General Physics Lectures Note

Table of contents
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................................... 1
1. PRELIMINARIES .................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Physical Quantities and Measurement ............................................................................................... 2
1.1.2. SI Units: Basic and Derived Units .............................................................................................. 4
1.1.3. Conversion of Units .................................................................................................................... 7
1.2. Uncertainty in Measurement and Significant Digits .......................................................................... 7
1.2.1. Significant digits ....................................................................................................................... 14
1.3. Vectors: composition and resolution................................................................................................ 15
1.3.1. Vector Representation ............................................................................................................... 16
1.3.2. Vector Addition......................................................................................................................... 18
1.3.3. Components of Vector .............................................................................................................. 19
1.4. Unit Vector....................................................................................................................................... 22
1.4.1. Vector addition in Unit Vector Notation ................................................................................... 23
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................................ 33
2. Kinematic and Dynamics of particles ..................................................................................................... 33
2.1. Kinematics in One and Two Dimensions ........................................................................................ 34
2.1.1. Displacement, velocity and Acceleration in 1D and 2D ........................................................... 34
2.1.2. Motion with Constant Acceleration (uniformly accelerated motion) ....................................... 40
2.1.3. Free Fall Motion........................................................................................................................ 46
2.1.4. Projectile Motion....................................................................................................................... 51
2.2. Particle Dynamics and Planetary Motion......................................................................................... 61
2.2.1. The Concept of Force as a Measure of Interaction ................................................................... 62
2.2.2. Newton‟s Laws of Motion and Applications ............................................................................ 67
2.2.3. Application of Newton‟s First law ............................................................................................ 68
2.2.4. Uniform Circular Motion .......................................................................................................... 80
2.2.5. Kepler‟s Laws, Satellites Motion and Weightlessness ............................................................. 86
2.3. Work, Energy and Linear Momentum ............................................................................................. 92
2.3.1. Work and Energy ...................................................................................................................... 92
2.3.2. Power ...................................................................................................................................... 105
2.3.3. Linear Momentum................................................................................................................... 107
2.3.4. Collisions ................................................................................................................................ 113
2.3.5Center of Mass .......................................................................................................................... 118

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 General Physics Lectures Note

CHAPTER ONE

1. PRELIMINARIES

 The word physics comes from Greek word meaning “nature:

 Physics deals with matter in relation to energy and the accurate measurement of natural
phenomenon.
 Thus physics is inherently a science of measurement.
 Physics is a science based up on exact measurement
 The fundamentals of physics form the basis for the study and development of engineering
and technology.

Measurement

Measurement is the act of comparing a physical quantity with a certain standard

Measurement is a process of comparison of an unknown quantity with known fixed
quantities.
Measurement can be defined as comparing a physical quantity with an already established
standard (universally accepted unit) to find out how many times the quantity is greater or less
than the standard.
The measurements need two things

Unit (u)
Number (n)

Measurement

Example

If the length of a student is 104ch then

104 is its numerical magnitude and

Cm (centimeter ) is the unit of measurement

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Physical unit

The quantity used as the standard of measurement is called “ unit”

Standard amount of a physical quantity, which can be chosen to measure physical quantity of
same king.
A unit is a value, quantity or magnitude in terms of which other values, quantity or
magnitudes are expressed.

1.1. Physical Quantities and Measurement

Any natural or man-made entities in our surrounding are called physical bodies.
All measurable quantities are called physical quantities.
Quantities which can be measured directly or indirectly and in terms of which the law of
physics can be expressed are called physical quantities
Example: Length, mass, temperature, speed, force, etc.

A physical quantity possesses at least two characteristic in common.

Its numerical magnitude and,

The unit in which it is measured.

Example: when a grocer says that each bag contains 5kg of sugar, then here,

5 is its numerical magnitude

Kg is its measurement unit
It would be meaningless to state 5 or kg only

Types of Physical Quantities

 There are three(3) different types of physical quantities

Basic quantities: naturally existing quantity (07)

Derived quantities: deduced from base quantities (100+)
Supplementary(Geometrical) quantities: neither base nor derived (02)

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A. Basic Physical Quantities

The quantities which form a foundation for all other physical quantities are known as
basic/fundamental quantities.
Naturally existing quantities.
Basic quantities are the quantities which cannot be expressed in terms of any other physical
quantities.
The physical quantities which are independent of other physical quantities and are not
defined in terms of other physical quantities are called fundamental or basic quantities.

All physical quantities are expressed in terms of seven (7) fundamental quantities.

1. Length:
It is the extent of space or distance extended. It is the distance between two points
2. Mass:
It is the quantity of matter in a body
3. Time
It is a measure of durations of events and the intervals between them
4. Electric current
It is the flow of electric charge such as flow of electrons in a wire
5. Temperature
It is the degree of coldness or hotness of a body.
It is also the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a system.
6. Amount of substance
It is the measure of the size of elementary entities such as atoms, molecules,
electrons and other particles present in a substance.
7. Luminous intensity
It is the measure of the amount of light that a point source radiates in a given
direction

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B. Derived Physical quantities

The quantities which are expressed in terms of basic/fundamental quantities are called
derived quantities.

Example: area, Volume, density, Speed, acceleration, force, work, Power, etc.

C. Geometrical quantities

There are two (2) physical quantities which are neither base nor derived are called
geometrical quantities
These are also known as supplementary quantities.

Example

Plane angle
Solid angle

1.1.2. SI Units: Basic and Derived Units

System of Units

A complete set of units used to measure all types of physical quantities is called system of
unit.
There are four (4) types of internal system of unit units.

I. MKS (meter, kilogram, second) system

Length meter
Mass kilogram
Time second

II. CGS system

It is based on centimeter, gram and second as fundamental units of length, mass and
time

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III. FPS system

It is based on foot , pound and second as fundamental units of length, mass and time
IV. SI unit system (metric system)

It is international system of unit.

Length meter
Mass kilogram
Time second

The standards which are in use today had been introduced and they are called
international system of unit (SI).
The SI units are adopted by the all countries of the world

Basic/Fundamental units

 Units which cannot be derived from other units and they cannot be resolved into simpler
units are called basic units.

Table 1.1: Basic quantities and their SI unit

Quantity Symbol Unit Dimension

Length L Meter(m) L
Mass m Kilogram(kg) M
Time t Second(s) T
temperature T Kelvin(k)
Electric current I Ampere(A) I
Amount of substance N Mole(N) 1
Luminous intensity F Candela(cd) J

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Derived units

Physical units which are expressed in terms of fundamental units are called derived unit

Table 1.2: derived quantities, their unit and dimension

Derived symbol Unit dimension Dimension in terms of

quantity length, mass and time
Force F Newton(N)

Speed V Meter per

second
Energy E Joule (J)

Pressure P Pascal (pa)

power W Watt (W)

For Example

F  ma E  FS  mas
 kgm / s 2  kgm / s 2 m
1N  kgm / s 2  [ M ][ L][T ]2  kgm 2 / s 2
F ma kgm / s 2 kg ML2
P    2 1J  1kgm / s  2
2 2

A A m 2
ms T
kg M
1 pa  1 2 
ms LT 2
W Fs mas kgm / s 2 m
P   
t t t s
2 2
kgm ML
1W  1 3  3
s T

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1.1.3. Conversion of Units

 Conversion of unit is the conversion between different units of measurement for the same
quantity typically through multiplicative conversion factors.

Table 1.3: unit conversion of basic quantities

Quantity From To Operation
Length Inch (in) m (inch)
Foot (ft) m
Mile (mi) m
Mass Pound( Kg
Metric ton (t) Kg
Once Kg
Volume Liter
gallon
Temperature Fahrenheit (F) K
[ ]

Celsius (c) K

1.2. Uncertainty in Measurement and Significant Digits

What is uncertainty?

 Two types of numbers are encounter in scientific work.

Exact Number (those values are known exactly).

Number that have no uncertainty.

Not obtained measurement.
Determined by counting.

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Example

3 apple, number of students= 95

Determined by definition.

Example

, 12 object in a dozen, 1000g in a kilogram, second in a minute ,

Inexact Number (those values have some uncertainty).

 Numbers that have degree of uncertainty.

 Numbers obtained by measurement are always inexact.
 Measurements are always uncertain.
Example
Temperature , time , mass
Whenever a measurement is performed, the result is never exact.
Any measurement is subject to imprecision; some of these are due to external influences,
such as short-term fluctuations in temperature, humidity, and air pressure or variability in the
performance of the measurer.

 Uncertainty means the range of possible values within which the true/actual value of the
measurement lies.

 Uncertainty is the experimenter’s best estimate of how far an experimental quantity

might be from the “true value”.

Example

If the length of a sample is given as 245 3mm, then the correct value probably lies
between 245-3 and 245+3 or 242mm and 248mm.

 Measurement uncertainty is the result of imprecision in measuring device.

 All measuring device have some degree of imprecision and uncertainty

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 The uncertainty of a measurement tells us something about its quality.

 Uncertainty of measurement is the doubt that exists about the result of any measurement.

The General rules to determine the uncertainty in measurement

1. Uncertainty in measuring device like analogue device (thermometer, graduated cylinder,

ruler or meter stick) is equal to the smallest increment (lower value) divided by two (2).

2. Uncertainty in digital device (electronic device:- voltmeter, ammeter, digital balance,

stopwatch, Ph meter) is equal to the smallest increment ( ).

If you are working with a digital reading, the uncertainty will be at least digit of last
significant figure of the reading.

 Since all measured quantities are inexact number, there is always some uncertainty in the last
digit reported for any measurement quantity.

Where best estimate of measurement, uncertainty (error) in measurement

Example

1. Consider a pencil measured by a meter stick as shown in the following figures.

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A. Calculate measurement uncertainty of pencil measured by meter stick?

B. Calculate the length of pencil?

Solution

smallest increment 1cm

A. x    0.5cm
2 2
L  best   x
B.
L  43cm  0.5cm  between 42.5cm to 43.5cm
2. Let consider that the mass of an apple measured by a digital Balance scale as shown in
the following figure.

A. Calculate measurement uncertainty of an apple measured by digital Balance?

B. Calculate the mass of an apple?

Solution

 x  13.4 g
A. 0.1

 x  0.1g
m  best   x
B.
m  13.4  0.1g
3. A reading from digital Balance (digital device) is 5.7513 kg

A. Calculate measurement uncertainty?

B. Calculate the total mass of reading from digital balance?

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Solution

 x  5.7513 kg
A. 0.0001

 x  0.0001kg
m  best   x
B.
m  5.7513  0.0001kg
Exercise

Indicate which of the following allow you to give exact/inexact numbers when you measure
them

A. The mass of a paper clip. (inexact number)

B. The surface area of a coin. (inexact number)
C. The number of inches in a mile. (exact number)
D. The number of ounce in a pound. (exact number)
E. The number of microsecond in a week. (exact number)
F. The number of pages in this textbook. (exact number)

 There are many cause of uncertainty, but the most important are:
The person doing measurement (skill of operator)
The measuring device
The environment where the measurement is being made and
Variability in the item measured.

Random and systematic error

 The effect that give to uncertainty in measurement can be either

Random error and
Systematic error

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A. Random Error

Random error leads to fluctuations around the true value as a result of difficulty taking
measurement.
It is difficult to detect
Did not arise from the design of the study
Measured value being above or below true value.
Where repeating the measurement gives a randomly different result.
Random error arises mostly from inadequacies or limitations in the instrument/equipment.
Error results from fineness of scale division of measuring device
 Random error can be reduced by making more measurements and calculating a mean value.
 Repeated measurements of a quantity can reduce the effects of random error.

B. Systematic error

 Errors resulting from measuring device (equipment) that is not correctly calibrated.
 Systematic errors a rise from flaws or defects in the instrument or from errors in the manner
that the measurement was taken.
It rise due to error in the measuring instruments used
It reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently in the same direction
It rises from the design of the study
It is one direction usually due to instrument or method error.
 It always affects a result in a particular direction, and skews the accuracy of the experiment
in that direction
 Every measurement you take will be wrong by the same amount because there is a problem
with your measuring device.
 The measured values to be consistently higher or lower than the actual value.

 They cannot be reduced by conducting repeat trials

 In this case, you learn nothing extra just by repeating measurements. Other methods are
needed to estimate uncertainties due to systematic effects. Example; different measurements,
or calculations.

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Systematic error can be removed by:

Recalibrating the instrument
Replacing instrument

 Systematic error leads to a lack of accuracy in the measurement.

Error versus uncertainty

 It is important to be confused with the term “error” and uncertainty.

Error is the difference between the measured value and the “true value” of the thing
being measured.
Uncertainty is a quantification of the doubt about the measurement result.
Whenever possible we try to correct for any known error. For example by applying
corrections from calibration certificates
But any error whose value is not known is a source of uncertainty.

