Vegetable handling, especially washing in
Cultivation
Agriculture polluted surface waters in many developing countries,
Pastures
leads to contamination of food supplies. Growth of
Dairy farming
aquaculture is becoming a major polluting activity in
Orchards
many countries. Irrigation return flows carry salts,
Aquaculture
nutrients and pesticides. Tile drainage rapidly carries
leachates such as nitrogen to surface waters.
Increased runoff from disturbed land. Most damaging
Forestry
is forest clearing for urbanization

Liquid waste Disposal of liquid wastes from municipal wastewater

disposal effluents, sewage sludge, industrial effluents and
sludges, wastewater from home septic systems;
 especially disposal on agricultural land, and legal or
illegal dumping in watercourses
Urban runoff from roofs, streets, parking lots, etc.
leading to overloading of sewage plants from combined
Residential
sewers, or polluted runoff routed directly to receiving
Urban areas Commercial waters; local industries and businesses may discharge
wastes to street gutters and storm drains; street
Industrial
cleaning; road salting contributes to surface and
groundwater pollution.
Overloading and malfunction of septic systems leading
Rural Sewage
to surface runoff and/or direct infiltration to
systems
groundwater
Roads, railways, pipelines, hydro-electric corridors,
Transportation
etc.

Mineral Runoff from mines and mine wastes, quarries, well

extraction sites

Large variety of recreational land uses, including ski resorts,

Recreational boating and marinas, campgrounds, parks; waste and "grey"
land use water from recreational boats is a major pollutant, especially
in small lakes and rivers. Hunting.

Contamination of surface and groundwater by leachates and

Solid waste
gases. Hazardous wastes may be disposed of through
disposal underground disposal.

Dispersion of contaminated sediments, leakage from

Dredging containment areas.

Contamination of groundwater by deep well injection of

Deep well
liquid wastes, especially oilfield brines and liquid industrial
disposal wastes.

Long-range transport of atmospheric pollutants (LRTAP)

Atmospheric and deposition of land and water surfaces. Regarded as a
deposition significant source of pesticides (from agriculture, etc.),
nutrients, metals, etc., especially in pristine environments.

An example of a non-point source is agricultural runoff that enters a stream as overland flow.
During precipitation events, runoff from cultivated fields may contain pesticide residues and
fertiliser, as well as suspended sediments that sorb contaminants. Loading due to this type of
non-point source is represented by the lateral inflow terms in the general transport equation.
Obviously, non-point source pollution is much more difficult to identify, measure and control
than point sources.
As indicated in Table 3. 3 the impacts of agriculture on water quality are diverse.
Table 3. 3 Agricultural impacts on water quality (FAO,1990)

Agricultural
Impacts on Surface water
activity
Sediment/turbidity: sediments carry phosphorus and pesticides adsorbed to
Tillage/ploughing
sediment particles; siltation of river beds and loss of habitat, spawning ground, etc.
Runoff of nutrients, especially phosphorus, leading to eutrophication causing taste
Fertilizing and odour in public water supply, excess algae growth leading to deoxygenation of
water and fish kills.
Carried out as a fertilizer activity; spreading on frozen ground results in high levels
Manure
of contamination of receiving waters by pathogens, metals, phosphorus and
spreading
nitrogen leading to eutrophication and potential contamination.
Contamination of surface water with many pathogens (bacteria, viruses, etc.)
Feedlots/animal
leading to chronic public health problems. Also contamination by metals contained
corrals
in urine and faeces.
Runoff of salts leading to salinization of surface waters; runoff of fertilizers and
pesticides to surface waters with ecological damage, bioaccumulation in edible fish
Irrigation
species, etc. High levels of trace elements such as selenium can occur with serious
ecological damage and potential human health impacts.
Erosion of land, leading to high levels of turbidity in rivers, siltation of bottom
Clear cutting habitat, etc. Disruption and change of hydrologic regime, often with loss of
perennial streams; causes public health problems due to loss of potable water.
Silviculture –
Broad range of effects: pesticide runoff and contamination of surface water and
cultivation of
fish; erosion and sedimentation problems.
trees
Release of pesticides (e.g. TBT (Tributyltin)) and high levels of nutrients to
Aquaculture surface water and groundwater through feed and faeces, leading to serious
eutrophication.
3.2.3 Continuous and instantaneous sources
The sources of pollution and loading rates also vary with respect to time. Sources may be
roughly classified according to their duration - continuous and instantaneous sources.
Continuous sources introduce contaminants to the streams for extended periods of time. An
example of a continuous source is the effluent from wastewater treatment plant. Although mass-
loading rates may vary in time, many of these plants continuously discharge effluent into
receiving waters, resulting in a continuous addition of solutes to the stream.
Instantaneous sources add contaminants to the streams over very short time periods. Although
truly instantaneous sources do not exist, situation do arise in which contaminants are added to the
stream over time intervals, which are short relative to the time-scales of interest. An example of
this kind of source is an accidental spill, where contaminants enter a stream in a matter of
minutes. This loading can be viewed as the instantaneous addition of mass at a discrete point in
time.
3.3 Pollutant classification
There are several ways of classifying pollutants in order to predict their effect on water quality
and the means of their removal.

