UNIT-5 SYLLABUS

BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS OF ENTREPRENEURS: Personality -

determinants, attributes and models. Leadership Concepts and
Models. Values and Attitudes. Motivation Aspects, Change Behaviour.
TIME MANAGEMENT: Various Approaches of Time Management,
their strength and Weaknesses, The Urgency Addiction and the Time
Management Matrix.
Change behaviour:
Change behaviour refers to any transformation or modification of
human behaviour. Behavioural change theories are attempt to explain
why behaviour changes. These theory cite environmental, personal
and behavioural characteristics as a major factor in behaviour
dimension. Each behaviour change focus on different factors in
attempting to explain behavioural change. The elements of change
behaviour are,
(1) Self-efficacy: It is an individual impression of their own ability to
perform a demanding or “Challenging task. This impression is based
on the factors like,
(i) Individual’s prior’s success in the tasks.
(ii)Individual psychological state.
(iii) Outside sources of persuasion.
(2) Learning Theories : B.F Skinner develop the learning theory
which state that the complex behaviour is learned gradually through
the modification of simpler behaviour.
(3) Social Learning : According to social learning, behaviour changes
determined by environmental, personal and behavioural elements.
Each factor affects each of the other.
role of time in entrepreneurial activities:
Time is the tool and processes that allow individual and organization
entrepreneurs to accomplish more in a set time period. While the time
management is critical to success for all individuals, it is critically
important to entrepreneurs. This is because entrepreneurs fall with
different challenges at each day and quickly make it over come.
Entrepreneurs need to perform following role for successful
organization, .
(1) Identify : The first key to entrepreneurs is to identify the key uses
of time.
Example : The time need to spend on phone, meeting, travelling etc.
(2) Determination : After identifying the key, uses of time,
entrepreneurs must determine whether these uses maximize the value
of their time.
Example : Question must be answered such as whether more value is
added to the organization if the entrepreneur spend less time travelling
and more time managing the team.
various determinants of personality:
The factors which affects the personality are
(1) Biological Factors : The general biological characterist of
individuals influences their personality. How they view things,
analyse and interrupt them, and respond to them. These biological
characteristics can be classified into Three major groups.
(i) Heredity.
(ii) Brain.
(iii) Physical features.
(2) Situational Factors : Human personality is also influenced by
situational factors. The effect of environment is quite strong.
Knowledge skill and language are obviously acquired and represent
important modifications of behaviour. According to Milgram,
Situation exerts in important press on the individual.It exercises
constraints and may provide push. In certain circumstances it is not so
much the kind of person a man is, as the kind of situation in which he
is placed, that determines his actions.
(3) Cultural Factors : Every culture has its own beliefs and thinkings,
almost a set patterns of attitude towards independence, aggression,
competition, cooperation, commitment, justification etc. and each
culture expects its member to behave or react in the same manner,
(4) Family and Social Factors : Family and social factors are also
important in shaping personality of an individual. In order to
understand the effect of a family on individual's personality, we have
to understand the socialisation process and identification process.
Urgency addiction:
Addiction is a self-destructive behaviour that temporarily fills an
unmet need
Urgency addition is being current results oriented, rather than being
long term objectives oriented. It avoids the logical design and jumps
right to the physical implementation. It’s a dangerous and destructive
approach that perpetuates a disparate data resource.
Example : Commitment made to complete the specific time. This
make an sense of honour for not breaking commitment. But
continuing the measures and performance, it create an hard situation
to perform well.
Personality:
Personality determine the human energy. It provides an opportunity to
understand the individuals, properly direct their energy and motivate
them in a proper manner.
According to Gordon Allport, Personality is the dynamic organization
within the individual of those Psychological systems that determine
his unique adjustments to his environment.
Big-five personality model:
The Big-Five Model in recent years, a body of researchers have
identified five basic personality dimensions. These traits are
(1) Extroversion.
(2) Emotional stability.
(3) Agreeableness.
(4) Conscientiousness.
(5) Openness.

Different leadership style of behavioural theory:

Behavioural theory is based on different behaviours, or actions that
leader exhibits in different leadership positions. This is also known as
leadership style.A leader has to lead different types of subordinates
and has to adopt different Styles for leading them according to
situations. The behavioural theory includes following main type of
leadership styles,
(1) Autocratic or Authoritarian leadership style.
(2) Democratic or Participative leadership style.
(3) Lalssez- Faire or Free-rein leadership style.
leadership concept:
Leadership is the factor that helps individuals and groups to achieve
the Goal, It is the process of influencing and supporting employees or
other to Work enthusiastically toward achieving the objectives.
According to Koontz and O’Donnel, “Leadership is the ability of a
Manager to induce subordinates to work with confidence and zeal”.
The nature of leadership is as follows,
(1) Performance : The performance of a leader directly influences
the leader also, If he asks his employees to come on time, he himself
has to reach the workplace on time. The leaders’ performance itself
guides and motivates the employees.
(2) Communication : Leadership starts with communication either
by deeds or words. The followers can develop themselves by
observing and accepting the work or verbal communication of a
leader.
(3)Influence : A leader must have the capacity to influence others.
Without influencing others, a leader cannot function at all.
Distinguish between leaders and managers:
Sno personality Dimension Manager leader

(1) Attitudes to-ward goals Has an impersonal, Has a personal and

passive,functional active attitude,
attitude,believesgoals arise out of believes goals arise
necessity and reality. from desire and
imagination.

(2) Conceptions of work Views work as an enabling Looks for fresh

process that combines people, approaches to old
ideas and things, seeks moderate problems, seeks high
risk through coordination and risk positions,
balance. especially with high-
payoffs.

(3) Relationships with Avoids solitary work activ-ity, Is comfortable in

others preferring to work with others, solitary work activity,
avoids close, intense encourages close,
relationships, avoids conflict. intense working
relationships, is not
conflict average.

limitations of trait theory:

Trait theory suffers from following drawbacks,
(1)Too many traits, there is no complete or universal list of these
traits.
(2) Traits are not measurable.
(3) Leadership effectiveness is not always dependent on traits but
sometimes situation is also important, i.e., trait theory does not
consider the environment.
Situational model of leadership:
Situational model of leadership is a theory of leadership which holds
the leader’s effectiveness in relating to the leaders trait and behaviour
based on different situational factor. According to this model, a leader
effectiveness is contingent to his abilities to modify his management
behaviour to the level of his subordinates maturity or sophistication.
Value:
Values are one of the sources of individual differences. Values are
general beliefs tinged with moral flavour containing an individual’s
judgemental ideas about what is good, right or desirable. In other
words, the answers to the questions. What is right or wrong and good
or bad are value laden.
According to Rokeach,value is a specific mood of conduct or end-
state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.
Attitude:
Attitude is a specific mental state of the individual towards something
according to which his behaviour towards it Is modified. Attitude is
the way one feel about something and it include a set, a actions with
emotional overtone. According to G.W Allport, “Attitude is a mental
and neutral state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting
a directive or dynamic influences upon the individual’s response to all
objects and situations with which it is related.”
Feature of attitude:
Attitudes can be defined in terms of characteristics,
(1) Valence :It refers to the magnitude or degree of unfavourableness
towards the object.
(2) Multiplicity : It refers to the number of elements constituting the
attitude.
(3) Relation to Needs : Attitudes can also vary in relation to needs
they serve’
(4) Centrality : It refers to the importance of the object.
Motivation:
Motivation originally comes from the Latin root word “Movere,”
which means to move". It is derived from the word ‘motive’. Motive
may be defined as an inner state of our mind that activates and directs
our behaviour. Motivation is One's willingness to exert efforts
towards the accomplishment of his/her goal. According to Fred
Luthans, “Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or
psychological deficiency or need that activates behaviour or a drive
that is aimed at a goal or incentive.”
Different types of motivation:
The following are the various types of motivation
(1) Negative Motivation : It is based on force or fear, i.e., workers
can be threatened with demotion, dismissal, lay-off, pay cut etc.
Negative motivation results in disloyalty to the group as well as to
organization.
(2) Position Motivation : : It is based on reward. It is a process of
attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility
of gain or reward.
(3) Extrinsic Motivation : Increase in wages, retirement benefits, rest
periods, holidays, health wages, health insurance and the like are the
examples of extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is available
only after the completion of job.
Criticism faced by Maslows motivational theory of needs:
The model is very simple and helps in understanding the human
behaviour of people at work but, it has certain limitations
(1) Model may not be applicable at all times, in all places and in all
circumstances.
(2) There are many determinants of behaviour other than needs.
(3) Motivation is not a result of single need.
(4) One need does not lead all people to the same behaviour.
(5) Hierarchical order is not rigid.
Change behaviour:
A behaviour is something that you do, some action that you take.
Conventionally a behaviour is something that you act out Physically,
such as taking a walk, smoking a cigarette, or rolling your eyes when
your spouse is complaining. However, behaviours can be subtle, non-
peel things too. Thinking considered a behaviour, for instance.

Time management:
Time Management refers to managing time effectively so that the
right time is allocated to the right activity. Time Management refers to
making the best use of time as time is always limited.
BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS OF ENTREPRENEURS
"Entrepreneurs are the key base for the organization. One of the
Purpose of entrepreneurs is to encourage for an effective and efficient
goals of an organization. Entrepreneurs are more comprehensive to
focus the process and organizational performance. Entrepreneurs
behaviour is very much in the ascendency, as the Sense of self-
discovery and behavioural independence.
There are many aspects of assertive behaviour but the below are
some of the most important which improves in the quality of
relationships,
(1) Take Responsibility : Entrepreneur feelings are a result of how
they choose to view a situation. Nobody can make them feel any
particular way. If they feel angry, upset etc., it is important to
remember that the other person did not choose for entrepreneur to feel
that way. They chose their behaviour, entrepreneur chose his response.
(2) Psychology : Psychology is the science of human behaviour,
Behaviour of an individual refers to anything an individual does.
An act of behaviour has three aspects,
(i) Cognition-to become aware ‘of or know something.
(ii)Affection-to have a certain feeling about it.
(iii) Conation-to act in a particular way or direction after the feeling.
Human behaviour may be covert (expressed inside) or overt
(expressed outside). While symbolic adoption is an example of covert
behaviour, use adoption is an example of overt behaviour.
(3) Personality : Personality is the unique, integrated and organized
system of all behaviour of a person. Personality is the sum total of
one’s experience, thoughts and actions, it includes all behaviour
patterns, traits and characteristics that make up a person. A person’s
physical traits, attitudes, habits and emotional and psychological
characteristics are all parts of one’s personality. .
(4) Interest : An interest is a preference for one activity over another.
The selection and ranking of different activities along a like- dislike
dimension is known as expressed interest. An interest is made
manifest (visible), when a person voluntarily participates in an
activity.
(5) Attitude : Attitude as a mental state of readiness, organized
through experience exerting a directive and dynamic influence upon
the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is
related.
(6) Emotions : Emotions denote a state of being moved, stirred up or
aroused and involve impulses, feelings and physical and
Psychological reactions. A negative emotional response may lead to
non-cooperation and non-participation in programmes, stoppage of
work or even destruction of the work done. In a programme of
planned change, the extension agent should take care of the state of
emotion of the client system.
(7)Stereotype: stereotypes are fixed images formed in one’s mind
about people, practices or various other social phenomena on the basis
of experience, attitudes, values, impressions or without any direct
experience, Stereotypes help in knowing how people perceive Various
groups of people or practice or various other social phenomena.
PERSONALITY - DETERMINANTS, ATTRIBUTES AND
MODELS
Personality and features of personality:
The word personality is derived from Latin word “person are” which
means “to speak through”. Personality determine the human energy. It
provides an opportunity to understand the individuals, properly direct
their energy and motivate them in a proper manner.
According to Gordon Allport, “Personality is the dynamic
organization within the individual of those psychological systems that
determine his unique adjustments to his environment.”
According to Floyd L.Ruch, “Personality includes external
appearance and behaviour,Inner awareness of self as a permanent
organizing force and the particular pattern or organization of
measurable traits, both inner and outer.”
According to Fred Luthans, “Personality means how a person affects
other and how he understands and views himself as well as the
patterns of inner and outer measurable Traits ang the person situation
interaction.”
Thus, Personality is a study of characteristics traits of an individual,
the inter-relations between them and the way in which a person
responds and adjust to other people and situation
The Personality has the following features,
(1) Personality refers to both physical and psychological qualities of
an individual.
(2) It is Unique in the sense that no two individuals are same in terms
of their personality.
(3) personality is the manner of adjustment of individual to the
organization, Environment and the group.
(4) It is a qualitative aspect. Certain techniques exist to quantify it
indirectly.
(5)Personality is dynamic. It changes with the time and situation
(6)Personality is a system. It has input, processing and output
mechanisms.
(7)Personality influences goal achievement and performance of an
individual.
Various stages in personality development:
The development of personality is traditionally an important area of
understanding human behaviour. The developmental approach is
actually a form of personality theory but in contrast to other
personality theories, it is highly research oriented. The following are
the stages of personality shown in Fig

Fig:- Personality stages

(1) Adult Life Stages : The work of Daniel Levinson on adult stages
has received considerable attention. At first, he believed that, “the life
structure evolves through a relatively orderly sequence throughout the
adult years”. And unlike other stage theories that were event oriented,
Example
(i) Marriage.
(ii) Parenthood.
(iii) Retirement.
His theory was age based.
He believed that there was a little variability (a maximum of 2or3)
years) in four identifiable stable periods,
(1) Entering the adulthood (ages 22 to 28),
(2) Settling down (ages 33 to 44),
(3) Entering into middle adulthood (ages 45 to 50),
(4) Culmination of middle adulthood (ages 55 to 60).
He also identified four traditional periods.
(1) Age thirty transition (age 28 to 33).

(2) Mid-life transition (age 40 to 45).