Precision and accuracy in measurement

Accuracy

If the average value of different measurements is close to the actual/true value, the
measurement is said to be accurate (individual measurements may not be close to each
other).

Precision

If the values of different measurements are close to each other and hence close to their
average value, the measurement is said to be precise.
The precision is good (or high) if each of the measurement is close to the average of the
series.
The precision is low (or poor) if there is a wide deviation from the average value.
Measurements of high precision are more likely to be accurate than those of poor precision,
but even highly precise measurements are sometimes inaccurate.

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Accurate average value may not have precise values and precise values may not be close
value.

1.2.1. Significant digits

Total number of digits in a number including last digit whose value is uncertain is called the
number of significant figures.
All digits of a measured quantity including the uncertainty one are called significant figures.
The recorded digits, both certain and uncertain, are called significant figures.

Example

2.2g has 2 significant figures

164.53lbs has 5 significant figures

The greater the number of significant figures in a quantity, the greater its certainty.

Rules to determine the correct number of significant figures in a measurement

1. All non-zero digits are significant.

2. Zeros between non-zero digits are always significant.
Example: 1005kg 4 significant figures.
3. Zero at the beginning of a number are never significant, they simply indicate the position
of the decimal point.
Example: 0.0045cm 2 significant figure
4. Zero at the end of a number is significant if the number contains a decimal point.
Example : 0.004500cm 4 significant figure
Zero at the end a number are usually assumed to not be significant if there is no decimal
point.
Example
600 1 significant figure.

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1.3. Vectors: composition and resolution

Scalar quantity

Scalars are quantities that are described by a magnitude (numerical value) alone.
A scalar quantity has magnitude only no direction.

Example

Distance volume,
Speed (magnitude of velocity) density,
mass, pressure
time, area
temperature, time, etc
Energy

Vector Quantity

A vector quantity has both magnitude (size) and direction.

Vectors obey the laws of vector algebra.
Example
Displacement momentum,
Velocity magnetic field,
Force, electric field,
weight, torque, etc.
acceleration,
Acceleration due to gravity

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1.3.1. Vector Representation

There two ways of vector representation

A. Algebraic method

Vectors are represented algebraically (analytically) by a letter(symbol) with an arrow over its
head or bold face letters can be used

Example

Velocity ⃗⃗ , Acceleration ⃗ ⃗

The magnitude of a vector is a positive scalar in addition is written as either by |A| or A.

B. Geometric (Graphically) method

Geometrically (geometrically), a vectors are represented by an arrow which has a foot(or

origin) and a head(or terminal) point.

The length of the arrow corresponds to the magnitude of the vector.

The head of the arrow represents direction.
A vector changes if its magnitude or direction or if both magnitude and direction changes

Example
A vector may be multiplied by a pure number or by scalar.
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Multiplication by a pure number merely changes the magnitude of the vector.

If the number is negative, the direction is reversed

When a vector is multiplied by scalar, the new vector also becomes a different physical
quantity.
Example

When velocity vector is multiplied by time scalar, we obtain a displacement.

Properties of Vectors

1. Equality of vector

Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the same direction.

A  B  A  B and A // B

2. Negative Vectors

Two vectors are negative if they have the same magnitude but are 180° apart (opposite
directions)

A   A if A  A  anti-parallel

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1.3.2. Vector Addition

 A single vector that is obtained by adding two or more vectors is called resultant vector
and it is obtained using the following two methods.

A. Graphical method of vector addition

Graphically vectors can be added by joining their head to tail and

Resultant vector is drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector.

B. Parallelogram law of vector addition

The parallelogram law states that: if two vectors are considered to be the adjacent sides of a
parallelogram, then the resultant of two vectors is given by the vector that is a diagonal
passing trough the point of contact of two vectors.

Fig: parallelogram law of vectror addition

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It states that the resultant R of two vectors A and B is the diagonal of the parallelogram for
which the two vectors A and B becomes adjacent sides.
The magnitude of the diagonal (resultant vector) is obtained using cosine law and direction
(i.e. the angle that the diagonal vectror makes with the sides) is obtained using the sine law:

Cosine law:

⃗ √

Sine law :

1.3.3. Components of Vector

Vector can be resolved into its components with respect to a particular coordinate system.
Any vector can be completely described by the sum of two perpendicular vectors.
These perpendicular vectors are called the components of the vector.

Fig: components of vector A

Where is the angle that vector makes with x-axis measured counter clockwise from
this axis.
The projection of along the axis, is called the x- component of and the projection
along the y – axis is called the y – component of vector
From the former figure and the definition of sine and cosine:

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adj. side Ax
cos   
hyp. A
Ax  A cos  1.6 
Opp.side Ay
sin   
Hyp. A
Ay  A sin  1.7 

A vector can be resolved into two or more components such that on addition it will give the
original vector in magnitude and direction. i.e.,

A  Ax  Ay 1.8
Since and are perpendicular to each other, the magnitude of their resultant vector A is
obtained by Pythagoras theorem

A  Ax2  Ay2 1.9

 Similarly, any three dimensional vector A can be written as the sum of its x, y and z
components.

A  Ax  Ay  Az 1.10

And its magnitude becomes

A  Ax2  Ay2  Az 1.11

Vector in three dimensional spaces (directional cosine)

In analytical geometry, the direction cosine (or directional cosines) of a vector are the cosine
of the angle between the vector and three positive coordinate axes.
Direction cosine gives the relation of a vector space, with each of the three axes.
The direction cosine is the cosine of the angle subtended by this line with the x- axis, y –axis
and z- axis respectively.

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If the angles subtended by the line with three axes are , then the direction cosines
are respectively.

the direction angles of a vector ̂ ̂ ̂ are defined as follow:

is the angle between and the positive axis (

is the angle between and the positive axis (
is the angle between and the positive axis (
The direction cosines for a vector ̂ ̂ ̂ is given by

From the dot product of two vectors, we have

A  B  A B cos
A B
cos  1.12 
A B

The direction of for a vector in direction of positive x –axis in the unit vector of ̂ is
given by based on Eq. (1.12) is given by:

Ax iˆ  iˆ  Ay iˆ  ˆj  Az iˆ  kˆ
cos  
ˆi  A


iˆ  Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ 

1 0 0

ˆi A
 
iˆ  iˆ Ax  Ay  Az
2 2 2
 Ax  Ay  Az
2 2 2

iˆ  A Ax
cos    1.13
iˆ A A

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The direction of for a vector in direction of positive y –axis in the unit vector of ̂ is
given by

Ax ˆj  iˆ   Ay ˆj  ˆj  Az ˆj  kˆ
cos  
ˆj  A


ˆj  Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ 
 0 1 0
ˆj A
 
ˆj  ˆj Ax  Ay  Az
2 2 2
 Ax  Ay  Az
2 2 2

ˆj  A Ay
cos  
ˆj A
 1.14 
A

The direction of for a vector in direction of positive z –axis in the unit vector of ̂ is
given by

Ax kˆ  iˆ   Ay kˆ  ˆj  Az kˆ  kˆ
cos  
kˆ  A


kˆ  Axiˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ

 0 0 1

kˆ A  
kˆ  kˆ Ax2  Ay2  Az2  Ax2  Ay2  Az2

kˆ  A Az
cos    1.15
kˆ A A

1.4. Unit Vector

A unit is a vector that has magnitude (length) of unity (one) and it is dimensionless (no
units).
Its purpose is to describe the vector in specified direction.
A Axi  Ay j  AZ k
Aˆ   1.16 
A Ax  Ay  Az

A  A Aˆ 1.17 
Where ̂ ( A “hat” ) is unit vector in the direction of .

Aˆ  1 1.18

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In three dimensional coordinate system, the unit vectors are denoted by ̂ ̂ ̂ along
respectively.

̂ ̂ ̂

An alternative notation is:

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

̂ ̂ ̂

The symbols ̂ ̂ ̂ represent unit vectors

They form a set of mutually perpendicular vectors in a right-handed coordinate system.

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

1.4.1. Vector addition in Unit Vector Notation

When two vectors ⃗ are represented in terms of their components, we can express the

vector sum ⃗ using unit vector as follow:

Let ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ and
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

Then

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R  A B
 Axiˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ  Bxiˆ  By ˆj  Bz kˆ
  Ax  Bx  iˆ   Ay  By  ˆj   Az  Bz  kˆ
R  Rx iˆ  Ry ˆj  Rz kˆ 1.22 

The magnitude of resultant vector is given by:

R  Rx2  Ry2  Rz2 1.23

Example

1. A given ̂ ̂ ̂ . Find a unit vector in the direction of .

Given required

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

Solution

A iˆ  2 ˆj  4kˆ iˆ  2 ˆj  4kˆ iˆ  2 ˆj  4kˆ

Aˆ    
 iˆ    2 ˆj    4kˆ  1  4  16
2
A 2 2 21

1 ˆ 2 ˆ 4 ˆ
Aˆ  i j k
21 21 21

The magnitude (norm) of a unit vector is given by:

2 2 2
 1  ˆ ˆ  2  ˆ ˆ  4  ˆ ˆ
Aˆ    i i    j j   k k
 21   21   21 
1 4 16
  
21 21 21
21

21
Aˆ  1

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 General Physics Lectures Note

Exercise

1. Vector has magnitude of 8 units and makes an angle of with the positive x- axis.
Vector ⃗ also has the same magnitude of 8 units and directed along the negative x- axis.

Find

A. The magnitude and direction of ⃗

B. The magnitude and direction of ⃗

Given Required

unit with in +x- axis. A. | ⃗|

⃗ unit in . B. | ⃗|

Solution

By using graphical method:

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 General Physics Lectures Note

adj.side adj.side
cos   cos  
hyp. hyp.
B A
cos   x cos   x
B A
Bx  B cos  , where   0o Ax  A cos  , where   45o
By  B sin  , where   0o Ay  A sin  , where   45o

A. The magnitude and direction of ⃗

A  Axiˆ  Ay ˆj
 A cos 45o iˆ  A sin 45o ˆj , where cos 45o and sin 45o  0.707
  8  0.707  iˆ   8  0.707  ˆj
A  5.66iˆ  5.66 ˆj i 

B  Bxiˆ  By ˆj , but Bx negative and By  0

B   B cos 00 iˆ, cos 00  1
B  8iˆ  ii 
A  B  Axiˆ  Ay ˆj   Bxiˆ 
  Ax  Bx  iˆ  Ay ˆj
  5.66  8  iˆ  5.66 ˆj
A  B  2.34iˆ  5.66 ˆj  iii 
A B   2.34    5.66 
2 2

 37.5112
A  B  6.12 unit  iv 

The direction of ⃗ is given:

Opp.side Ry Ay  By 5.656
tan     
adj.side Rx Ax  Bx 2.344
  tan 1  2.41296 
  67.45o    1800  67.45o  112.50

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 General Physics Lectures Note

⃗ =6.12 unit at an angle of from the

B. The magnitude and direction of ⃗


A  B  Axiˆ  Ay ˆj   Bxiˆ 
 Axiˆ  Ay ˆj  Bxiˆ
  Ax  Bx  iˆ  Ay ˆj
  5.66  8  iˆ  5.66 ˆj
A  B  13.66iˆ  5.66 ˆj V 
A B  13.66    5.66 
2 2

 218.63
A  B  14.79 unit Vi 

The direction of ⃗ is given

Opp.side Ry Ay  By 13.656
tan       0.4142
adj.side Rx Ax  Bx 5.656
  tan 1  0.4142 
  22.5o

Therefore, | ⃗| units at an angle of from the .

Or we can calculate by other methods applying by doing long expression as follow:

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 General Physics Lectures Note

i. Take the summation of x-component for the case of ( ⃗

Rx   x Ax    Bx 
 Ax  Bx
 A cos 45o  B cos 0o
  8   cos 45o    8   cos 0o  , cos 45o  0.707, cos 0o  1
  8  0.707    8 1
 5.656  8
Rx  2.344 unit i 
ii. Take the summation of y-component for the case of ( ⃗

Ry   y Ay  By
 A sin 45o  B sin 0o
  8   sin 45o    8   sin 0o  , sin 45o  0.707, sin 0o  0
  8  0.707    8  0 
Ry  5.656 unit  ii 

A. A  B  Rx2  Ry2

  2.344    5.656 
2 2

 5.494336  31.990336
 5.494336  31.990336
 37.484672
A  B  6.12unit

The direction of ⃗ is given:

Opp.side Ry Ay  By 5.656
tan     
adj.side Rx Ax  Bx 2.344
  tan 1  2.41296 
  67.45o    1800  67.45o  112.50

⃗ =6.12 unit at an angle of from the

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 General Physics Lectures Note

A. Take the summation of x-component for the case of ( ⃗

Rx   x Ax  Bx , but Bx   Bx
 Ax    Bx 
 Ax  Bx
 A cos 45o  B cos 0o
  8   cos 45o    8   cos 0o  , cos 45o  0.707, cos 0o  1
  8  0.707    8 1
 5.656  8
Rx  13.656 unit  iii 

B. Take the summation of y-component for the case of ( ⃗ :

Ry   y Ay  By
 A sin 45o  B sin 0o
  8   sin 45o    8   sin 0o  , sin 45o  0.707, sin 0o  0
  8  0.707    8  0 
Ry  5.656 unit  iv 

Therefore,

A  B  Rx2  Ry2

 Ax  Bx    Ay  By 
2

2

2
 13.656    5.656 
2

 186.486  31.990
 218.476
A  B  14.8unit

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 General Physics Lectures Note

The direction of ⃗ is given

Opp.side Ry Ay  By 13.656
tan       0.4142
adj.side Rx Ax  Bx 5.656
  tan 1  0.4142 
  22.5o

Therefore, | ⃗| units at an angle of from the .