3.3.1 Classification of pollutants according their physical condition

First they can be classified as a solid, a liquid or gas, or as one of these mixed with or dissolved
in another, Table 3. 4.
Table 3. 4 Types of wastes (Water Quality control Handbook)

Basic state Mixed state Sub state Example

Organic Sugar
Solid
Inorganic Salt
Organic Food Processing Waste
Solid Solid in Liquid
Inorganic Electroplating Waste Treatment
Organic Plant Aerosols
Solid in Gas
Inorganic Incinerator Particulates
Organic Gasoline
Liquid
Inorganic HCl
Liquid
Organic Garbage
Liquid in Solid
Inorganic Uncured concrete
 Organic Air stripper mist
Liquid in Gas
Inorganic Mist
Organic Toluene
Gas
Inorganic Air
Organic Floats
Gas Gas in Solid
Inorganic Methane storage tank
Organic Anaerobic decomposition
Gas in Liquid
Inorganic Dissolved air floatation

3.3.2 General classification

3.3.2.1 Physical pollutants
Physical pollutants can be categorized as follows: solids content, solids type, colour, odour, taste,
conductivity, temperature. Each of these categories can have chemical or biological sources.
Colour. Wastewater is "coloured" if it is not completely clear. Colour can be suspended colour
(apparent colour) or dissolved colour (true colour). Suspended particles can be considered as
suspended solids regardless of whether they are coloured. Dissolved colour may be caused by
vegetable or mineral dyes, other inorganic industrial wastes, or by organic material from
stormwater runoff. Dissolved colour should be considered as organic or inorganic chemical
water quality and treated as a chemical pollutant. Colour is quantitatively determined by visual
comparison with a known concentration of coloured solutions or by spectrophotometric methods.
Odour like taste, is a measure of the effect of a stimulating substance on human respiratory
membranes. Pure unpolluted water is a measure of zero odours. An odour in a wastewater is
recognized as a potential environmental hazard. The accepted odour test is the Threshold Odour
Test in which a sample is diluted with pure water until the least perceptible odour is noticed. The
Minimum Detectable Threshold Odour Concentration (MDTOC) is reported as unit or dilutions
required to reduce an odour to its detectable limit.
Taste is seldom listed as a permit requirement, but there are three methods of determination:
flavour threshold test; flavour rating assessments; flavour profile analysis. The Flavour
Threshold Test is similar to the odour test. The Flavour Rating Assessments is a scale for rating a
drinking water as acceptable or not and Flavour Profile Analysis is a comparison between a
wastewater taste and that of a documented sensory quality judged acceptable by trained testers.
Physical pollutant recommendations are shown in Table 3. 5 and Table 3. 6 lists typical
composition of domestic wastewater with no industrial wastes.
Table 3. 5 Physical Pollutant Limitations (Water Quality control Handbook)

Public water supplies

Pollutant
Permissible Desirable
Colour (units) 75 <10
Odour Narrative Virtually absent
Temperature Narrative Narrative
Turbidity Narrative Virtually absent

Table 3. 6 Typical Domestic Wastewater Composition (Water Quality control Handbook)

Concentration, mg/l
Pollutant
Weak Average Strong
Total solids 350 800 1200
Total suspended solids 100 240 350
Total dissolved solids 250 500 850
Settleable solids (ml/l) 5 10 20
Volatile suspended solids 80 180 280
Volatile dissolved solids 100 240 300
Ammonia nitrogen 10 20 35
Total nitrogen 20 35 80
phosphorous 5 10 15
Alkalinity as CaCO3 50 100 250
Oil , grease 50 100 150
5-day biochemical oxygen demand 120 225 400
Chemical oxygen demand 175 325 575
Total organic carbon 45 125 220
3.3.2.2. Chemical pollutants
Chemical pollutants can be organic or inorganic. There are thousands of organic pollutants
consisting of various combinations of carbon, hydrogen, and perhaps oxygen and/or many other
inorganic or organic molecules. In general, organic pollutants are more biodegradable with fewer
carbon and/or other molecules attached.
Inorganic chemical pollutants can be categorized into pure chemical pollutants and chemical
indicators tests, Figure 3. 2.
Pure chemical pollutants include aluminium, arsenic, barium, beryllium, Boron, Cadmium,
calcium, chloride, chlorine, chromium, copper, cyanide etc. The chemical indicator tests include
acidity, alkalinity, conductivity, hardness, hydrocarbons, oil and grease, pH, salinity, surfactants,
etc.