(3) Age fifty transition (age 50 to 55),
(4) Late adult transition (age 60 to 65).
Like historically significant stage, theories of personality such as
those by Freud and Erikson, Levinson theory of adult life stage has a
lot of,
(1) Intuitive.
(2) Popular appeal.
The research is quite mixed.
(2)Immaturity to Maturity : Organizational behaviour theorist Chris
Argyris has identified specific dimensions of the human. personality
as it develops. He proposes that the human personality, rather than
going through precise stages, progresses gradually from
(i) Immaturity as an infant to.
(ii) Maturity as an adult.
However at any stage, people can have their degree of development.
Argyris carefully points out that the model does not imply that all
persons,
(i) Reach.
(ii) Strive for all dimensions on the mature end of continuum.
He further explains that,
(i) The seven dimensions represent only one aspect of the total
personality. Much also depends upon the individuals,
- Perception.
- Self concept.
- Adoption. .
- Adjustment.
(ii) The seven dimensions continuously change in degree from the
infant to the adult end of the continuum.
(iii) The model, being only a construct, cannot predict specific
behaviour, However It provides a method of,
- Describing.
- Measuring the growth of any individual in the culture.
(iv) The Seven dimension are based upon latent characteristics of the
Personality, which May be quite different from the observable
behaviour.
Factors affecting personality:
The factors which affects the personality are shown In Fig
 Fig: Determinants of Personality

(1) Biological Factors : The general biological characteristics of

individuals influences their personality. How they view things,
analyse and interrupt them, and respond to them. These biological
characteristics can be classified into three major groups. They are
heredity, brain and Physical features.
(i)Heredity : This is a process of transmission of the qualities from
ancestors to descendant through a mechanism lying primarily in the
chromosomes of the cells. Outlook of individuals, physical built, sex,
temperament, muscle power, diseases, qualities, special features,
marks etc., are all examples of the things which may be transferred
from the ancestors to the decendents. All these qualities which are
transferred, play an important role in deciding the personality of
human beings. Example, temperament of one particular cast or race
are followed by the descendants.
(ii)Brain : Another, biological factor which plays an Important role in
shaping the personality of the human being is the brain. Though it is
not totally proven by the scientists and research are still going on, but
on the basis of the studies till date, brain has a major stake in
designing the personality.
(iii)Physical Features: Another feature which plays an important role
in designing the personality of individuals is physical features. It
includes colour, weight, height, facial features etc. of the individuals.
Good health, facial features always give an advantage to the
marketing personnel over those who lack these features.
Example, some people have very good looks it gives a very good
impression at the first sight.
(2) Situational Factors : Human personality is also influenced by
situational factors. The effect of environment is quite strong.
Knowledge skill and language are obviously acquired and represent
important modifications of behaviour. Learned modifications in
behaviour are not passed on to children, they must be acquired by
them through their own personal experience, through interaction with
the environment. In one research by Milgram it was found that
situation plays a vital role in human personality. According to
Milgram, “Situation exerts in important press on the individual. It
exercises constraints and may provide push. In certain circumstances
“it is not so much the kind of person a man is, as the kind of situation
in which he is placed, that determines his actions”. Milgram certainly
does not completely rule out the importance of the developmental
aspects of personality. He rather demonstrated that the situation may
be potentially have a very big impact on the behavioural expression of
personality.
(3)cultural Factors : Every culture has its own beliefs and thinkings,
almost a set patterns of attitude towards independence, aggression,
competition, cooperation, commitment, justification etc. and each
culture expects its member to behave or react in the same manner,
should follow the same traits as others are following. Generally
people go according to those factors and this is ultimately designs the
personality of individuals.
(4)Family and Social Factors : Family and social factors are also
important in shaping personality of an individual. In order to
understand the effect of a family on individual’s personality, we have
to understand the socialisation process and identification process.
(i) Socialisation Process : The contribution of family and social group
in combination with the culture known as socialisation. In the words
of Mussen “Socialisation is the process by which an individual infant
acquires, from the enormously wide range of behavioural potentials
that are open to him at birth, those behaviour patterns that are
customary and acceptable according to the standards of hi family and
social group.” It initially starts with the contact with mother and later
on the other members of the family (father, sister, close-relatives) and
the social group plays influential role in shaping an individual's
personality.
(ii) Identification Process : Identification is fundamentally in
understanding Personality. Identification starts when a person begins
to identify himself with some other members of the family. Normally
a child tries to behave as his father Or mother. He tries to emulate
certain actions of his parents.
According to Mischel identification process can be examined from
three angles,
-It can be viewed as the similarity of behaviour between child and the
model.
-It can be looked as the child’s motives or desires to be like the model
and
-It can be viewed as the process through which the child actually
takes on the attributes of the model.
Apart from the socialisation and identification processes, the
personality of an individual is influenced by the home environment.
There is a substantial empirical evidence to indicate that the overall
environment at home is created by parents is critical to personality
development.
Family background a part, social class to influence a person's
Perception, perception of self and others and perception of work,
authority and money etc,
(5) Other Factors
(i) Temperament : Temperament is the degree to which one responds
emotionally, It varies from individual to individual. It plays an
important role in designing the personality.
(ii) Interest : Individuals interest in different areas decide their
personality. People do not have common interests. To create this
common interest organisation should provide special trainings,
development programmes, job opportunities etc,
(iii) Character : Character means ones honesty, respect, truth. All
these things are highly required for the job.
(iv) Schema : It refers to the individual beliefs, frames of references,
major orientation, role perceptions, ideas and value. The perception of
individual depends upon his socio-economic conditions and particular
culture he lives or flow.
(v) Motives : It relates to inner drives, both physiological and social,
which stimulate certain kinds of goal-directed behaviour. The
behaviour of an individual to accomplish the goal, varies because of
his-inner drives.
Various attributes of personality:
The various attributes of personality are,
(1) Attitude : The capacity to stay optimistic and positive. The
foremost quality for career success is “Championship Thinking.”
(2) Enthusiastic : The possession of intense and eager interest in a
subject or cause. It is an energy that often inspires others.
(3) Ethical : The quality of having and living by a code of sound
moral principles.
(4) Goal Focused : The ability to have clarity on the objectives that
strive the personal and professional life.
(5) Listener : The capacity to suspend the own agenda and
deliberately and empathically allow others to be heard.
(6) relationships: A well developed circle of influence of
interconnected positive relationships.
(7)persistent : The ability to endure in the face of adversity. It is a
patient and relenting effort to achieve despite difficulties.
(8)self-Aware : The understanding and knowledge of who you are
including your skills, values, interests, behaviours and character.
(9) self-Confident : The firm belief in the individual abilities. Seek
professional help if this is an area of weakness which leads to benefit
for the organization.
(10) Self-Discipline : The ability to control and restrain impulses.
Energy then can be focused and channelled towards ambition.
Models of personality:
There are 2 types of models
(i) The Myers - Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) model.
(ii) The Big Five Personality Model.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Model:

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), developed by Isabel
Briggs Myers and her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs is a well known
and widely used personality inventory based on the psychological
theories of Carl Gustav Jung. It is often used as a tool for discovering
and understanding different normal human personalities and can be
utilized in a variety of applications such as academic counselling,
career development, conflict resolution, leadership training and
relationship counselling, just to cite a few. However, it should be
noted that MBTI is not a test as there are no right or wrong answers
and it does not reveal everything about oneself.
Based on Jung’s psychoanalytical theories, Myers deduced that
there were four dichotomies which made people differ from one
another and referred to them as type Preferences, The four
dichotomies and their brief descriptions are presented below,
(1) Extraversion or Introversion : Indicates whether people prefer to
acquire their personal energy from the outer world of people and
activities, or from inner world of ideas and thoughts.
Example : Extraverts prefer being in large group of people and
introverts tend to take pleasure in quieter activities.
(2)Sensing Or Intuition : Describes how people take in information,
whether they focus on what is actual and real (factual-based) or prefer
to interrupt or apply meaning to what they see.
Example : People who prefer sensing is down-to-earth and more
dependent on past experiences Where as people who prefer intuition
are considered idealists and rely more on the future.
(3)Thinking or Feeling : Indicates how people prefer to make
decisions based on logical thinking or influenced by their concerns for
themselves and others.
Example : People who prefer feeling over thinking are generally
predominant in helpful Professions such as counsellors and they pay
close attention to other people’s needs. In addition, those who prefer
thinking may seek factual clarity in solving deputes.
(4)Judging or Perceiving : Describes the way you manage you life and
how you deal with the outer world, whether in an orderly manner or
spontaneously,
Example : People who prefer judging like to have every thing in order
and in a scheduled manner. On the contrary, people who prefer
perceiving and more unplanned and spontaneous in their lifestyle,
including making decisions.
Combinations based on these four categories of type preferences
result in 16 different personality types as shown in table
Type preference results of different personality
ST Business/ SF healthcare NF counselling NT science
management/law teaching/educa arts technology
/law tion teaching/educa management
enforcement tion religion
skilled trades
ISTJ: ISFP: INFP:occupati INTP:
occupational occupational onal trends occupational
trends trends counseling trends
management health care writing scientific or
administration business arts technical filed.
law enforcement law force:use Force:apply
accounting enforcement creativity to objective
force:use force:use honor or analysis of
attention to detail gentle nature support their problems and
to get the job and attention values. technical
done. to detail in expertise in
service related solitary
positions. environment.
ISTJ:occupation ISFP: INFP: INTJ
al trends occupational occupational Occupational
skilled trades trends trends Trends:
agriculture healthcare counseling Scientific/Tech
law enforcement business writing nical
military law arts Computers
technical fields enforcement force:use Law
force: work force: use creativity to Force : Use
hands on with gentle nature honor or intellechlal
date or things and attention support their creativity and
and analyze. to detail,in values. technical
service related knowledge to
positions. concep-
tualize, analyze
and get.. task
a·done.
ISTP INTP
ISFP INFP
Occupational
Occupation Occupational
Trend : 'skilled Occupation
al Trends: Trends:
Trades- al Trends:
Counseling Scientific or
Agriculture Health Care
Writing Arts Technical
Business
Law Field
Law Force: Use
Enforcement
Enforcement creativity to Force : Apply
Military honor or objective •
Force : Use
Technical support their analysis of
gentle nature
Fields values.
and problems
force : Work attention to and technical
hands on with detail, in expertise in
date or things service solitary
and analyze.. related
environ-
positions.
ment.

The Big-Five Personality Model:

The Big-Five Model in recent years, a body of researchers have
identified five basic personality dimensions. These traits are,
(1) Extroversion : This personality trait reflects a person’s comfort
level with relationships.
Extroverts tend to be sociable, lively, assertive, outgoing and
talkative. The opposite of extrovert is introvert which refers to those
who are quite, reserved and less assertive,
(2)Emotional Stability : This trait captures a person’s ability withstand
stress. People with high emotional stability tend to be calm, confident
and secure. A person with low emotional stability, on the other hand
tends to be nervous, depressed anxious and insecure.
(3)agreeableness : Agreeableness refers to a person’s ability to get
along with others.
highly agreeable people are cooperative, emphatic and caring.
However, people who score low on this trait are cold, uncooperative
and self concerned.
(4)Conscientiousness : This personality trait is a measure of
reliability. It refers to people Who are Dependable, responsible,
organised and systematic. People with low conscientiousness tend to
be unreliable, irresponsible, careless and disorganized,
(5)openness : The Personality trait reflects a person‘s interests and
creativity. Extremely open people are creative and innovative. They
are willing to listen to new ideas and To change their own idea. They
are flexible and curious. However, those who score low On this trait
are less receptive to new ideas, more fixed in their ways and
conventional.
Different Big-Five Factors
HIGH AVERAGE LOW
Extraversion : Moderate in activity Introverted, reserved
Extraverted, and enthusiasm timid and serious.
gregarious, outgoing, Enjoy the company Prefer. to be alone or
active, assertive of others but also with a few close
and. high spirited. value privacy. friends.
Prefer to be around
'people most of. the
time.
Agreeableness : Generally warm, Hard-headed,
Compassionate, trusting and skeptical, proud,
good- natured and agreeable but can competitive, cold,
eager to cooperate. sometimes be disagreeable and
and to avoid conflict stubborn antagonistlc.
Are warm and competitive.
trusting.
Conscientiousness : Dependable and Easy-going_not
Conscientious, well- moderately well
organized, very.well- organized
dependab_leand organized. .and sometimes careless
persistent Have Generally have and·. unreliable Prefer
high standards clear goals, but
and always strive not to make plans.
to achieve goals are able to set
the work aside.

Emotional Generally calm and Nervous,anxious,de-

Stability: able to deal with pressed·and
Emotionally stress, but insecure..
‘stable, tend to be sometimes
calm,· confident experience feelings
and secure. of guilt, anger or
sadness.