2. If ̂ ,̂ ⃗ ̂ ̂ and ̂ ̂ Find a and b such that a ⃗

. Given Required

A  6iˆ  8 ˆj

B  6iˆ  3 ˆj
C  26iˆ  19 ˆj
aAˆ  bBˆ  Cˆ  0

Solution

aA  bB  C  0
   
a 6iˆ  8 ˆj  b 6iˆ  3 ˆj  26iˆ  19 ˆj  0
6aiˆ  8ajˆ  6biˆ  3bjˆ  26iˆ  19 ˆj  0 i 

Decompose (separate) Eq. (i) in terms of x- component (i) and y- component (j):

6a  6b  26  0  ii 
8a  3b  19  0  iii 

Multiplying eq.(ii) by 4and eq. (iii) by 3 and add to them:

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 General Physics Lectures Note

4 6a  6b  26  0
 
3 8a  3b  19  0
24a  24b  104  0
24a  9b  57  0
15b 161 0

15b  161
161
b  10.73
15

From Eq. (ii), we obtain the value of a

6a  6b  26  0, but b  10.73
6a  6 10.73  26  0
6a  64.38  26  0
6a  38.34  0
6a  38.34
38.34
a  6.39
6

Therefore,

a  6.39 an d b  10.73

3. Find a unit vector in the direction of the resultant of vectors ̂ ̂ ̂, ̂ ̂ ̂

and ̂ ̂ ̂.

Given Required

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

̂ ̂ ̂

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 General Physics Lectures Note

Solution
The resultant of three vectors is given by:

R  A B C
    
 2iˆ  3 ˆj  kˆ  iˆ  ˆj  kˆ  3iˆ  2 ˆj  4ˆ k 
  2  1  3 iˆ   3  1  2  ˆj  1  1  4  kˆ
R  6iˆ  4 ˆj  6kˆ

Unit vector in the direction of the resultant of vectors is given by:

R 6iˆ  4 ˆj  6kˆ 6iˆ  4 ˆj  6kˆ

Rˆ   
R  6    4    6 
2 2 2
36  16  36
6 ˆ 4 ˆ 6 ˆ
Rˆ  i j k
88 88 88

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 General Physics Lectures Note

CHAPTER TWO

2. Kinematic and Dynamics of particles

Kinematics is a branch of physics dealing with motion and a forces producing motion.
It is a part of mechanics that studies the relationship among force, matter and motion.
Mechanics deals with kinematics and dynamics.

Kinematics

 Kinematics is the branch of mechanics which describes (deals) the motion of objects or
system of bodies without consideration of the cause of motion.
 Kinematics is used to define the motion of a particle or body without consideration of the
forces causing the motion
 Kinematics describes motion without its cause.
 Kinematics is a part of mechanics that studies the relationship among displacement,
velocity, acceleration and time without reference to cause motion.
 Kinematic relationships are used to help us determine the trajectory of a projectile, speed of
satellite in its orbit and accelerations of various particles.

Dynamics

 Dynamics is a branch of mechanics which deals with the study of objects under the action
(cause) of forces.
 Dynamic which deals with the motion of objects with its cause.
Every object experiences some form of motion which is the result of different forces acting
on the object.
Dynamics is the study of the forces which are responsible for this motion.

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 General Physics Lectures Note

2.1. Kinematics in One and Two Dimensions

The objects in our surrounding from the smallest atom to the biggest galaxy are in motion.
This motion may be one dimensional, two dimensional or three dimensional motions.

2.1.1. Displacement, velocity and Acceleration in 1D and 2D

Position:

Where you are located.

 The location of a particle with respect to a fixed reference point is known as position.
The particle‟s location is specified by its coordinate, which will be denoted by x or y.

Distance (S)

How far you have traveled, regardless of direction

Displacement

Where you are in relation to where you started.

 The change in position of an object with respect to a given reference frame is known as
displacement.
As a particles moves from an initial position to a final position the displacement of the
particle is given by

x  x f  xi  2.1

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 General Physics Lectures Note

Speed (V):

how fast you go

Speed is a scalar (how fast something is moving regardless of its direction).
Speed is the magnitude of velocity.
Ex. V= 2okm/hr

Speed the distance traveled divided by the time taken

Velocity (⃗

How fast and which way; the rate at which position changes.
Velocity is a combination of speed and direction
Ex. at south of west

Velocity ( ⃗ ) is the displacement covered divided by the time taken

It tells us how much an object‟s position changes in time.

Remark!

Velocity can be positive or negative

 Positive value of velocity means that the object is moving away from the
reference point or origin.
 Negative value means that the object is moving towards the reference point or
origin.

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 General Physics Lectures Note

Acceleration

How fast you speed up, slow down, or change direction; the rate at which velocity changes.

V V f  Vi
a   for 1D  2.4 
t t f  ti

V v x ˆ v y ˆ v z ˆ
a  i j k  in 3D
t t t t

d
dt
 
v xiˆ  v y ˆj  v z kˆ

dv dv y
 x iˆ  ˆj  dv z kˆ
dt dt dt
a  axiˆ  a y ˆj  az kˆ  
 In two dimensional motion, the position vector of a particle whose coordinates are
is given by:

Figure 21: a particle moves along the curved path from point A to B.

 The displacement of a particle is the change of the position vector during certain time.
 If the a particles moves from point A at position to point B at position , then the
displacement of particle is given by

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 General Physics Lectures Note

r  rf  ri  2.5
  
 x f iˆ  y f j  xiiˆ  yi ˆj 
  x f  xi  iˆ   y f  yi  ˆj
r  xiˆ  yjˆ  2.6 

The position vector indicates the position of moving particle with respect to a given
coordinate
The position vector of a particle at certain of time is written as:

r  r (t )
r (t )  x  t  iˆ  y  t  ˆj  z  t  k  2.7 

\Average and Instantaneous Velocities

Average speed

Average Speed : is the ratio of the total distance covered to the total time taken.

Remark!

The average speed over a given interval may not be equal to the speed at one instant of time
The speed at particular time could be less than, greater than or equal to the average speed.

The average speed of the total motion of a body competing a distance of moving with
speed , and a distance moving with speed is given by:

Stot xi  x f xi  x f xi  x f
Vav    
Ttot t1  t2 xi x f xi v f  x f vi

vi v f vi v f
 xi  x f 
Vav  vi v f 
xv x v   2.9 
 i f f i 

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 General Physics Lectures Note

Average Velocity ⃗⃗

Average velocity ⃗ is the rate at which its displacement changes with respect to time.

Average velocity

r rf  ri xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ r  t  t   r  t 

Vav      2.10
t t t t

xiˆ yjˆ zkˆ

Vav   
t t t
Vav  Vav xi  Vav y j  Vav zk  2.11

 The direction of average velocity is the direction of the displacement i.e. if the displacement
points in the positive direction, the average velocity is positive and if the displacement points
in the negative direction, the average velocity is negative.

Remark!

The average velocity between points is independent of the path taken. This is because
average velocity is proportional to displacement, which depends only on the initial and final
position vectors and not on the path taken.
The magnitude of the average velocity is not the average speed.
The magnitude of the average velocity is not the average speed.

Instantaneous speed

Instantaneous speed is defined as the speed at a specific instant in time.

lim S
Vins   2.12
t  0 t

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 General Physics Lectures Note

Instantaneous Velocity ⃗

It is velocity of a body at a particular instant (single value) of time, or at a specific point.

It is the velocity of an accelerating body at a specific instant in time.
The instantaneous velocity is the value of the average velocity that it approaches in the limit
as goes to zero.

lim r lim r  t  t   r  t  d r
Vins     2.13
t  0 t t  0 t dt

In calculus notation, this limit is called the derivative of with respect to time.

emphasis that the derivative is the limit of

Vins 
dr
dt

dt

d ˆ ˆ
 dx
xi  yj  zkˆ  iˆ 
dt
dy ˆ dz ˆ
dt
j k
dt
Vins  Vxiˆ  Vy ˆj  Vz kˆ  2.14 

 Instantaneous speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity. It has the same value, but no
direction

Average and Instantaneous Accelerations

Average acceleration ⃗

Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time interval in which the
change occur.
The average of all acceleration i.e. the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

v vf  vi v  t  t   v  t 
aav     2.15
t t f  ti t

Note that: a body is said to be;

Accelerating, when it is speeding up, i.e., velocity increasing at some rate.
Decelerating, when it is slowing down, velocity decreasing at some rate.

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 General Physics Lectures Note

Instantaneous acceleration ⃗

The acceleration of the particle at instant of time.

It is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the time interval ( approaches
zero.
Instantaneous acceleration is the rate of change of velocity at a specific point or at a
particular time.
In the language of calculus, instantaneous acceleration equals the instantaneous rate of
change of velocity with time.

lim v v  t  t   v  t  dv d 2 r
ains      2.16 
t  0 t t dt dt 2

2.1.2. Motion with Constant Acceleration (uniformly accelerated motion)

 Acceleration of the particle is constant.

 When the velocity of an object changes at the same rate throughout its motion, it is
known as uniformly accelerated motion (motion with constant acceleration).

 The acceleration is uniform, when equal changes of velocity take place in equal intervals of
time.
When a body is moving in straight line with constant acceleration, we may derive its
equation of motion by methods of the calculus.

Example

Drive the equations of kinematics for a particle that travels along x – axis take the position and
velocity at initial time to be and and the acceleration to be constant.

Solution

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 General Physics Lectures Note

dv v v f  vi
a 
dt t t f  ti
dv  at  2.17 

Integrating both side of Eq. (2.17), we obtain:

t
vf
 vo
dv  a  dt
to  0

v vf  a t t
v t
o 0 0

v f  vo  at
v f  vo  at  2.18

And we know that:

dx
 v  vo  at
dt
dx
 vo  at
dt
dx   vo  at  dt  2.19 
Integrate both side of Eq. (2.19), we obtain
x t t

 dx   vo  a  tdt
xo to to
t
t2
x x  vo t a
x t
o o
2 to

1
x  xo  vot  at 2
2
1
x  xo  vot  at 2  2.20 
2
1 2
x  vot  at  2.21
2

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 General Physics Lectures Note

 vo  v f  v f  vi
x  vavt    t where t   2.22 
 2  a
 v  vf  v f  vi 
x  vavt   o  
 2  a 
v 2f  vi2
x   2.23
2a

And again from Eq. (2.17), we obtain

dv
a
dt
dv dx dv
  a
dx dt dt
vdv
a
dx
vdv  adx  2.24 

Integrating both side of Eq. (2.24), we obtain:

vf x

 vdv  a  dx
vo xo

2 vf
v
axx
x

2 vo
o

v 2f vo2
  a  x  xo 
2 2
v 2f v2
 o  a  x  xo 
2 2
v 2f  vo2  2a  x  xo   v o2  2a x  2.25 

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 General Physics Lectures Note

Constant Acceleration in Two Dimensions

When the acceleration a (for motion in two dimensions) is constant we have two sets of
equations to describe the x and y coordinates, each of which is similar to the equations in
one dimensional equations.
In the following, motion of the particle begins at t = 0;
The initial position of the particle is given by
ro  xoiˆ  yo ˆj  2.26
The initial velocity of a particle is given by:
vo  vox iˆ  voy ˆj  2.27 
The acceleration of a particle is given by:
a  ax iˆ  ay ˆj  2.28
Initial State Finial State
v x  v0 x  axt v y  voy  ay t (2.29)

1 1
x  xox  voxiˆt  axiˆt 2 y  yo  voy ˆjt  a y ˆjt 2 (2.30)
2 2
2 ˆ
v2x  vox i  2axiˆ  x  xo  v2y  voy2 ˆj  2a y ˆj  y  yo  (2.31)

x  xo 
1
2
 vox  v x  t y  yo 
1
2
 voy  v y  t (2.32)

Example

1. At , a particle moving in the x-y plane with constant acceleration has a velocity of
̂ ̂ , and is at the origin. At the particle‟s velocity is
̂ ̂ .