Figure 3. 2 Classification of Inorganic chemical pollutants

Table 3. 7 lists some of the pure chemical pollutants and their harmful effects.

Table 3. 7 Pure chemical pollutants

Pure chemical
Harmful affect
pollutants

Aluminium
is a contributor to Alzheimer's disease
(Al)
is highly toxic to humans and is chronic, or cumulative in human and animal
Arsenic (As)
organs
 Barium (Ba) affects the gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system

Beryllium is toxic to fish and aquatic life and various plants and inhibits photosynthesis in
(Be) terrestrial plants
at approximately 1 to 4 mg/l, can be toxic to plants and at approximately 30
Born (B)
mg/l, can have physiological effects on animals and humans.
Cadmium affects metabolism and is quite toxic to animals and humans; it is cumulative in
(Cd) the kidney and liver organs and can cause death.
at levels above 100 mg/l is highly toxic to animals and humans and can cause
Copper (Cu)
vomiting and liver damage.
can be fatal at 8 mg/l. At low pH, CN forms hydrogen cyanide (HCN), which is
Cyanide (CN)
a highly toxic, almond smelling mustard gas.
it is cumulative in animal and human organs; with concentration greater than
Lead (Pb) 0,5 mg/l causes lead poisoning. Plumbism is a disease caused by lead that
affects the central nervous system of animals and humans.

Certain tests have been developed to indicate water quality based on chemical characteristics that
can be simpler, less expensive or more indicative of water quality than a chemical compounds
tests. CaCO3 is used as a standard for many of the indicator tests since its molecular weight is
100 and calculations are simplified. Table 3. 8 lists description of some of the Chemical
Indicator Tests.

Table 3. 8 Chemical Indicator Tests.

Chemical Indicator
Description
Tests
is an indicator of capacity of water to react with a strong base to a
designated pH. Titration with a standard alkali solution to an end
Acidity
point of 3.8 pH is used for most wastewaters. Acidity is reported
in mg/l of CaCO3.
is primarily a function of the carbonate(CO3), bicarbonate
(HCO3) and hydroxide (OH) content of wastewater. Titration
with a standard acid to an end point of 8.3 pH is reported as
Alkalinity
phenolphthalein alkalinity and titration to an end point of
approximately 4.5 is reported as total alkalinity. Alkalinity is
measured in mg/l as CaCO3.
 is a quantification of the ability of water to carry an electric
Conductivity current. Most conductivity tests are accomplished with an
instrument.
is a measure of the concentration of divalent salts ( Ca, Mg, Sr);
-generally a measure of the capacity of water to precipitate
Total soap. Hardness is either calculated from the results of separate
Hardness calcium and magnesium tests or is determined from a colour
change when titrating a sample with ethylenediaminetetracetic
acid (EDTA)
quantify substances that are soluble in trichlorotrifluoroethane.
Oil and
These tests will include the presence of certain sulphur
Grease
compounds, organic dyes and chlorophyll that is not volatilised.
is used to indicate the intensity of the acidic or basic character of
pH
a solution.
Salinity is a measure of the dissolved salts in solution. [mg/l]

Various pollutant limitations are shown in Table 3. 9

Table 3. 9 Chemical Pollutant Limitations (Water Quality control Handbook)