Openness to Practical but Down-to-earth,

experience : willing to consider practical and
new ways of doing traditional,
Creative, curious things. Seek a find com-fort in
and artis-tically balance between the familiar.
sensitive. Have ·the old and the
broad interests new
and are very
imaginative.
Physiognomy personality model and type A and B model:
Physiognomy Personality Types
William Sheldon has propounded three types of personality based on
the human anatomical or physical structure of persons and
Psychological characteristics. Physical size of the body influences the
human behaviour and temperaments.
The personality types are
(1) Endomorph: certain characteristics of personality and behaviour
associated with The body type are friendly, concern to people, helping
others in troubles, very slow reaction to stimuli. They seek comfort,
have strong inclination to delicious food etc….The persons who
posses these personality characteristics
(2) Mesomorph :Persons having moderate physical characteristics are
known as mesomorph. The body is strong and tough. Some of the
personality characteristics Of this type are seeks physical adventure,
enjoys body building, feels restless, shows high aggression and self
assertiveness, likes to take risk and develops competitive spirit. The
person is liked by virtue of his physique.
(3)Ectomorph : Ectomorph body type is characterized by a thin and
flat chest. The person is intelligent, feels shy and avoids social
contacts. However, he is typically anxious, ambitious and dedicated to
his work. He is quick to react and hypersensitive to pain and pleasure.
Type A AND Type B PERSONALITY
Type A personality is defined by Friedman and Rosenman as
aggressively involved In a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more
and more in less and less time and if Required to do so, against the
opposing efforts of other things or other persons. They have defined
Type B personality as rarely harried by the desire to obtain a wildly
increasing number of things or participate in a endless growing series
of events in an ever decreasing amount of time.
LEADERSHIP CONCEPTS AND MODELS
Concept of leadership:
Leadership is the factor that helps individuals and groups to achieve
the goal. It is the process of influencing and supporting employees or
other to work enthusiastically toward achieving the objectives.
There are three important features of leadership, ‘influence or support,
voluntary Effort and goal achievement. Leadership is essential for
guiding the activities. A leader functions as a guide, directory and
supervisor. The quality of a good leader is like that Of a catalyst that
transforms potential of employees into reality. According to Koontz
and donnel, leadership is the ability of a manager to induce
subordinates to work with confidence and zeal.
According to Dubin R, Leadership is the exercise of authority and
making of decisions.
According to Alford and Beaty, * “Leadership is the ability. to secure
desirable actions From a group of followers voluntarily, without the
use of coercion."
According to George R. Terry, “Leadership is the activity of
influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives”.
According to Hemphill, J.K, “Leadership is the initiation of acts
which result in insistent pattern of group interaction directed towards
the solution of mutual problem.”
Thus, ‘leadership is a process of influencing the behaviour of the
people in one’s own, way, which helps to guide and induce
subordinate to achieve the objectives.
The nature of leadership is as follows,
(1)Performance : The performance of a leader directly influences the
leader also. If he asks his employees to: come on time, he himself has
to reach the workplace on time.The leaders’ performance itself guides
and motivates the employees.
(2) Communication : Leadership starts with communication either by
deeds or words. The followers can develop themselves by observing
and accepting the work or verbal communication of a leader.
(3) Influence: A leader must have the capacity to influence others.
Without influencing others, a leader cannot function at all.’
(4) Power Base : The influence depends on the power base enjoyed by
the leaders. There are five bases of power, viz., coercion, reward,
legitimate, expert and reference. When a person threatens others to
work it is coercion.
(5) Interaction : The relationship between two persons is essentially
desired in the management. In public and politics, leadership does not
require a relationship. It is merely the interaction between two
parties. Without interaction, no one is a leader or a follower.
(6)Acceptance :The power base and interaction are accepted by
followers. If the influence is not recognized and not accepted by the
follower, leadership does not take place in an organization.
(7) Followers : Leadership has followers. The link between a leader
and his followers is communication. Influencing other is leadership.
Followers are the end-users of The leadership through interaction and
communication.
Different dimensions of leadership:
The different dimensions of leadership are,
(1) Integrity: Leading through honesty and acceptance of personal
responsibility:
(2) Self-renewal : Flexible, responsive leadership that makes good use
of experience
(3) Fortitude : Acting with courage and confidence in the face of
challenge
(4) Perceiving : Looking beyond current details to the big picture.
(5)Judgement :Knowing what needs to be done and actorately
anticipating consequences.
(6) Performing : Getting results by overcoming barriers to
effectiveness.
(7) Boldness : An uncompromising approach that involves facing
problems head-on.
(8) Team Building :Accomplishing results through others by getting
them to work together.
(9) Collaboration : Sharing rewards and responsibility with others in
the group.
(10) Inspiring : Energizing, motivating and encouraging others to
pursue leader-defined goals.
(11) Serving : Taking cues from. followers and providing assistance
that others can't get On their own.
(12) Enthusiasm: Pursuing objectives with passion and optimism and
attracting others to the cause.
Differences between managers and leaders:
The difference between manager and leader are as follows,
Sno personality Dimension Manager leader

(1) Attitudes to-ward goals Has an impersonal, Has a personal and

passive,functional active attitude,
attitude,believesgoals arise out of believes goals arise
necessity and reality. from desire and
imagination.

(2) Conceptions of work Views work as an enabling Looks for fresh

process that combines people, approaches to old
ideas and things, seeks moderate problems, seeks high
risk through coordination and risk positions,
balance. especially with high-
payoffs.

(3) Relationships with Avoids solitary work activ-ity, Is comfortable in

others preferring to work with others, solitary work activity,
avoids close, intense encourages close,
relationships, avoids conflict. intense working
relationships, is not
conflict average.

Skills required for effective leadership:

Leadership is an intangible quality, and its effectiveness can best be
judged, by the behaviour and attitudes of followers. Even though,
personal backgrounds and personalities differ widely, some of the
factors such as education and socioeconomic status are poor
indicators of judgements of successful leaders. However, some
behavioural characteristics may be common to most of the successful
and effective leaders. Some of these characteristics are,
(1) Critical Thinking: Successful leaders all have powerful critical
thinking skills, The ability to quickly survey and analyze a situation
then identify the core issues that need to be dealt with is key to
business success. As is, the ability to understand new issues and
factors that impact one’s goals and designs.
(2)Creative Thinking : These leaders also have varying abilities to
think, well, differently. They have the ability to step out of rigid
mindsets so that they can explore potential new ideas that others may
consider risky, crazy or silly. ,
(3)Listening :Great leaders are great listeners. Experienced at
focusing their energy to the task, this includes listening, so that when
they listen, they are very focused on hearing everything that’s being
said so that they can make well-informed decisions.
(4)Reading : The ability to read is vital to lifelong personal and
professional success. Leaders in any industry or area all tend to be
good readers who are exposed to large amounts of information
through reports, newspapers, white papers, books etc.. While they
may not be speed readers, they are excellent at grasping the main
ideas and context of the material they do read.
(5)Writing : They may hot write often. And they may not write a lot.
But when they do, successful leaders are clear, concise and to the
point.
(6)Speaking : Perhaps the most important language skill, the best
leaders are also good speakers. They are able to present their ideas
verbally to audiences of all types and sizes, as well as easily change
their presentation style so that they meet an audience’s needs.
(7)Motivating : Skilled leaders are superb motivators. They
understand that each of us is propelled by our own, personal,
motivations. These leaders are able to apply all of their language skills
(listening, reading, writing and speaking). to create powerful group
goals and visions that spur people to give 110%.
(8)Networking : Successful people have successful networks. They
have contacts, associates and friends in a wide array of fields who
they can call on for ideas, input and assistance. These leaders actively
cultivate and grow their networks all the time.
(9)delegating : To some, this may not seem like a leadership skill, but
it is. Leaders who excel are leaders who don’t try to take everything
on themselves. Indeed, they understand that they can’t do everything.
They easily delegate all but the most important of tasks to their
employees, assistants and networks.
(10) Evolving :In evaluating successful leaders, I think this is the
most powerful, yet most difficult skill to master. Evolving is the
ability to adapt, quickly, to the newest technologies, styles and modes
of thinking that create success. It is a skill requiring a supreme sense
of self-confidence coupled with extreme humility.
Behavioural model of leadership:
Behavioural theory of leadership emphasizes that strong leadership is
the result of effective role behaviour. Leadership is shown by a person
‘s acts more than by his traits. Researchers exploring leadership role
have come to the conclusion that to operate effectively groups need
someone to perform two major functions.
(1) Task-related Functions: Task-related functions or problem-solving
functions relate to providing solutions to the problems faced by the
groups in performing jobs and activities.
(2) Group Maintenance Functions: Group maintenance functions or
social functions relate to actions of mediating disputes and ensuring
that individuals feel value of the group.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY:
Behavioural Theory of leadership has some important implications for
managers. They Shape their behaviour which appears to be functional
and discard the Behaviour which appears to be dysfunctional.
LIMITATIONS OF THE THEORY
This theory suffers from two basic limitations,
(1)A particular behaviour may be functional at a point of time, but it
may be dysfunctional at the another Point of time. Thus, the time
element will be a decider of the effectiveness of the behaviour and not
the behaviour itself.
(2)Effectiveness of leadership behaviour depends on various factors
which are not in the leader but external to him like nature of followers
subordinates and the situations Which the leaders behaviour takes
place.
Model of managerial grid in leadership:
Leaders can be oriented towards both tasks and persons.
This theory by Blake and Mouton (1978) has a popular
application of both task and person orientation. According to
this theory leaders are most effective when they achieve a
high and balanced concern for p e o p l e and for tasks. Each
leader can be rated somewhere along each of the axes from
1 to 9 depending on his/her orientation as shown in Fig