Find

A. The acceleration of the particle

B. Its coordinates at .

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Given Required

⃗ ( ̂ ̂) A.
⃗ ( ̂ ̂) . B.
Solution
v f  vi
A. a , to  0 s
t f  to

a
 9iˆ  7 ˆj  m / s   3iˆ  2 ˆj  m / s
3sec
 9  3 iˆ   7  2  ˆj  m / s
  
3sec
 9  3 i   7  2  ˆj  m / s
ˆ
  
3sec


 6iˆ  9 ˆj m/s 2

3
6 9 
  iˆ  ˆj  m / s 2
3 3 
 
a  2iˆ  3 ˆj m / s 2
a  ax i  a y ˆj  axi   2m / s 2  i , a y ˆj  3  m / s 2  ˆj

B,

   
1 1
x   vox  it   axi  t 2 y  voy ˆj t  a y ˆj t 2
2 2
  3m / s  iˆ  3sec    2m / s 2  iˆ  3sec   3m / s 2  ˆj  3sec 
1 1
  2m / s  ˆj  3sec  
2 2

2 2
  9m  i   9m  i
ˆ ˆ  27 
  6m  iˆ   m  iˆ
x  18miˆ  2 
15
y  mjˆ
2

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 General Physics Lectures Note

2. A fish swimming in a horizontal plane has velocity ⃗ ̂ ̂ m/s at a point in the ocean
where the position relative to a certain rock is ̂ ̂ m. After the fish swims with
constant acceleration for 20s, its velocity is ⃗ ̂ ̂ m/s.

A. Find the acceleration of the fish

B. If the fish maintains this constant acceleration, where is it at t=25s?

Given Required

⃗ ̂ ̂ A)
⃗ ̂ ̂ B)
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ m

Solution
v f  vi
A. a
t

a
 20iˆ  5 ˆj  m / s   4iˆ  ˆj  m / s
20sec
 20  4  iˆ   5  1 ˆj  m / s
 
20sec
16iˆ  6 ˆj  m / s
 
20sec
 16 6 ˆj  m / s 2
  iˆ 
 20 20 

 
a  0.8iˆ  0.3 ˆj m / s 2

 
a  ax i  a y ˆj  axi  0.8iˆ m / s 2 , a y ˆj   0.3 j  m / s 2

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 General Physics Lectures Note

B,
1
xof  xoxiˆ   vox  it   axi  t 2
2

   
 10iˆ m  4iˆ m / s  25sec  
1
2
 
0.8iˆ m / s 2  25sec 
2

   
 10iˆ m  100iˆ m   0.4  625  m

 10iˆ  m  100iˆ  m   250iˆ  m

xof   360iˆ  m

  1
 
Yof  yo ˆj  voy ˆj t  a y ˆj t 2
2

    1
 
 4 ˆj m  1 ˆj m / s  25sec   0.3 ˆj m / s 2  25sec 
2
2

    
 4 ˆj m  25 ˆj m  93.75 ˆj m 
Yof   72.75 ˆj  m

Therefore,

rf  xof iˆ  yof ˆj


rf  360iˆ  72.75 ˆj m 

2.1.3. Free Fall Motion

The motion of an object near the surface of the earth under the influence of the force of
gravity only is called free fall.
When an object falls to the ground under gravitational pull, experiment shows that the
object has a constant or uniform acceleration of about , while falling.
The numerical value of this acceleration is usually denoted by the symbol .

In the absence of air resistance, all objects regardless of their size, or weights fall with
constant acceleration, , toward the surface the earth.

The acceleration due to gravity varies with latitude, longitude and altitude of the earth.

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Acceleration due to gravity is greater at the poles than at the equator and greater at sea
level than at a top of mountain.

Remark!

Objects thrown upward or downward or those of released from rest are all free fall.
When a body falls towards Earths, its motion is due to gravitational force

Sign of vectors

1. All vectors directed vertically upwards, are positive.

2. All vectors directed vertically downwards, are negative.
3. The acceleration vector is always directed downwards. Therefore, acceleration due to
gravity is always negative.

Equations of motion for free fall

The equations for constantly accelerated straight line motion are used for freely falling
bodies with some changes in notation. Here we use instread of and
instead of

i. For an object released downward freely from rest

v y  voy  gt , v oy  0 and    g  for     g    

v y  gt  2.33
1 2
Y  h  voy t  gt , voy  0
2
1 2
Y h gt  2.34 
2
v 2y  voy
2
 2 gY (h)
v 2y  2 gY  2 g Y  Yo   2.35

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 General Physics Lectures Note

ii. For an object dropped vertically downwards with initial velocity

v y  voy  gt , and    g  for     g    

v y  voy  gt  2.36 
1 2
Y  h  voy t  gt ,  2.37 
2
v 2y  voy
2
 2 g Y  Yo   2.38

iii. For an object thrown vertically upward with initial velocity

v y  v oy  gt , and    g  for     g    
v y  v oy  gt  2.39 
1
Y  Yo  voy t  gt 2 ,  2.40 
2
1 2
Y  voy t  gt  2.41
2
v y  v oy  2 g Y  Yo 
2 2
 2.42 
2
v 1
YMax   voy tup  gtup2
oy
 2.43
2g 2
v oy
tup   2.44 
g
2v oy
ttot  tup  tdown   2.45
g

Example

1. A girl throws a ball upwards, giving it an initial speed u = 15 m/s. Neglect air resistance.

A. How long does the ball take to return to the boy„s hand?
B. What will be its velocity then?

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Given Required

A.

B.

Solution

A. When the ball returns to the girl‟s hand its position

1
Y  voy t  gt 2 , Y  0
2
1 2
0  voy ttot  gttot
2
1 2
voy ttot   gttot
2
1
voy  gttot
2
2voy  gttot

ttot 
2voy

 2 15m / s   30
sec  3.06sec
2
g 9.8m / s 9.8

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B. v2y  voy
2
 2 g Y  Yo  , Y  Yo  0

v 2y  voy
2

v 2y   voy
2

v y   voy   15m / s

We should select the negative sign, because the ball is moving downward just before
returning to the boy„s hand, i.e. 15 m/s.

2. A stone is thrown vertically upward with initial speed of . Calculate

A. The time taken by the stone to reach the maximum height?
B. The maximum height? (Take
Given Required

A.
B.

Solution

A. ⃗

0  voy  gtup
 voy   gtup
voy 10m / s
tup    1sec.
g 10m / s 2

10m / s   100m2 / s 2
2
voy2
B. Ymax    5m
2g  2  10m / s 2  20m / s 2

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 General Physics Lectures Note

1
Ymax  voy tup  gttu2 p
2
 10m / s 1sec  
1
2
10m / s 2  1sec 
2

 10m  5m
Ymax  5m

2.1.4. Projectile Motion

Projectile motion is the motion of an object that has been thrown into air.
Projectile motion is the motion of a particle that is launched with initial velocity and that
follows a path influenced by gravity and air resistance.

Example of projectile

A ball that is thrown or a football which is kicked into the air

Javelins thrown in athletics
Bullets fired from guns.

The path of a projectile is called Trajectory and it is parabolic in shape.

During a projectile motion, the path of the object (called trajectory) has both a vertical
displacement, say along y- axis and a horizontal displacement along the x- axis.
Hence projectile motion is a two- dimensional motion x-y plane.

Remark!

The vertical and horizontal components of the projectile are independent.

We take for upward motion and for downward motion.
The velocity is changing both in magnitude and direction along the vertical direction. This
is due to the effect of gravity.
The force on the projectile is constant throughout the flight
The acceleration of the projectile is constant throughout the flight
Path depends upon the initial velocity, but not upon the mass of projectile

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Projectiles can be projected

Horizontally
Vertically
Inclined
The following three assumptions are necessary to analyze a projectile motion

1. The free- fall acceleration is constant over the range of motion and is directed downward.
Projectile has zero acceleration in the x direction ( and in y direction
2. The effect of air resistance is negligible.
3. The rotation of the earth does not affect the motion

Important points

When analyzing projectile motion, consider it to be superposition of two motions:

1. Constant velocity motion in the horizontal direction.

There is no force acting on a projectile of mass m in the horizontal direction. i.e.,

Horizontal motion is motion at constant velocity.

2. Free- fall (uniform acceleration, motion in the vertical direction.

The force acting on the mass of a projectile in vertical direction is the force of gravity

Vertical motion is motion with uniform acceleration (fee fall).

Consider a body that is thrown into the air with an initial speed at an angle from the
horizontal.

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Fig: Motion of a projectile

Motion in x- direction (horizontal motion with constant velocity)

vox  vo cos 
v x  vox  ax t , sin ce ax  0
v x  vox  cons tan t
x  vox t , v ox  v o cos 
x   vo cos   t  2.46 
x
t  2.47 
vo cos 

Motion in y- direction (vertical motion with uniform acceleration)

voy  vo sin 
v y  voy  a y t , sin ce ax  g
= v oy  gt , v oy  v o sin 

v y  vo sin   gt  2.48

1
Y  voy t  gt 2
2
1
Y   vo sin   t  gt 2  2.49 
2

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Substituting Eq. (2.47) into Eq. (2.49), we obtain:

2
 x  1  x 
Y   vo sin     g 
 vo cos   2  v o cos  
sin  1 gx 2
x 
cos  2 vo2 cos 2 
 g  2
Y  x  tan     2 x  2.50 
 2vo cos  
2

Or
g
Y  ax  bx 2  parabolaEquation where a  tan  , b   2.51
2v cos2 
2
o

Eq. (2.50) is the equation of the trajectory.

Note that Eq. (2.51) is equation of a downward parabola.

The maximum height ( )

the maximum height, attained by the body during its flight can be evaluate as follow:
v y2  voy2  2 gY

  vo sin    2 gY
2

v y2  vo2 sin 2   2 gY  2.52 

At , the vertical component of the velocity is zero ( and hence Eq.(2.53)
becomes:
v y2  vo2 sin 2   2 gY , at YMax , v y  0

0  vo2 sin 2   2 gYMax

2 gYMax  vo2 sin 2 
vo2 sin 2 
YMax   2.53
2g
Time to reach the maximum height (

From Eq. (2.48), we obtain time to reach the maximum height as follow:

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v y  vo sin   gt , at YMax , v y  0
0  vo sin   gtup
gtup  vo sin 
vo sin 
tup   2.54 
g

Total time of flight (

From Eq. (2.49), we obtain the total time of flight when the thrown object reached maximum
height and returns to back its original position.

1
Y   vo sin   t  gt 2 , but Y  0, when aprojectile return back to its initial position
2
1 2
0 = v o sin  ttot  gttot
2
1 2
 v o sin  ttot   gttot
2
1
vo sin   gttot
2
2v o sin   gttot

2vo sin 
ttot   2.55
g

Range of Projectile (R)

The maximum horizontal distance (Range) covered by the body is derived from:

R  voxttot
 2vo sin  
  vo cos    
 g 
vo2  2v sin  cos  
R  2.56 
g

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But from trigonometric relations:

sin  A  B   sin A cos B  sin B cos A
sin      sin  cos   sin  cos 
sin  2   2sin  cos   2.57 

Substituting Eq. (2.57) into Eq. (2.56), we obtain:

vo2 sin  2  2v2 sin cos 

R  o  2.58
g g

Remark!

The range of projectile is a maximum at .

vo2 sin  2  45o 

Rmax 
g
v sin  90o 
2

 , sin  90o   1
o

g
vo2
Rmax   2.59 
g

Activity

1. A ball is thrown with an initial velocity of ̂ ̂ m/s. When it reaches the top of
its trajectory, neglecting air resistance, what is its

A. Velocity?
B. Acceleration?

Given Required

̂ ̂ A)

B)

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Solution

A. When a thrown ball is reaches the top of its trajectory or maximum height, , the
velocity of a ball at the top of trajectory ( ) xero. i.e.,

B. Hence, constant velocity motion in the horizontal direction, therefore, Projectile has zero
acceleration in the x direction ( .

2. An astronaut on a strange planet can jump a maximum horizontal distance of 15m if his
initial speed is 3m/s. What is the free fall acceleration on the planet?

Given Required

A.

Solution
vo2
Rmax 
g

 3m / s   9m2 / s 2  0.6m / s 2
2
v2
g o 
Rmax 15m 15m

3. A stone is thrown upward with a speed of 20m/s at an angle of from the ground.

Find:
A. The position (x, y) of the stone after 2 sec.
B. Time taken to reach the maximum height
C. The maximum height of the stone
D. The range of the stone

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Given Re quired
Vo  Vx  20 m s A) x & y  ?
g  10 m s 2 B) tup  ?
t  2sec C ) Ymax  hmax  ?
  370 D) R  ?