Chemical Drinking water protection Fish & Widlife protection

Ammonia - 0.02mg/l
Arsenic 50g/l -
Barium 1mg/l -
11μg/l in soft water
Beryllium -
1100 μg/l in hard water
Boron - -
4 μg/l in soft water
Cadmium 10g/l
12 μg/l in hard water
Chromium 50g/l 100 μg/l
Copper 1mg/l 0,1x 94 hr LC50
Cyanide - 5 μg/l
3.3.2.3. Biological pollutants
As biological pollutants use oxygen for energy, the tests can involve the measurement of either
carbon content or oxygen demand, or an actual bacterial count.
The Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) test is used in order to determine the oxygen
requirements of wastewaters. The BOD, unless treated with an ammonia-inhibiting chemical,
will indicate the total of carbonaceous and nitrogenous oxygen demand.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) test is a measure of the oxygen required from a strong
chemical oxidant for the destruction of an organic material. The chemical oxidant selected for
the COD test is potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7).
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) test is more direct indication of organic content than the BOD or
COD test. The TOC test indicates the total organic matter present and is independent of the
oxidation state of the pollutant. This test converts and removes inorganic carbon (CO + CO2) and
measures total organic carbon by converting it into CO2 in a heated reaction chamber. The
CO2 is measured using infrared methods.
Theoretical Oxygen Demand (THOD) is the stoichiometrically determined oxygen needed to
convert all carbon molecules in pollutants to CO2, and all NH3 by balancing equations. This
calculation is possible on certain rather pure industrial waste, but is impractical for most
wastewaters, especially those containing domestic sewage or containing vegetable or animal
wastes.
Relationship between BOD, COD, TOC and ThOD. After biological oxidation, approximately
ten percent of the original organics (completely biodegradable wastewater) remain as
nonbiodegradable cellular residues. Hence, the cellular residues are not measured by the BOD
test. Therefore, depending on the type of wastewater:
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑢 = 0.9𝑇ℎ𝑂𝐷 (3.2)
Where:
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑢 is the ultimate BOD
𝑇ℎ𝑂𝐷 is the Theoretical Oxygen Demand

3.3.3.3. Pollutants from municipal sources

The pollutants from non-industrial municipal sources are all biological and as such can be readily
biodegraded. The main pollutants are: faeces, urine, paper, food waste, laundry wastewater and
etc.
3.4. Pathways in which pollutants enter the streams and rivers
Discharges from human activity must be released to the air, the water or the soil (Figure 3. 3).
Figure 3. 3 Flow of pollutants from human activities

Each of these potential reservoirs can accept a limited amount of physical, chemical, and
biological substances without significant deterioration.
Air pollution is significant in the study of water pollution since wastewater can volatilise either
deliberately or through evaporation and become air pollution.
Water as a reservoir, can provide minimal treatment to certain organic pollutants because of the
oxygen and the biota in the water.
Soil pollution is normally only of concern when the pollutant is liquid or is a soluble solid. An
insoluble solid will not migrate nor will it dissolve into groundwater. The major concern with
soil pollution is the subsequent pollution of the groundwater when the groundwater is used as a
source of water for drinking, irrigation, or industrial use.

3.5. Effects of wastewater pollutants on the water quality

3.5.1. Stream dissolved oxygen
The natural cycle of organic production and decomposition can be used to understand the
environment in a stream below a wastewater discharge (Figure 3. 4).
Figure 3. 4 Natural cycle of organic production and consumption (Chapra, 1994)

If the river is unpolluted, dissolved oxygen concentrations above the discharge will be near
saturation. The introduction of the sewage will elevate the levels of both dissolved and solid
organic matter. This has three impacts:
The solid matter makes the water turbid and unsightly. Thus light cannot penetrate and
plant growth is suppressed;
The solids settle downstream from the sewage outfall and create sludge beds that can
emit noxious odours;
The organic matter provides food for heterotrophic organisms. Large populations of
decomposer organisms break down the organic matter in the water and in the process
deplete the dissolved oxygen. In addition, breakdown of organic matter takes place in the
sludge bed, and a sediment oxygen demand supplements oxygen depletion in the water..
The fundamental reactions governing the process can be expressed by:
𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 6𝑂2 = 6𝐶𝑂2 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 (3.3)

Aside from depletion, counteracting force acts to replenish oxygen in the stream. As dissolved
oxygen levels drop, atmospheric oxygen enters the water across the air-water interface to
compensate for the oxygen deficit. At first, oxygen depletion dwarfs this reaeration. However, as
the organic matter is assimilated, the rate of depletion diminishes as the reaeration rate increases.
Consequently, there comes a point at which the depletion and the reaeration will be in balance.
At this point, a lowest or critical level of oxygen will be reached. Beyond this critical level, the
reaeration process dominates and oxygen levels begin to rise again. Thus, a dissolved oxygen sag
is created in the river below the sewage discharge (Figure 3. 5).
Figure 3. 5 The dissolved oxygen "sag" that occurs below sewage discharges into streams

Along with decomposition, the water becomes clearer as much of the solid matter from the
discharge settles to the bottom. In addition, inorganic nutrients liberated during the
decomposition process are high. Consequently, the reaction 3.3 reverses and plant photosynthesis
begins to dominate in the recovery zone. Thus, the left side of the cycle (Figure 3.4) can become
overemphasized. As the result of plant growth, carbon dioxide and water are utilized and oxygen
is produced. Consequently, large diurnal (that is over the daily cycle) oxygen swings can occur
in the recovery zone. In the late afternoon, supersaturated conditions can occur as plant
photosynthesis is at its peak. Conversely, in early morning, depletion can be exacerbated by
respiration.
Effects of discharging untreated wastewater
The release of untreated wastewater into the environment remains common practice, especially
in developing countries, with direct impacts on human health (with notably greater risks to
women), the environment and economic productivity
Table 3. 10 Effects of discharging untreated wastewater