Although there can be 81 possible combinations you should try to

understand the 5 types that are shown in the Fig. 5.3.1. These will
give you a basic understanding of the theory, on which you can base
your other combinations.
(1) The (9,1) leader is primarily concerned about the task or
production. He / she Is concerned with his/her responsibility to see
that the work is completed. He/she is called a Task- Management
Leader.
(2)The (1,9 ) leader is primarily concerned for people and only
incidentally concerned with production. The leader’s major
responsibility is to establish harmonious relationships among
subordinates and to provide a secure and pleasant work atmosphere.
He/she is called as a Country Club Management Leader.
(3)The (1,1) leader is concerned. with neither production nor people.
He / she rises to stay out of the way and not become involved. in the
conflict between the necessity for production and the attainment of
good working relationship. He / she is called as Impoverish
Managerial Leader.
(4)The (5,5) leader reflects a middle ground position and is called as
Middle of the Road Management Leader. He / she seeks to
compromise between high production and employee satisfaction.
(5)The (9,9) leader is extremely concerned about the task and also the
people. He / she is concerned to see that the work accomplishment is
from committed people, interdependence through a ‘common stake’ in
organization, purpose leads to relationship of trust and respect. He/she
is called a Team Management Leader.
Limitations of Managerial Grid are as follows,
(1)it is highly controversial among theorists due to lack of empirical
evidence.
(2)To evolve the composite style they should give various behaviour
mix in different degrees.

Jrait theory of leadership:

The most commonly used approach to the study of leadership
concentrated on leadership traits.
Trait is defined as a relatively enduring quality of an individual. “The
trait approach” seeks to determine what makes a successful leader
from his own personal characteristic’s personalities, skills, abilities
and social factors.
This approach emphasizes that strong leadership is the result of
effective role behaviour. Leadership is shown by a person’s act more
than by his traits.
One critical component of what leaders in managerial roles bring to
the work setting is their traits, that is the relatively enduring
characteristics of a person. The scientific study of the leader’s role
traits.
Although specific traits do not invariably determine leadership
effectiveness they can increase its likelihood. As shown in Fig. 5.3.2,
among the traits that research has indicated the most apt to predict
effective leadership are drive, motivation to lead, honesty/integrity,
self-confidence and emotional maturity.

(1) Motivation to Lead : A strong desire to influence others, to “Be In-

charge” such a person is comfortable with the use of power in relating
to other people.
(2) Honesty/Integrity : Trustworthiness someone, with this trait that
he/she is a Person whose word can be relied on consistently and who
is highly likely to do what he or she ways. .
(3) Self Confidence: A strong belief in one’s own capabilities. People
with this trait Set high expectations for themselves, others and they
tend to be optimistic rather than pessimistic about overcoming
obstacles and achieving objectives. Obviously, in contrast to
honesty/integrity, this is a trait that in the extreme can be a negative,
In other words, too much self-confidence can lead to what has been
called “The Shadow Side of Success”. That is, too much success in
leadership, paradoxically, can produce the seeds of later leadership
problems.
(4) Emotional Maturity: Remaining even tempered and calm in the
face of stress and pressure. Persons with maturity tend to be accurate
in self-awareness about their own strengths and weakness, moreover,
they are less likely to be self-centred and to be unduly defensive in
the face of criticism.
It is important to note that most of the research on traits has
involved only or mostly, men and the extent to which the findings
would generalize to both genders remains a subject for further
research.
Also it is important to re-emphasize that traits, such as those
listed, do not guarantee that a person will become a leader or will
necessarily lead effectively. Very few people possess every critical
trait at an exceptionally high level. However, if a person has one or
more of these relatively enduring characteristics, the probabilities for
successful leadership are increased. Traits provide potential, but other
factors such as skills, attitudes, experience and opportunities
determine whether the potential will be realized.
Examining the traits of well-known leaders, it is found that the
most effective traders generally possessed intelligence, alertness,
understanding, good communication skill, self confidence,
aggressiveness and decisiveness. These traits can be developed by the
leader in him, or they may be inherited. Trialists believe that a leader
cannot behave differently than his personal traits. These personal
traits or characteristics of a leader make him different from followers.
The newer studies raised a question whether a set of traits, if
identified, would predict the actual performance in leadership position
or in other words leadership traits are universally applicable to every
situation. In addition the researchers have determined that effective
leadership depends on the balance of specific traits rather than the
possession of any particular trait or skill.
Criticism/drawbacks of trait approach:
Trait theory suffers from following drawbacks,
(1) Too many traits, there is no complete or universal list of these
traits.
(2) Traits are not measurable.
(3)Leadership effectiveness is not always dependent on traits but
sometimes situation is also important, i.e., trait theory does not
consider the environment.
(4) The traits may not be born qualities, but some traits cannot be
acquired even after learning, training and education.
Situational theory of leadership:
Situational leadership approach was applied for the first time in
1920 in the armed forces of Germany with the objective to get good
generals under different situations. In the business organizations,
much emphasis on the leadership researches was placed on the
situations. that surround the exercise of leadership since. early 1950's.
The prime attentions in situation theory of leadership (also known
as contingency theory) is given to the situation in which leadership is
exercised. Therefore, effectiveness of leadership will be affected by
factors associated with the leader and factors associated with the
situation.