Solution

A. B. C. D.
i ) x  Vx t Vo sin 37 0 Vo2 sin 2 37 0 2Vo2 cos 37 0 sin 37 0
tup  tmax  hmax  R
 Vo   cos 37 0   2sec  g 2g g
 20 m s  0.6   20 m s   0.6 
2 2
  20 m s  0.8  2sec   2  20 m s   0.8  0.6 
2
  
x  32m 10 m s 2
2 10 m s 2  10 m s  2

1 2

12 m s

 400 m 2
s 2
  0.36   m2 
ii ) y  Voy t  gt  2   400   0.8  0.6 
2 10 m s 2 20 m s 2
s2 
 
 Vo   sin 37   2sec   10   2sec 
0 1
2
m
s2
2
tup  1.2sec 
144 m 2 s 2
10 m s 2 
20 m s 2
  20 m s  0.6  2sec    5 m s  4sec 
2 2
hmax  7.2m  384 m s 
2 2


 24m  20m 10 m s  2

y  4m
R  38.4m

4. A projectile is fired in such a way that its horizontal range is equal to three times its
maximum height. What is the angle of projection?

Given Required

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Solution
R  3YMax
2v o2 sin  cos  3v o2 sin 2 

g 2g
3sin 
2 cos  
2
4
cos   sin 
3
4 sin 

3 cos 
4
tan    1.33
3
  tan 1.33  53.1o
1

5. Two projectiles are thrown with the same initial velocity, one at an angle and the other at
an angle of

A. Can both projectiles strike the ground at the same distance from the projection point?
B. Can both projectiles be in air for the same time interval?

Given Requred

A)

B)

Solution

From the total time of flight of a projectile motion, we have:

2vo sin 
t1  i 
g

2vo sin  90o   

t2   ii 
g

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From trigonometric Equation,

sin  90o     sin 90o cos   sin  cos 90o

sin  90o     cos   iii 

Substituting Eq. (iii) into Eq. (ii), we obtain:

2vo cos 
t2   iv 
g

We take the product of Eq. (i) with Eq. (iv) and comparing the product of with
horizontal distance (Range):

 2v sin   2v o cos  
t1t2   o  
 g  g 
4 v sin  cos 
2
 o
g2
 
2  2vo2 sin  cos  
  
g g 
 R 
2R
t1t2  v
g
tt g
R 12  vi 
2

From above equation we conclude that the Range of the projectile is directly proportional to
the product of time .
The product of increases, the horizontal distance (Range) of a projectile is also
increases.

A. The two projectile ( are strike the ground at the same distance (range) of a
projectile.
B. From Eq. (v), we conclude that:

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1 1  2R 
 t1t2    
t2 t2  g 
2R
t1   vii 
t2 g
2R
t2   viii 
t1 g

Therefore, the two projectiles ( are inversely proportional to each other.

The two projectiles ( do not strike the ground at the same time interval.

2.2. Particle Dynamics and Planetary Motion

The study of the physical cause of motion is called dynamics, or mechanics.

Dynamics is a part of mechanics which deals with the motion of bodies under the action of
forces.

This is because the force is responsible for the motion of the particle.
The acceleration of the particle is also related with forces, and the force obeys Newton‟s
cause of motion.

Force ⃗

An interaction that causes an acceleration of a body is known as force.

A push or a pull action of a body on another body.

 Force is a vector quantity and causes a body to move, to stop, to change direction of motion
or change size or shape.

Net force ⃗

Net force is defined as the vector sum of all the forces acting on the object.

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Balance Force

If the resultant of all the forces acting on a body is zero, the forces are called balanced (in
equilibrium) force.
If the vector sum ⃗ on a body is zero, its motion does not change, the body is either
at rest or moving with constant velocity. The body is said to be in equilibrium. i.e.,

∑ ⃗

It can change the shape of object.

Unbalance Force

If the resultant forces acting on the body is not zero, the forces are called unbalanced force
It can change the state of motion of object
It can stop the moving object
It can change the speed of object
It can change the direction of object
The object accelerates only if the net force ⃗ acting on it is not equal to zero.

2.2.1. The Concept of Force as a Measure of Interaction

 There are four (4) fundamental force (interactions) observed in nature.

 Gravitational force
 Electromagnetic force
 Strong nuclear force
 Weak nuclear force

The fundamental interactions are characterized on the basis of the following four criteria:

 The types of particles that experience the force,

 The relative strength of the force,
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 The range over which the force is effective, and

 The nature of the particles that mediate the force.
1. Gravitational force

 It is always attractive and can act at a distant.

 It is the force of mutual attraction between two bodies by virtue of their masses.
 Everybody attracts other with this force.
 This force is governed by Newton‟s law of gravitation, which states that:

Properties of Gravitational forces

It is universal attractive force

It is directly proportional to masses of two bodies
It is obey inverse square law
It is longer range force
It is central forces
It is weakest force in nature
It is conservative force
It is to be caused by the exchange of particles called graviton.

2. Electromagnetic force

It is attractive or repulsive and acts on charged particles.

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The force acting between two electric charge at rest is called electrostatic force
This force is governed by coulomb's law which states that:

The force between two magnetic poles is called magnetic force

These two forces are inseparable and considered as the two facets of a general force
known as Electromagnetic force.

Properties of Electromagnetic force

It may be attractive or repulsive

It obey inverse square law
It is not as much longer than gravitational force.
It is times shorter than gravitational force.
It is central force
It is conservative force
It is caused by the exchange of photons between two charged bodies.

3. Strong Nuclear force

It is a force which binds together the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
It is responsible to keep protons and neutrons bound together in the nucleus

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This force is 100 times stronger than electromagnetic force and times stronger than
gravitational force.

Properties of strong nuclear force

It is an attractive force
It is short range force and it operates with
It is charge independent
It does not obey inverse square law
It is non-central force
It is non-conservative force
It is caused by the exchange of particles called

4. Weak Nuclear force

This is the force that appears only between elementary particles involved in a nuclear
process such as the beta decay of nucleus.
It is responsible for a beta decay radioactivity

Depending on the exchanged particle, weak interaction can be electrically neutral Z-boson
and the charged W-bosons.

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Properties of weak nuclear force

Any process involving neutrino or antineutrino is governed by weak nuclear force.

It is times stronger than gravitational force.
It operates only through the range of .
This force a rises due to the exchange of particle called massive vector boson.

2.2.2. Type of Forces

Forces are generally of two types

1) Contact Force

Contac force a type of force that requires bodily (physically) contact with another object.
One object is in physical contact with another.
When objects are in contact with each other, the force act between the objects.

Examples of contact force

A. Muscular Force: the force resulting due to the action of muscles.

B. Frictional Force: it is the force that opposes motion between any surfaces that are in
contact.
C. Normal Forces: it is a force that acts perpendicular to two surfaces that are in contact
with each other.

2) Non-contact Force (Field force)

It is a type of force that does not required a physical contact with the other object.
When objects are not in contact with each other, the force act between the object.
Long range forces that act even the bodies are separated by empty space.

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Examples of contact force

All fundamental force (interaction) in nature are field force (non-contact force)

Gravitational force
Electromagnetic force: magnetic force and electrostatic force
Strong nuclear force
Weak nuclear force

2.2.2. Newton’s Laws of Motion and Applications

Newton‟s law of motion is the basic laws of dynamics.

Newton’s First law (Law of Inertia)

Newton‟s first law states that “a body at rest remains at rest and a body in state of motion,
continues its motion with constant velocity if no external unbalanced acts on it”
It implies that; in the absence of external force, a body at rest will remain at rest and a body
moving with uniform motion will continue its motion. That is

A book lying on a table will remain there forever, and

A ball given a constant velocity will mover forever.

If the vector sum ⃗ on a body is zero, its motion does not change, the body is either
at rest or moving with constant velocity. The body is said to be in equilibrium. i.e.,

∑ ⃗

A reference frame in which Newton‟s first law of motion is valid (hold) is known as Inertial
frame of reference.
A reference frame in which a body at rest remain at rest a body in motion moves at constant
velocity in a straight line unless acted upon by external force is called inertial reference
frame.

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Inertia

It is the property of a body to resist any attempt to change its state of motion.
Inertial is the tendency of a body to continue in its original state of rest or state of
uniform motion.

Mass

Mass is the measure of the body‟s resistance to change in its state of motion. So, it is true
that “the bigger the mass, the greater the inertial”.

2.2.3. Application of Newton’s First law

Static Equilibrium: is a type of equilibrium that occurs when a body is at rest and there is
no net force acting on it
Dynamic equilibrium: is a type of equilibrium that occurs when a body is moving at a
steady velocity and there is no not force acting on it.
Equilibrium: is a condition in which the state of motion of a body does not change.

A body at equilibrium is either at rest or moves with a constant velocity (zero

acceleration)
A body is in equilibrium, if and only if the vector sum of the force acting on the
body is zero. ∑

For this to be true, component of the net force must be zero i.e.,

∑ ∑ ∑

Condition of Equilibrium

In solving problems of static equilibrium:

i. Draw the free diagram of the problem

ii. Decompose each force into its x and y components

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iii. Apply the equation ∑ ∑ ∑ by combining these equation

we will be solved.

Example

A bag of cement of weight 400 N hangs from three ropes as shown in the figure below.
Two of the ropes make angles of 370 and 530 with the horizontal. If the system is in
equilibrium, find the tensions in the ropes.

Given Required

W  mg  400 N

cos370  sin 530  0.8 and cos530  sin 370  0.6

Solution

A). Free body diagram for Masses suspended by strings

 Fy  o
T3  W  0
T3  W  mg  400 N I 

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B). A free body diagram for the knot holds the three cables together

i   Fx  o

T2 cos 53o  T1 cos 37o  0

0.6T2  0.8T1  0
0.6T2  0.8T1
 0.8 
T2    T1
 0.6 
4
T2  T1  II 
3
 ii   Fy  o

T1 sin 37o  T2 sin 53o  T3  0, but T3  400 N

0.6T1  0.8T2  400 N  0
0.6T1  0.8T2  400 N  III 

Substitute Eq. (II) into Eq. (III), we obtain:

0.6T1  0.8  43  T1  400 N

0.6T1  3.23 T1  400 N

 1.833.2  T1  400 N
5
3 T1  400 N
  400 N   53  12003 N
T1  240 N

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From Eq. (II):

4
T2  T1 , but T1  240 N
3
4 960
T2   240 N   N  320 N
3 3
Therefore
T1  240 N
T2  320 N
T3  400 N

Newton's second law of Motion (Law of acceleration or law of momentum)

“The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and
inversely proportional to its mass.” ∑ .
The net external force applied on a particle is the rate of change of linear momentum.

p dp
Fnet   , p  mv
t dt
d
  mv 
dt
d
m v
dt
Fnet  ma  2.65

Remark!

Newton‟s 2nd law applies to a single object.

A force is necessary to produce acceleration.
The direction of the acceleration is always in the direction of the net force.
The net force is always the vector sum of the individual forces and may not be in the
direction of any one force.

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F net  ma   Fx  F Fy z

F net  maxiˆ  ma y ˆj  maz kˆ  2.66 

Magnitude of Force and acceleration is given by

F  Fx2  Fy2  Fz2 and a  ax2  a y2  az2  2.67 

Example

1. Find the force needed to accelerate amass of 40kg from velocity ⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) to

⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) in 10s?

Given Required

⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂)

⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂)

Solution

F  ma i 

a
V f  Vi

8iˆ  3 ˆj  5kˆ    4iˆ  5 ˆj  3kˆ 
m
s
m
s

t 10s
(8  4)iˆ  (3  5) ˆj  (5  3) kˆ  ms
 
10s
 4 8 ˆ 8 ˆ m
  iˆ  j  k  s2
 10 10 10 
2 4 4 
a   iˆ  ˆj  kˆ  sm2  ii 
5 5 5 

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Put Eq. (ii) into Eq. (i), we obtain:

2 4 4 
F  40kg  iˆ  ˆj  kˆ  sm2
5 5 5 
 80 160 ˆ 160 ˆ 
  iˆ  j k  kgm / s 2
 5 5 5 

F  16iˆ  32 ˆj  32kˆ N 
2. If a man weighs 900N on earth, what is his weight on Jupiter where the acceleration due to
gravity is ?

Given Required

Solution

WE  mg E
WE 900 N
m   91.74kg
g E 9.8m / s 2

Weight of a man on the Jupiter is given by: (note that a mass an object is the same in
everywhere)

WJ  mg J

  91.74kg   25.9m / s 2 

WJ  2376.06 N

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3. A 1kg body accelerates by ̂ ̂ and ̂ ̂ .