Impacts on Examples of impacts

Health  Increased burden of disease due to reduced drinking water
quality.
 Increased burden of disease due to reduced bathing water
quality.
 Increased burden of disease due to unsafe food
(contaminated fish, vegetables and other produce irrigated)
 Increased risk of disease when working or playing in
wastewater-irrigated area
Environment  Decreased biodiversity
 Degraded aquatic ecosystems (e.g. eutrophication and dead
zones)
 Foul odours
 Diminished recreational opportunities
 Increased greenhouse gas emissions
 Increased water temperature
Economy  Reduced industrial productivity
 Reduced agricultural productivity
 Reduced market value of harvested crops, if unsafe
wastewater is being used for irrigation
 Reduced opportunities for water-based recreational activities
(reduced number of tourists, or reduced willingness to pay
for recreational services)
 Reduced fish and shellfish catches, or reduced market value
of fish and shellfish
 Increased financial burden on healthcare
 Increased barriers to international trade (exports)
 Higher costs of water treatment (for human supply and other
uses)
 Reduced prices of properties near contaminated water bodies

Wastewater flows
Wastewater flows are as varied as its sources and the types of constituents they contain, with the
latter being a function of the former. Figure 3. 6 provides an overview of the main wastewater
flows, from their generation at the source to their ultimate fate. Uncollected wastewater (and all
its constituents) ultimately ends up in the aquatic environment. This is also the case for
wastewater that is collected and disposed of without treatment, the proportion of which can in
some cases be considerable. Wastewater treatment can allow for the separation of water and
other constituents, which can then be reused or disposed of.
Figure 3. 6 Waste water flows (Source: WWAP)

The waste management cycle

Controlling and regulating the various wastewater flows is the ultimate purpose of wastewater
management. The wastewater management cycle can be broken down into four basic
interconnected phases or steps:
a. The prevention or reduction of pollution at the source, in terms of pollution load and
volume of wastewater produced.
Prohibiting or controlling the use of certain contaminants to eliminate or limit their entering into
wastewater streams through regulatory, technical and/or other means. This step also includes
measures to reduce the volumes of generated wastewater (e.g. demand management and
increased water use efficiency).
b. The removal of contaminants from wastewater streams.
Operational systems (including collection infrastructure) and treatment processes that remove
various constituents of wastewater (i.e. contaminants) so that it can be safely used or returned to
the water cycle with minimal environmental impacts. There are several types and levels of
wastewater treatment, the choice of which is dependent on the nature of the contaminants, the
pollution load and the anticipated end use of the effluent.
c. The use of wastewater (i.e. water reuse).
Safe use of treated or untreated wastewater under controlled conditions for beneficial purposes.
Historically used primarily for irrigation, wastewater treatment technologies have now advanced
to allow for the use of treated wastewater for other uses, provided that the level of treatment and
the quality of the effluent are ‘fit-for-purpose’.
d. The recovery of useful by-products
Various constituents of wastewater can be extracted, either directly (e.g. heat, nutrients, organic
matter and metals) or via supplementary transformation processes (e.g. biogas from sludge or
biofuels from microalgae). There is a growing number of potentially cost-effective opportunities
for extracting useful materials from wastewater, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, that can be
transformed into fertilizer.

An additional role of the wastewater management cycle is to mitigate any negative impacts on
human health, the economy and the environment.
When taking into account the multiple benefits of improved wastewater management, several of
these processes can be considered cost-effective, thus adding value across the wastewater
management cycle while supporting the further development of water supply and sanitation
systems.
Based on the assumption that it is possible to align water quality requirements with water use
locations, multiple use systems with cascading reuse of water from higher to lower water quality
can make water reuse more affordable than providing extensive water treatment at each point of
abstraction along a river basin.

Bibliography
Alley, E. 2000. Water quality control handbook. McGraw - Hill, New York.
Chapra, S. 1994. Rivers and streams. in L. W. Mays, editor. Water Resources Handbook.
O'Connor, J. 1974. The Temporal and Spatial Distribution of Dissolved Oxygen in Streams.
Water Resour. Res 12.
Singh, V. P. 1995. Environmental Hydrology. U.S. Government, Netherlands.
(Adapted from https://echo2.epfl.ch/VICAIRE/mod_2/chapt_6/text.htm)