The various factors affecting leadership effectiveness may broadly be

classified into major categories,
(1)Leader’s Behaviour : Leader’s behaviour is affected by two
variable leader's characteristics and his hierarchical position in the
organization.
(i) Leader’s Characteristics: An individual’s behaviour is influenced
by intelligence and ability, his characteristics like his personality
characteristics, attitudes, interest, motivation and physical
characteristics such as age, sex and physical features.
(ii) Leader’s Hierarchical Positions: Leader's hierarchical position in
the organization is important because persons at different levels face
different kind of problems which affect the degree of participation
between the superior and his subordinates in arriving at decisions to
solve the problems. Managers are more concerned with problems
involving the aay operations which may not require high-level of
participation.
(2) Situational Factor : Besides the leader’s related factors, leadership
effectiveness is affected by situational factor as these factors affect the
leader’s behaviour. The Various situational factors may be grouped
into four categories.
(i) Subordinate’s Characteristics : Various factors which affect an
individual's behaviour, as discussed in the case of the leader are
relevant for the subordinate too.
(ii) Leader’s Situation : The leader’s situation in respect to his
subordinates is an important factor affecting leadership effectiveness.
There are two main variables which determine the leader's situation,
-Leader’s Position Power : Leader's position power helps in
influencing others.
- Leader Subordinate Relation : Leader-subordinate relation is based
on the classic exchange theory which suggests that there is two- way
influence in a social relationship.
(iii) Group Factors : Various group factors like task design, group
composition, group norms, group cohesiveness and per-group
relationship affect leadership effectiveness and performances. If these
factors are favourable, the leader will be effective.
(iv) Organizational Factors : Organizational factors like organizations
claim and organizational culture affect leadership effectiveness. If
these are conclusive, the leader will be effective.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY
The advantages/implications of situational theory of leadership are,
(1)situational theory has wide implications for managers in the sense
that it often clues why a Manager who is successful in one situation,
fails when there is a change in the situation.
(2) This theory should not be taken as the final word in leadership.
(3) The theory appears to be good in the surface, but, becomes quite
complex in practise because of the presence of numerous contingent
factors.
LIMITATIONS OF THE THEORY
The limitations of situational theory of leadership,
(1) To lead in all situations there is no one best way.
(2) The degree of participation between the superior and his
subordinates in arriving at decisions to solve the problems.
(3) There should be high-level of participation.
Path-goal model of leadership:
Path-goal theory leadership behaviour is a combination of
situational leadership and Vroom’s. expectancy theory of motivation.
Path-goal leadership theory was develop by Robert house in 1971 and
Mitchell in 1974. House attempted to explain how the behaviour of
leaders influence the performance and satisfaction of the followers.
The path-goal leadership model is used to select the leadership styles
appropriate to the situations environment to maximize the both
performance and job satisfaction.
 This theory attempts to predict leadership effectiveness in
different situations. A leader can adopt four types of behaviour Which
helps to classify and to set goals with Subordinates and identify the
best path to achieve them and to eradicate the problems from their
performance. The adopting behaviours are as follows
(1) Instrumental/Directive : The leader gives sub-ordinates specific
orders and makes it clear What is expected of them, his focus is on
planning, organizing, co-ordinating and controlling the activities of
the sub-ordinates.
(2)Supportive : The leader shows friendly behaviour to his employees,
He shows his concern for their needs and welfare and creates a
pleasant, organizational climate.
(3) Participative : The leader makes decisions with active
participation of the employees, Shares information with them and
seeks suggestions from them.
(4)Achievement-oriented : The leader sets, challenging goals, seeks
improvements of Performance by displaying confidence in the
abilities of his sub-ordinates.
The above behavioural patterns do not work effectively in all
situations but work in a particular situation as a nature of sub ordinate
and work environment.
Nature of Subordinate:
(1) Externally-oriented Employees : External oriented employees
believe in external factors for the performance of jobs, like clear-cut
directives and motivation.
(2) Internally-oriented Employees : Internal oriented employees are
self-motivated and believe that they can control situations.
Work environment:
(1) Structured Task : “Structured task is well-defined in terms of the
nature of task, authority and responsibility associated with it, type of
organizational relationship etc,
(2) Unstructured Task : Unstructured task will not have the above
definitions.

Thus, this theory proposes that there is nothing like the best
leadership style appropriate for all situations. Appropriate style is the
one that helps subordinates cope with environment ambiguity. ,
Path-goal theory makes great sense for academic research and
Practicing managers.
Limitations of Path goal theory:
The model has been criticized for the following reasons,
(1) This model is incomplete, in the sense that it does not explain the
effects of leader behaviour on factors other than subordinates
acceptance, Satisfaction and expectation.
(2) It is a complicated model and its empirical testing is difficult due
to methodological complexities.
(3) The model is sketchy in nature requiring further refinement. It is
in its infancy an there is relatively little research to support it. Some
research studies report findings contrary to the model.
(4) The model is post hoc in the sense that some of the research
evidence supporting It was also used to construct it.

Different leadership styles and merits and demerits :

Behavioural theory is based on ‘different behaviours or actions that
leader exhibits different leadership positions. This is also known as
leadership style.
A leader has to lead different types of subordinates and has to adopt
different styles for leading them according to situations. The
behavioural theory includes following main type of leadership styles,
(1) autocratic or Authoritarian leadership style.
(2) Democratic or Participative leadership style. .
(3) Laissez-Faire or Free-rein leadership style.
(1) Autocratic Leadership Style : A behavioural style of leader who
tends to make unilateral decisions and centralizes authority is called
the autocratic or authoritarian leader. Autocratic leader uses
legitimate, reward and coercive power to influence others.
Autocratic leaders basically make decisions without consulting the
subordinates Such autocratic leaders are also known as taskmaster or
dictator. Such leaders maintain a high degree of control.
They set very clear, quantifiable, short-term objectives using rewards
for successful accomplishment and punishment for non achievement.
They are task- oriented hence when immediate productivity gains are
required, autocratic leaders prove to be very effective.

Characteristics of Autocratic Leadership Style

The following are the main. features of autocratic leadership. Style,
(i) The autocratic leader believes in discipline and authority.
(ii) They constantly observe the burden on subordinates.
(iii) They rely on legitimate, reward and coercive power of leaders.
(iv) They show lack of trust.
(v) They use control extensively.
(vi) They are result oriented.
(vii)They do not consult their subordinates.

(2)Democratic Leadership Style : A behavioural style of leader who

tends to involve the group in decision making, to delegate authority
and encourage participation is called democratic or participative
leadership style. Democratic leaders tend to use referent and expert
power to influence others.
Democratic leaders take pride in involving subordinates in
decision- making process. They encourage group involvement in
setting objectives and establishing Strategies. They promote high
morale and are concerned with work climate and atmosphere. They
look in positive manner to the situations. It is based on the assumption
that everyone can contribute to the organization if they are simply
asked todo so.
Characteristics of Democratic Leadership Style
The characteristics of democratic leadership style are as follows
(i) Democratic leader believes in sharing responsibility and authority.
(ii) They manage the things through goals not by control.
(iii) They delegate authority and build confidence,
(iv) They indicate trust in the subordinates,
(v) They create a positive work environment,
(vi) They inform employees about work standards
(3)Laissez-Faire Leadership Style : A behavioural style of leader who
generally gives the group complete freedom, provides necessary
materials, participates only to answer questions and avoids giving
feedback is called the Laissez-Faire or Free-Rein leadership style.
The Laissez-Faire philosophy can be used when workers are
knowledgeable,motivated, goal directed and independent.
Characteristics of Laissez-Faire Leadership Style:
The main features are as follows,
(i) Laissez-Faire leadership gives total freedom and control to
employees.
(ii) It delegates all decisions to subordinates.
(iii)It relies on worker self-motivation, freedom and flexibility.
(iv) It creates a relaxed working climate.
(v) It believes in liberally sharing responsibility.
(vi) It does not strictly enforce policies and procedures.

VALUES AND ATTITUDES

Values and different types of values:
 Values are one of the sources of individual differences. Values
are general beliefs tinged with moral flavour containing an
individual’s judgemental ideas about what is good, right or desirable.
In other words, the answers to the questions. What is right or Wrong
and good or bad are value laden.
According to Rokeach, “Value is a specific mood of conduct or
end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an
opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of existence”.
According to White and Bednar, “Value is a concept of the
desirable, an internalized criterion standard of evaluation a person
possesses. Such concepts and standards are relatively few and
determine or guide an individual's evaluations of many objects
encountered in everyday life”.
Thus, “values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of
conduct (or end State of existence) is personally or socially preferable
to an opposite mode of conduct (or end-state of existence)”.
Various types of values as given jointly by Allpart, Vernon
Lindzey are as shown in Fig
Religious

Political Theoretical• •

..
..... . ..