Find

A. The net force in unit vector notation

B. The magnitude of the net force
C. The acceleration
D. The magnitude of acceleration

Given Required

̂ ̂ A)
̂ ̂ B)
C)
D)

Solution

A) B) C) D

Fnet  F1  F2 Fnet  (1) 2 N 2   2  N 2

2
 F  ma 
a  iˆ  2 ˆj  m
s2

  
 3iˆ  4 ˆj N  2iˆ  6 ˆj N   5N 2 a
Fnet
 (1) 2 m2
  2 
2 m2
s4 s4
m
  3  2  iˆ   4  6  ˆj  N Fnet  2.24 N
 iˆ  2 ˆj  N  5 ms4
2


Fnet  iˆ  2 ˆj N 
1kg a  2.24 sm2

a  iˆ  2 ˆj  m
s2

Newton’s 3rd law (Law of action and reaction)

Newton‟s 3rd law states that “For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”.
If object 1 exerts a force on object 2, the object 2 exerts an equal force, oppositely directed
on object 1.

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Where, is the force applied by body 1 on body 2 and is the force applied by body 2 on
body 1.
The action force is equal in magnitude to the reaction force and opposite in direction.
i.e., for every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Remark!

Action and reaction forces are always exist in pair; a single isolated force cannot exist.
The net external force applied on the system is not equal to zero.
Action and reaction forces acts on different objects; as the result they never cancel one
another.
Action and reaction forces; can be contact and non-contact.
The two forces in Newton‟s 3rd law never occur in the free body diagram.

Forces of Friction (⃗

It is a contact force that opposes the relative motion of two surfaces.

Frictional force is a resistive force that opposes the motion of a surface over another
surface.

Remark!

Friction force exists parallel to the surfaces and always directed opposite to the direction of
motion.
Frictional force doesn‟t depend on the area of the surfaces in contact.
Frictional force depends on normal force/load (the force pressing the two surfaces together)
and the nature of surfaces in contact i.e., roughness and smoothness of the surfaces

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Normal Force ⃗

Normal force ( is a force that is always acting perpendicular to the surfaces in

contact.

Friction force is always proportional to the normal force between the two interacting
surfaces. Mathematically

Ff  FN

Ff   FN  2.69 

Where frictional force, Normal force and coefficient of friction

Types of friction

A. Static friction

 Static friction is a force of friction which opposes the sliding of an object when it is
pulled or push.
 Static friction is the frictional force that keeps things from moving.
 It is the friction between two surfaces that are at rest relative to each other.

Mathematically static friction is written as

f s  s FN  2.70

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Where is the coefficient of static friction.

The maximum static friction called limiting friction and is arises when the body is on the
verge of motion.

B. Kinetic friction

Kinetic friction is the frictional force between two surfaces that are in relative motion to
each other.
Kinetic friction is the frictional force when the object is in sliding (in motion) on the
surface.
It is frictional force that acts to retard (slow down) motion.

f k  k FN  2.70

Where is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

Remark!

The friction force and the normal force are perpendicular.

The maximum force of friction will be the same as the smallest force necessary to star
motion
Coefficient of friction are independent of the area of contact between the surface
Kinetic friction is less than static friction and Coefficient of kinetic friction is
less than coefficient of static friction .

Example

1. A 25.0-kg block is initially at rest on a horizontal surface. A horizontal force of 75.0 N is

required to set the block in motion. After it is in motion, a horizontal force of 60.0 N is
required to keep the block moving with constant speed. Find the coefficients of static and
kinetic friction from this information.

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Given Required

Solution

f s   s FN , but FN  mg
fs f 75 N
s   s   0.31
FN mg  25kg   9.8m / s 2 

f k  k FN
fk 60 N
k    0.245
FN  25kg   9.8m / s 2 

2. A block of mass m slides down an inclined plane as shown in the figure below. Find the
expression for the acceleration of the block.

A. If the inclined plane is frictionless

B. If the inclined plane has coefficient of kinetic friction

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Solution

The free body diagram for the problem is

A. If the inclined plane is frictionless:

F x  mg sin   f k  ma , but f k  0

m g sin   m a
a  g sin   2.71

B. If the inclined plane has coefficient of kinetic friction

F x  mg sin   f k  ma , but f k  k FN

mg sin   k FN  ma , but FN  mg
m g sin   k m g  m a
g sin   k g  a
a  g  sin   k   2.72 

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2.2.4. Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform Circular Motion is motion of objects in a circular path with a constant speed.
When a particle is moving in a circular path at constant speed we say that the particle is
in uniform circular motion.
For objects moving in a circular path with a constant speed, acceleration arises because of
the change in direction of the velocity is called centripetal acceleration

Where is called centripetal acceleration.

There are two ways in which the acceleration can occur due to:

change in magnitude of the velocity

change in direction of the velocity

In case of uniform circular motion;

Velocity is always tangent to the circular path and perpendicular to the radius of the
circular path.
Acceleration is always perpendicular to the circular path and points towards the
center of the circle.
To derive the equation for the acceleration, let‟s consider the following figures:

Figure: particles moving in a circle with constant speed

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The triangles OAB and O‟A‟B‟ are similar, since both triangle are isosceles and the angle
is the same for triangle. As the result the corresponding side are proportional:

ri rf r
  , Let ri  rf  r and vi  v f  v
vi vf v

r s

v v
v
v    s  2.74 
r
Again from above figure we have:
s  r  2.75
Average velocity of a uniform circular motion is given by:
s 
v r  2.76
t t
Instantaneous velocity of a circular motion is given by:
lim s
v , s  r 
t  0 t
lim 
 r
t  0 t
d
r
dt
v  r  2.77 
Where is the angular velocity or rate of change of angular displacement.
2
  2 f   2.78
T
Where is frequency
 1
f    2.79 
2 T
Where T is period

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Period (T): time required for one complete revolution.

Substituting Eq. Eq. (2.78) into Eq.(2.77), we obtain the speed of circular motion:

2 r
v  2  rf  2.80
T
The magnitude of the average acceleration during is given by:

v v
a , v  s
t r
v s
a  2.81
r t

The instantaneous acceleration of a uniform circular motion is given by:

lim v v
ac  , v   s
t  0 t r
lim v s

t  0 r t
v lim s

r t  0 t
v ds

r dt
v
    v
r
v2
 , v  r
r
 r 
2
r 2 2
   r 2
r r
2
v
ac   r 2  2.82 
r

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Example

1. An athlete rotates a discus along a circular path of radius 1.06m.If the maximum speed of
the disc us is 20m/s, determine the magnitude of the maximum centripetal acceleration.

Given Required

Solution
v2
ac 
r
 200m / s 
2


1.06m 
2
400 ms2

1.06m
ac  377.26 sm2

2.2.5. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

The law of universal gravitation which is formulated by Isaac Newton‟s.

The mutual attraction of objects in the universe due to their mass is called gravitational
traction.

 Isaac Newton‟s stated the universal gravitational law as follows:

Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them”.

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Fg  m1m2  2.83
1
And Fg   2.84 
r2
When we combine the two Equations, we get universal attraction force between two bodies
as:
Gm1m2
Fg   2.85
r2

Where G is a universal gravitational constant experimentally determined by Cavendish to be

.

Remark!

The law of gravitation gives the gravitational force between any two bodies having certain
mass.

Weight and gravitational force (field intensity)

Gravitational field strength (intensity) is the force of a unit mass at a point of distance
from the center of the earth.
All massive objects are source of gravitational field.
The gravitational force of attraction between a body of mass m and the earth when the
body is on or near the surface of the earth is called the force of gravity (⃗

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GmM e
Fg  , but Fg  mg
re2
G m Me
mg
re2
GM
g 2e  2.86 
re
Eq. (2.86) shows gravitational acceleration on the surface of the earth.
At a given height (h), above the surface of the earth , acceleration due to gravity
is given by:
GM e
gh   2.87 
 re  h 
2

Example

1. What is the magnitude of the gravitational force between two objects of mass
and that are apart? ( )

Given Required

Solution

Gm1m2
Fg 
r2


 6.67 1011 Nm2 / kg 2  2.5 108 kg  4 108 kg 
110 m 
4

Fg  6.67 102 N

1. Determine the value of on the surface of the if and

? ( )

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Given Required

Solution
GM e
g
re2


 6.67 10 11
Nm 2 / kg 2  5.97 1024 kg 
 6.37 10 m 
6

g  9.8m / s 2

2.2.5. Kepler’s Laws, Satellites Motion and Weightlessness

 Kepler‟s complete analysis of planetary motion is summarized in three statements known as

Kepler‟s laws:
 The kepler‟s three law describe characteristic of the elliptical orbits of planets around the sun
or satellite around a planet.

Kepler’s First Law (Law of Orbits)

States that “all planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focal point”.
This is equally true for satellite, either naturally or artificial orbiting the earth.

Figure: a planet of mass m moving in an elliptical orbit around the sun of mass M

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 An ellipse is mathematically defined by choosing two points F1 and F2, each of which is a
called a focus.
 The longest distance through the center between points on the ellipse (and passing through
both foci) is called the major axis, and this distance is 2a.
 The distance “a” is called the semi major axis.
 The shortest distance through the center between points on the ellipse is called the minor
axis of length 2b, where the distance b is the semi minor axis.
 The eccentricity of an ellipse is defined as and describes the general shape of the
ellipse.

When the planet is at the far distance from the Sun is called the aphelion (
When the planet is nearest distance to the Sun is called the perihelion (

Kepler’s Second Law (The Law of Areas)

States that “an imaginary line drawn from the sun to the planet sweeps out equal area in
equal interval of time”.

The two shaded region have equal areas.

The time covers 1, 2, 3 and 4 are equal then, .

Kepler’s Third Law (The Law of Harmony or Law of period)

States that “the square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the
average distance between the centers of the planet and the sun.”

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States that “the square of the period any planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-
major axis of its orbit”.

This law relates the period of any planet to its mean distance from the sun, which equals
the semi-major axis of its elliptical path.

 Consider a planet of mass that is assumed to be moving about the Sun (mass ) in a
circular orbit

 Because the gravitational force provides the centripetal acceleration of the planet as it moves in a
circle, we use centripetal force that keeps a planet to moves in circles.

GM s M p M p v2
Fg   Fc , Fc 
r2 r
2
GM s M p Mp v
2

r r
GM s
 v2  2.88
r

But from uniformly circular motion, the velocity of circular motion is given by

2
v  r ,   2 f 
T
2 r
v  2.89 
T

Substituting Eq. (2.89) into Eq. (2.88), we obtain:

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GM s  2 r 
2

 
r  T 
GM s 4 2 r 2

r T2
GM sT 2  4 2 r 3
 4 2  3
T2   r
 GM s 
T 2  ks r 3  2.90 
where is called kepler‟s constant

Activity

1. In what frame(s) of reference are Kepler‟s laws valid? Are Kepler‟s laws purely
descriptive, or do they contain causal information?

Solution

 Kepler‟s laws are valid in space with the sun in one permanent (stable) spot.
 Kepler‟s laws are said to be for planets orbiting the sun, however they can be valid for all
bodies that orbiting around one stable object. This law are purely descriptive.

2.5.6. Satellite motion and Weightlessness

Meaning and cause of weightlessness

Weightlessness: is the sensation that occur when there are no contact forces to counteract a
person‟s weight
Weightlessness: is a sensation experienced by an individual when there are no external
objects touching one's body and exerting a push or pull upon it.
Weightless is a sensations exist when all contact forces are removed.

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Remark!

Weightlessness doesn‟t occur when there is no gravity present; it occurs when there is
only gravity present.
You would feel weightless when in a state of free fall.
A person who is free falling will feel entirely weightlessness since there are no contact
forces present to counteract their weight.
Weightlessness is a sensation and not a reality. A person who feels weightless is not a
person who is without weight.

Weightlessness in orbit (satellite)

Orbiting astronaut is free-falling object. That is, the only force on their bodies is the force
of gravity.
There are no contact forces pulling or pulling upon their body to give them any sensation
of their weight.
Astronauts are acted upon the force of gravity.

Common Misconceptions about Weightlessness

1. Orbiting astronauts are weightless because they don‟t experience the force of gravity.

False! Without gravitational force , they could never orbit. Gravity supplies the
required centripetal force.
2. Orbiting astronauts feel weightless because gravitational force is significantly reduced in
space.

False! Gravitational force is typically less than on Earth‟s surface. This

doesn‟t explain absolute weightless.
3. Orbiting astronauts feel weightless because there is air in space. Doesn‟t exist in a
vacuum.

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False! Gravitational force results from Earth‟s mass attracting other massive
objects. Lack of air or a vacuum has zero effect upon the force of gravity (or
weight).

4. Astronauts on the orbiting space station we weightless because the astronauts are far from
Earth‟s surface at a location where gravitational has a minimum effect,

False!

Example

1. Astronaut feels weightless in internal space stations due to zero gravity.

A. True B. False
Given statement is false.
Astronauts merely feel weightless in international space station because there is no
external contact force pushing or pulling up on their body. They are in state of free fall.
The normal force does not come in to play giving the feeling of being weightless.

2. As astronaut inside an earth satellite experiences weightless because:

A. There is no gravity in outer space
B. The net force on them is zero
C. The centrifugal force balances the gravitational force
D. is very small, although not zero
E. They are in free fall

Answer: E

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2.3. Work, Energy and Linear Momentum

2.3.1. Work and Energy

Work is the process of transforming energy.

It is the scalar (dot) products of force and displacement.

W  F  r  F r cos   2.91

Work is: is said to be done when a force applied on the body displaces the body through
a certain distance in the direction of force.

Remark!

For work to be on an object, three essential conditions should be satisfied:

Force must be exerted on the object
The force must cause a motion or displacement
The force should have a component along the line of displacement
The work done by a given force on a body depends only on:
The forces
The displacement
The angle between them
Work done can be positive, negative and zero based on the direction of applied force and
displacement.

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Positive work

Positive work means that force (or its component) is parallel to displacement.

The positive work signifies that the external force favours the motion of the body.

Example of positive work

A. When a person lifts a body from the ground, the work done by the (upward)lifting force
is positive

B. When a spring is stretched, work done by the external (stretching) force is positive.

Negative Work

Negative work means that force (or its component) is opposite to displacement.

The negative work signifies that the external force opposes the motion of the
body.

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Example of negative work

A. When a person lifts a body from the ground, the work done by the (downward) force of
gravity is negative.

B. When a body is made to slide over a rough surface, the work done by the frictional force is
negative.

Zero Work Done

Under three conditions, work done becomes zero

1. If the force is perpendicular to the displacement [ ].

Example: When a body moves in a circle the work done by the centripetal force is always
zero.

2. If there is no displacement[ ].

Example: When a person tries to displace a wall or heavy stone by applying a force then it
does not move, the work done is zero.

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3. If there is no force acting on the body [ ].

Example: Motion of an isolated body in free space.

Work done by different constant forces on a body moving on rough surfaces:

Work done by:

Applied force ( ) | |
Frictional force
Reaction |⃗ |
Weight

Work done by a constant and variable force

Work done by a constant force:

Constant force: is a force having constant magnitude and direction in the given time
interval. Example gravitational force.
Work is said to be done by a constant force when a body is moving with a constant
acceleration due to the force applied to displace the body through a certain distance in the
direction of the net force applied.

Work done by a force is equal to the area of the region bounded by component of the
force parallel to the displacement axis.

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Force Versus Distance Graph of Work Done by Constant force:

Worked Example:

A particle is subject to a force that varies with position as shown in Figure below. Find
the total work done by the force over the distance from to

Solution

Work done = area of the region bounded by component of the force

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W  Fx x  A
W  A1 Triangle   A2  rec tan gle   A3 Triangle 
1 1
  3N  5m    3N 10m  5m    3N 15m  10m 
2 2
1 1
  3 N  5m    3 N  5m    3N  5m 
2 2
1 1
 15  Nm  15  Nm  15  Nm
2 2
 7.5 J  15 J  7.5 J
W  30 J

Work Done by a Variable Force

Variable force is a force that varies with time or position. Example spring force.
Work done by a constant varies force is equal to the area under the curve.

If spring is stretched from initial position to a final position then work done
Increment in elastic potential energy.

( )

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Energy: is the capacity (ability) to do work

It is a scalar physical quantity

Dimension: it is the same as the work or torque.
Units: joule J

Forms of Energy:

There are several different forms of energy.

These include:

Kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy, elastic potential energy, heat energy, sound
energy, electrical energy… etc.

Kinetic Energy (KE)

It is the capacity of an object to do work by virtue of its motion.

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy depends on frame of reference: The kinetic energy of a person of mass m,
sitting in a train moving with speed v, is zero in the frame of train but in the frame

of the earth.

For an object of mass m and moving with speed v, the kinetic energy is calculated as:

Work done and kinetic energy are related using the work energy theorem.

Work Energy Theorem: states that “work done by a net force is equal to the change in
kinetic energy of the body”.

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W  KE , W  Fs cos  , KE  KE f  KE f

W  Fs cos   KE f  KE f

m  vf2  vi2 
1
W  Fs cos    2.96 
2

Example

1. A 0.600-kg particle has a speed of 2.00 m/s at point A and kinetic energy of 7.50 J at point B.
what is

A. Its kinetic energy at A?

B. Its speed at B?
C. The total work done on the particle as it moves from A to B?

Given Required

A.

B.

C.

Solution

A B C

m  v 2B  v A2 
1 2 1 2 1
KE A  mv A KEB  mv B W  KE  KEB  KE A 
2 2 2
1 2 KEB  mv 2B  7.5 J  1.2 J
  0.6kg   2 ms 
2

2 2 KEB W  6.3J
v 2B 
 
  0.3kg  4 ms2
2
m
KE A  1.2 J 2 KEB
vB 
m


 2  7.5 J 
0.g 6kg
v B  5m / s

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Potential Energy (PE)

It is the energy that is stored in an object due to its position relative to some zero position.
An object possesses gravitational potential energy if it is positioned at a height above (or
below) the zero height.
It is the energy possessed by a body because of its position or configuration.
The potential energy concept can be used only when dealing with a special class of forces
called conservative forces.
Potential energy generally is of three types: Elastic potential energy, Electric potential
energy and Gravitational potential energy etc.

Mathematically the potential energy is given by

PE  U g  mg Y  2.97 

This equation is valid only for objects near the surface of the Earth, where g is approximately
constant.

Gravitational Potential Energy: is the energy of a body due to its position from a given
height

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Remark!

The work done to move a body upward is equal to the increase in gravitational potential
energy, and the work done to move the body downward is equal to the decrease in
gravitational potential energy of the body.

Elastic Potential Energy: is the energy of a body due to its configuration

1 2
EPE  kx  2.99 
2

Where k is force constant, x- extension.

The work done by the elastic force is equal to the change in elastic potential

1 2 1 2
W  EPE  kx f  kxi  2.100 
2 2

Conservation of Energy

Mechanical Energy (ME): is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy.

ME  KE  PE  2.101

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Law of conservation of Energy

States that “in the absence of dissipative force, mechanical energy remains constant”.

MEi  ME f
KEi  PEi  KE f  PE f  (Conservation of mechanical energy)  2.103

Example

1. A ball of mass m is dropped from a height h above the ground. Neglecting air resistance,

A. Determine the speed of the ball when it is at a height y above the ground.
B. Determine the speed of the ball at y if at the instant of release it already has an
initial upward speed at the initial altitude h.

Given Required

A. , when
B. When ball have

Solution

A B
v 2f  vi2  2 g r , vi  0, r  h  y v 2f  vi2  2 g r , r  h  y
v 2f  2 g  h  y  v 2f  vi2  2 g  h  y 
v f  2g  h  y  v f  vi2  2 g  h  y 

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Conservative and dissipative forces (non-conservative)

Work Done by Conservative Forces

it is a force that does not work when a body moves on a closed path
Conservative Forces- are path independent.
Example: Gravitational force, restoring(spring) forces, electrostatic forces
If the net work done by a force does not depend on the path taken between two points,
we say that the force is a conservative force.
For such forces it is also true that the net work done on a particle moving on around any
closed path is zero.

ME  KE  PE  0  2.104

Conservative forces have these two equivalent properties:

The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving between any two points
is independent of the path taken by the particle.
The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving through any closed path
is zero. (A closed path is one in which the beginning and end points are identical).

A force is a conservative force if the network it does on a particle moving around every
closed path is zero.

Example: Work done by gravitation for a ball thrown upward that then falls back down

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Work done by non-Conservative Forces

Dissipative force

Dissipative force that does work when a body moves on closed path.
Examples: friction force, drag force (air or liquid resistance).

Non-conservative forces acting within a system cause a change in the mechanical energy of
the system.
ME  KE  PE  Wf   fd  2.105
Remark!

Work done by dissipative force is path (length) dependent.

Work done by dissipative force is not recoverable. i.e., there is lose, mechanical
energy is not conserved.

The loss in mechanical energy is equal to the work done by against friction.

Mechanical energy is only conserved when no dissipative or non-conservative force act on

a body.

Example

1. A 3.00-kg crate slides down a ramp. The ramp is 1.00m in length and inclined at an angle of
30.0°, as shown in the figure below. The crate starts from rest at the top, experiences a
constant friction force of magnitude 5.00 N, and continues to move a short distance on the
horizontal floor after it leaves the ramp. Use energy methods to determine the speed of the
crate at the bottom of the ramp.

Given Required

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Solution

Since the non-conservative force (friction force) exists in the system,

ME  KE  PE  f k d

KE f  KEi  PE f  PEi  f k d
1
2 mv f2  12 mvi2  mgh f  mghi  f k d
1
2 mv f2  mghi  f k d
1
2 mv f2  mghi  f k d
v f2  2
m  mghi  f k d 
v  2 ghi   fk d
m 
 
 2  9.8 sm2  0.5m    
5 NM
3 kg

v  2.54m / s 2

2.3.2. Power

Power of a body is defined as the rate at which the body can do the work or time rate of
energy is transferred.
The average power is given by:
w E KE PE
pav      2.106
t t t t
The instantaneous power P is defined as the limiting value of the average power as
approaches zero.

lim w
Pin 
t  0 t
lim F r

t  0 t
lim r dr
F F
t  0 t dt
Pin  F v  2.107 

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Mechanical power can be taken as one of the applications of dot product.

P  F v  Fx v x  Fy v y  Fz v z  Fv cos   2.108

Activity

1. The electric motor of a model train accelerates the train from rest to 0.620 m/s in 21.0cs. The
total mass of the train is 875 g. Find the average power delivered to the train during the
acceleration.

Given Required

Solution

W
p i 
t
1

W  KE  m V f2  Vi 2
2

1
 0.875kg   0.62 ms   0
2

2
  0.4375  0.3844  kg ms2
2

W  0.168175 J  16.82  102 J  ii 

* Substitute Eq.  ii  into Eq.  i  we obtain

W 16.82 102 J 16.82 102 2 J 16.82 J

P     0.801W
t 21102 s 21sec 21sec

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2.3.3. Linear Momentum

 Momentum is defined as the quality of a moving object to exert a force on anything that tries
to stop it.
 If a net force acts on a body, it will cause the body‟s momentum to change.
 the momentum change occurs in the direction of the force at rate proportional to the
magnitude of the force.
 The linear momentum of a particle or an object that can be modeled as a particle of mass m
moving with a velocity is defined to be the product of its mass and velocity:

P  mv  2.109

 Momentum ( ⃗ ) is a vector quantity in the direction of the velocity with SI unit

 the time rate of change of the linear momentum of a particle is equal to the net force acting
on the particle

F  ma
v
m
t
  mv 

t
P
F  2.110 
t
F t  I  P  Pf  Pi  2.111

 The impulse of the net force acting on the particle is equal to the change in momentum of
the particle.

Law of conservation of Linear Momentum

Law of conservation of linear momentum states that; “The total momentum of the
system remains constant if no external force acts on an object or system.”

∑⃗ ∑

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Remark!

Conservation of linear momentum is;

another way of stating Newton‟s 1st law, and

an alternative and more general statement of Newton‟s 3rd law

 Consider a body A of mass moving with a velocity collides head on with another
body B of mass moving in the same direction as A with velocity as shown in figure
below.

 After collision, the velocities of the bodies be changed to respectively, and both
moves in the same direction.

the momenta of the two ball before collision is given by:


PAi  m1u1 
  2.113
PBi  m2u2 


Total momentum of the system of two ball before collision is given by:

Pi  PAi  PBi
Pi  m1u1  m2u2  2.114 
The momenta of the two ball after collision is given by:

PAf  m1v1 
  2.115
PBf  m2 v2 


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Total momentum of the system of two ball after collision is given by:

Pf  PAf  PBf
Pf  m1v1  m2 v2  2.116 
 During collision, each body experiences force.
 The force acting on one body is equal to in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force
acting on the other body. Both forces act for the same interval of time.

During collision, be force ex exerted by A on B (action), and be force exerted by B

on A (reaction) and t be the time contact of the two bodies during collision.

acting on the body B for a time t, changes its velocity from is given by:

F12  mB aB
 v u 
F12  m2  2 2   2.117 
 t 

acting on the body A for a time t, changes its velocity from is given by:

F21  mA a A
 v u 
F21  m1  1 1   2.118
 t 
By applying Newton‟s 3rd law of motion, we can write Eq. (2.117) and Eq. (2.118) as:

F12   F21
 v u   v u 
m2  2 2   m1  1 1 
 t   t 
m2  v 2  u2   m1  u1  v1 
m2 v 2  m2u2  m1u1  m1v1
m1v1  m2 v 2  m1u1  m2u2  2.119 
P  P
i f  2.120 

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 General Physics Lectures Note

Eq. (2.119) implies that if no external force acts on the system of two colliding balls, the
total (before and after) is conserve.

Example

1. A 60-kg archer stands at rest on frictionless ice and fires a 0.50-kg arrow horizontally at 50
m/s. With what velocity does the archer move across the ice after firing the arrow?

Given Required

Solution
P  P
i f

 0  0
m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v 2
0  m1v1  m2 v 2
m1v1  m2 v 2
m2 v 2
v1  
m1


 0.5kg  50m / s 
 60kg 
25
 m/s
60
v1  0.42m / s

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Activity

1. A ball of mass 0.150 kg is dropped from rest from a height of 1.25 m. It rebounds from the
floor to reach a height of 0.960 m. What impulse was given to the ball by the floor?

Given Required

A. ⃗
B. ⃗

C.

Solution

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A. Applying the law of conservation of Mechanical Energy (downward motion)

 ME di   MEdf
PEdi  KEdi  PEdf  KEdf
 0
1  0 1
mghdi  mvdi2  mghdf  mvdf2 , sin ce v di  hdf  0
2 2
1
m ghdi  m vdf2
2
1
ghdi  v 2df
2
v df  2 ghdi
2

v df   2 ghdi
  2  9.8m / s 2  1.25m 

  24.5m 2 / s 2
v df  4.9498m / s  hence v df is downward;
v df  4.95m / s i 

B. Applying the law of conservation of Mechanical Energy (upward motion)

 ME ui   MEuf
PEui  KEui  PEuf  KEuf
 0 1 1  0
mghui  mv 2ui  mghuf  mvuf2 , sin ce vuf  hui  0
2 2
1 2
mv ui  mghuf
2
1 2
v ui  ghuf
2
vui2  2 ghuf
vui   2 ghuf

  2  9.8m / s 2   0.96m 

  18.816m 2 / s 2
vui  4.338m / s  hence vui upward; we take  sign
vui  4.34m / s  ii 

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C. Impulse is given by

I  P
 m  vui  v df 
 0.15kg  4.34   4.95  m / s
 0.15kg  4.34  4.95  m / s
 0.15kg  9.29  m / s
I  1.394kgm / s

2.3.4. Collisions

Collision is an event where two or more bodies make physical contact for a very short time
and experience impulsive.
Collision - is an interaction between two different masses in which momentum is conserved
(particles may or may not come in real touch).
Collision is an isolated event in which a strong force acts between two or more bodies for a
short time as a result of which the energy and momentum of the interacting particle change.

Stage of: Before, during and after collision

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Types of collision:

A. Based on conservation of kinetic energy:

1. Elastic Collision

Elastic collision is a collision in which both momentum and kinetic energy of the system
is conserved.
If two bodies in a system collide together, such that the total momentum and the total
kinetic energy of the system remain the same before and after collision is known as
elastic collision.
Coefficient of restitution e = 1

According to law of conservation of momentum

P  P
i f

m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v2

m1u1  m1v1  m2 v 2  m2u2
m1  u1  v1   m2  v2  u2   2.121

According to law of conservation of kinetic energy

 KE   KE
i f

1 1 1 1
m1u12  m2u22  m1v12  m2 v 22
2 2 2 2
m1u12  m2u22  m1v12  m2 v 22
m1u12  m1v12  m2 v 22  m2u22

m1  u12  v12   m2  v 22  u22 

m1  u1  v1  u1 +v1   m2  v 2  u2  v 2  u2   2.122 

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Dividing Eq. (2.122) by Eq. (2.121), we obtain:

m1  u1  v1  u1 +v1  m2  v 2  u2  v 2  u2 

m1  u1  v1  m2  v 2  u2 

u1 +v1  v 2  u2 

u1  u2  v 2  v1   2.123

 u1  u2     v1  v2 

Relative velocity of approach Relative velocity of separation

2. Inelastic collision

Inelastic collision is a collision in which the total momentum of the system is conserved,
but the total kinetic energy of the system does not remain the same (conserved) before
and after collision.

P  P
i f

 KE   KE
i f

Coefficient of restitution 0 < e < 1

3. Perfect Inelastic Collision:

If in a collision two bodies stick together or move with same velocity after the collision, the
collision is said to be perfectly inelastic.
Coefficient of restitution e = 0.

P  P
i f

m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v 2 but v1  v 2  v

m1u1  m2u2  m1v  m2 v
m1u1  m2u2   m1  m2  v  2.124 
m1u1  m2u2
v  2.125
 m1  m2 

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Example

1. A block of mass initially moving to the right with a speed of 4m/s on a

horizontal frictionless track collides with a second block of mass initially
moving to the left with a speed of 2.5m/s. If the collision is elastic, find the velocities of the
two blocks after collision.

Given Required

A.
B.

Solution

Hence collision is elastic both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved,

A. we apply law of conservation of momentum:

m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v2

1.6kg  4m / s    2.1kg  2.5m / s   1.6kg  v1   2.1kg  v 2
6.4kgm / s  5.25kgm / s  1.6kg  v1   2.1kg  v 2

1.15 kg m / s  1.6v1  2.1v 2  kg

1.15m / s  1.6v1  2.1v 2
1.6v1  2.1v 2  1.15m / s i 

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B. we apply the conservation of relative velocity of approach is equal to the velocity of

separation:

u1 +v1  v 2  u2
v1  v 2  u2  u1
v1  v 2  2.5m / s  4m / s
v1  v 2  6.5m / s  ii 

Solving equation (a) and (b) simultaneously

1 1.6v1  2.1v 2  1.15m / s


1.6  v1  v 2  6.5m / s



 1.6v1  2.1v 2  1.15m / s

 1.6v1  1.6v 2  10.4m / s
 

 3.7v 2  11.55
3.7v 2  11.55
11.55
v2   3.12 m / s  iii 
3.7

substituting Eq. (iii) into Eq. (ii), we obtain

v1  3.12m / s  6.5m / s
v1  6.5m / s  3.12m / s
v1  3.38m / s

Activity

1. A 10.0-g bullet is fired into a stationary block of wood (m = 5.00 kg).The bullet sticks into
the block, and the speed of the bullet-plus-wood combination immediately after the collision
is 0.600 m/s. What was the original speed of the bullet?

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Given Required

Solution
We apply perfect inelastic collision formula;
 0
m1u1  m2u2   m1  m2  v

m1u1   m1  m2  v

u1 
 m1  m2  v
m1


 0.01kg  5kg  0.6m / s 
 0.01kg 


 5.01kg  0.6m / s 
 0.01kg 


 3.006  m / s
 0.01
u1  300.6m / s

2.3.5Center of Mass

Every object has a balance point, referred to in physics as the center of mass.
Centre of mass of a system (body) is a point that moves as though all the mass were
concentrated there and all external forces were applied there.
The center of mass is the point at which all the mass can be considered to be "concentrated".
The center of mass of the system is located somewhere on the line joining the particles and is
closer to the particle having the larger mass.

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Centre of mass of a rigid body (circular ring, disc, rod and sphere)

A. Position vector of center of mass for n particle system :

If a system consists of n particles of masses whose positions vectors are

respectively then position vector of center of mass the center of mass of n particles
is a weighted average of the position vectors of n particles making up the system.

m1r1  m2 r2  mn rn
rcm   2.126
m1  m2  ...  mn

B. Position vector of center of mass for two particle system:

m1r1  m2 r2
rcm    X cm , Ycm   2.127 
m1  m2
m1 x1  m2 x2
X cm 
m1  m2
m1 y1  m2 y2
Ycm 
m1  m2
The center of mass lies between the particles on the line joining them.
If two masses are equal i.e., then position vector of center mass is

r1  r2
rcm   2.128
2

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Important points about center of mass:

The position of center of mass is independent of the co-ordinate system chosen.

The position of center of mass depends upon the shape of the body and distribution of
mass.
The center of mass changes its position only under the translational motion. There is no
effect of rotatory motion on center of mass of the body.
If the origin is at the center of mass, then the sum of the moments of the masses of the
system about the center of mass is zero i.e.∑ .

If a system of particles of masses move with velocity ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ , then the

velocity of center of mass is given by:

vcm 
m vi i

m1v1  m2 v2  mn vn
 2.130 
m i m1  m2  ...  mn

If a system of particles of masses move with acceleration ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ , then

the acceleration of center of mass is given by:

acm 
m a i i

m1a1  m2a 2  mn a n
 2.131
m i m1  m2  ...  mn

If is a position vector of center of mass of the a system then the velocity of mass is given
by:
drcm d  m1r1  m2 r2  mn rn 
vcm      2.132 
dt dt  m1  m2  ...  mn 

Acceleration of center of mass is given by:

2
dv dr cm d 2  m r  m2 r2  mn rn 
acm   2  2 11   2.133
dt dt dt  m1  m2  ...  mn 

Example

1. Suppose that there are three point masses arranged as shown in the figure below. Where is
the center of mass of this three- object- system with respect to the origin?

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Given Required

A.

B.

C. ̂ ̂

Solution

m1 x1  m2 x2  m3 x3  3kg  0.5m    4kg  2m    3kg  3.5 

X cm  
m1  m2  m3 3kg  4kg  3kg
1.5kgm  8kgm  10.5kgm 20kgm
 
10kg 10kg
X cm  2miˆ

m1 y1  m2 y2  m3 y3
Ycm 
m1  m2  m3


 3kg  2.5m    4kg  0.5m    3kg  2.5
3kg  4kg  3kg
7.5kgm  2kgm  7.5kgm

10kg
17 kgm

10kg
X cm  1.7mjˆ

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Therefore center of mass of a position is given by:

rcm   X cm , Ycm 
  2, 1.7  m


rcm  2iˆ  1.7 ˆj m
2. Four objects are situated along the y axis as follows: a 2.00 kg object is at +3.00 m, a 3.00-kg
object is at +2.50 m, a 2.50-kg object is at the origin, and a 4.00-kg object is at -0.500 m.
Where is the center of mass of these objects?

Given Required

Solution
m1 y1  m2 y2  m3 y3  m4 y4
Ycm 
m1  m2  m3  m4
 0
 2.5kg  0m    3kg  2.5m    2kg  3m    4kg  0.5m 

2.5kg  3kg  2kg  4kg
7.5kgm  6kgm  2kgm

11.5kg
11.5kgm

11.5kg
Ycm  1m

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3. A ball of mass 0.200 kg has a velocity of 150m/s; a ball of mass 0.300 kg has a velocity of -
0.4m/s. They meet in a head-on elastic collision.

A. Find their velocities after the collision.

B. Find the velocity of their center of mass before and after the collision.

Given Required

A)

B) ⃗ ⃗

Solution

A) Hence the type of collision is elastic, we apply conservation of linear momentum:

m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v 2

 0.2kg 150m / s    0.3kg  0.4m / s    0.2kg  v1   0.3kg  v 2
30kgm / s  0.12kgm / s   0.2v1  0.3v 2  kg

30.12 kgm / s   0.2v1  0.3v 2  kg

30.12m / s  0.2v1  0.3v 2  divided both side by 0.2
30.12m / s 0.2v1 0.3v 2
 
0.2 0.2 0.2
150.6m / s  v1  1.5v 2
v1  150.6m / s  1.5v 2 i 

And we apply the relations of conservation of kinetic energy and momentum(Relative

velocity of approach Relative velocity of separation):

u1  u2  v 2  v1
150m / s  0.4m / s  v 2  v1
149.6m / s  v 2  v1  ii 

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Substitute Eq. (i) into Eq. (ii), we obtain

149.6m / s  v 2  150.6m / s  1.5v 2 

149.6m / s  v 2  150.6m / s  1.5v 2

149.6m / s  150.6m / s  v 2  1.5v 2

300.2m / s  1  1.5  v 2
300.2m / s  2.5v 2
300.2m / s
v2 
2.5
v 2  120.08m / s  iii 
Substituting Eq. (iii) into Eq. (i), we obtain:

v1  150.6m / s  1.5 120.08m / s 

 150.6m / s  180.12m / s
v1  29.52m / s  iv 
Therefore,
⃗
⃗

Check the results

u1  u2  v2  v1
150m / s  0.4m / s  120.08m / s   29.52m / s 
149.6m / s  120.08m / s  29.52m / s
149.6m / s  149.6m / s  Checked!!

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B) velocity of their center of mass before and after the collision is given by

m1u1  m2u2
U cm 
m1  m2


 0.2kg 150m / s    0.3kg  0.4m / s 
0.2kg  0.3kg
30kgm / s  0.12m / s

0.5kg
30.12kgm / s

0.5kg
U cm  60.24m / s i 
And
m1v1  m2 v2
Vcm 
m1  m2


 0.2kg  29.52m / s    0.3kg 120.08m / s 
0.2kg  0.3kg
5.904kgm / s  36.024kgm / s

0.5kg
30.12kgm / s

0.5kg
U cm  60.24m / s  ii 

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