Social Economic
• I
Aesthetic

(1) Theoretical : These are the people who involve themselves in the
discovery of theory through rational, critical and empirical processes.
(2) Economic : These people are concerned with the usefulness and
practicality of thing.They are also concerned for wealth accumulation.
(3)Aesthetic : These people are very much concerned for the artistic
values and harmony.
(4)social : In this, people talk of with other people, their attachment,
love, relationships.
(5)political : Stress is given on the power and influencing others.
(6)religion : This is basically concerned with the experience and
understanding of the cosmos as a whole.
Values given by Grave’s : According to Graves following types of
values are shown in Fig.

(i)Reactive : It reacts to the psychological needs of the human beings.

(ii)Tribalistic : There is a requirement of directive leadership as it is
highly influenced by traditions.
(iii)Egocentrism : This is an orientation towards survival and power.
(iv)Conformity : People want others to accept their values.
(v)Manipulative : Efforts to achieve the goals through manipulating
things.
(vi)Sociocentric : To be social, to maintain relations with others.
(vii)Existential: This is concerned with the behaviour related with
existing realties.
How the values for an entrepreneur are formed:
Where do afterall our values come from? How are our values
formed”? The answers are as follows,
Research has proved beyond doubt that a significant portion (40%) of
one’s values is genetically determined. The rest of values, like
attitudes, is learned and acquired through experiences with parents,
school-mates, friends, peers, models and organizations.
Formation of values starts from family and is influenced by the
parents. Recall Your childhood when your mothers told you, “Wash
your hands and feet and brush your teethThis they told because being
lazy has been considered bad. Parents own behaviour to their
everyday events also demonstrates what is good and bad, important
and unimportant for the children. Thus, children imbibe many values
from the parents,
Classmates and peers also help shape one’s values. As we grow
and develop, Our values also change. Here again, recollect your
values during your school days. Your Values about somethings, more
often than not, had been the same as held by your parents But, by now
when you have grown up and exposed to several situations, might
have changed. Culture also influences the formation of values. As
culture varies across the regions, so do values also.
Factors affecting values:
People learn values from many sources like parents, culture,
teachers, external reference groups etc. Values and their importance
generally differs from person to person. Some important factors which
helps in developing or shaping values are shown in Fig
(1)Family Factors : A persons family plays a very important role in
shaping the values of an individual. How one has been brought up,
who are the family members, what is the environment at home, what
other family members are doing, all these inputs teach a child how he
should behave, react etc. Example, parents give rewards,even
punishments just to enable the child to understand and learn what is
expected from them.
(2)Social Factors : Another factor which develops value is the society.
It consists of the environment and surroundings i.e., people around
you in school, college neighbourhood, society etc., how you interact
with them or how they interact with you. This interaction helps in
learning the values.
(3)Economic and Political Factors : Another factor which has a major
stake in developing the values is economic and political factors.
If the economic condition of the individual is good then people
will generally learn in some other way as compared to a person whose
economic conditions are not good. similarly, the political factors also
play some role in deciding the values because people take it as an
external source of learning. An urge to grow faster, power,influence
etc., gives a base to the individuals to learn accordingly. There are
some people, who never get influenced from these factors at all.
(4)cultural Factors : Cultural factors act as the principal source for
formation of values.In Indian culture, we have harmony, peace,
cooperation, equity, democracy etc., as cultural values.
(5)Personal Factors : It includes intelligence, ability, appearance and
educational level of the persons.
Attitude and the features of attitude:
Attitude is a specific mental ‘state of the individual towards
something according to which his behaviour towards it is modified.
Attitude is the way one feel about something and it include a set, a
actions with emotional overtone.
According to G.W Allport, “Attitude is a mental and neutral
state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive
or dynamic influences upon the individual's response to all objects
and situations with which it is related.”
According to Bernard, “Social attitudes are individual attitudes
directed towards social objects and individual attitudes strongly inter-
conditioned by collective or groups Contacts.”
According’ to Krech and Crutchfield, “attitude is an enduring
organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual and cognitive
processes with respect to some aspect the individual’s world.”
Thus, attitude is a hightended responsiveness to certain stimuli.
Attitudes can be distinguished in terms of characteristics,
(i)It refers to the magnitude or degree of favourableness or
unfavourableness towards the Object.
(ii)Multiplicity: It refers to the number of elements constituting the
attitude.
(iii)Relation to Needs : Attitudes can also vary in relation to needs
they serve,
(iv)Centrality : It refers to the importance of the object.
Attitudes for an entrepreneur :
Person’s attitude comprises of three components/dimensions such as,
(1) Cognitive Component: It refers to the opinion, belief, segment of
an attitude, it sometimes referred to as opinion. The cognitive
component is very important and consists of the individual's
perceptions like beliefs and ideas. According to Krech, the cognition
include ‘evaluative beliefs’ such as old or bad, desirable or
undesirable,favourable or unfavourable qualities of an object. If
affective component refers to feelings, this cognitive component
refers to beliefs.
(2) Affective Component : It refers to the emotions associated with an
attitude object.Basically, it consists of the feelings a person has
towards an object. It is often expressed as like or dislike, good or bad,
pleasing or displeasing, favourable or unfavourable. The expression of
love, hate, etc., are treated as affective component.
(3) Behavioural Component : It refers to the way one intends to
behave towards an object. Both the cognitive and affective
components influence the way a person Intends to behave towards an
object.
Factors that affect attitude:
According to D. Katz, attitudes serve four important functions as
shown in Fig. 5.4.4

(1)The Adjustment Function : Attitudes often help people adjust to

their work environment. When employees are well treated they are
likely to develop a positive attitude towards the management and the
Organization, otherwise they are likely to develop a negative attitude
towards Management and the organization. These attitudes help
employees adjust to their environment and are a basis for future
(2)Ego Defensive Function : Along with the adjustment function
attitudes also help them defend their self images. People often form
and maintain certain attitudes to protect their own self images.
(3) Expressive Functions : This attitudinal function contains three
main aspects,
(i)It helps express the individual’s central values and self identity.
Consumers express their values in the products they buy, the shops
they patronize and the life style they exhibit.
(ii) It also helps individuals define their self concept and facilitates the
adoption of sub-culture values considered important. For example,
teenagers may dress and behave in a certain way in order to foster
their status in a group.
(iii) It helps individuals adopt and internalize the values of group they
have recently joined and as a consequence, they are able to relate to
the group.
(4)Knowledge : The knowledge function of attributes is based on a
person’s need to maintain a stable, organized and meaningful structure
of the world. Attitudes that provide a standard against which a person
evaluates aspects of his world serve the knowledge function too.
MOTIVATION ASPECTS
Motivation and various forms of motivation:
Motivation originally comes from the. Latin root word “Movere,”
which means.“to move". It is derived from the word ‘motive’. Motive
may be defined as an inner state of our mind that activates and directs
our behaviour. Motivation is one’s willingness to exert efforts towards
the accomplishment of his/her goal.
According to Fred Luthans, “Motivation is a process that starts
with a physiological or Psychological deficiency or need that activates
behaviour or a drive that is aimed at A goal or incentive.”
According to Stephen P. Robbins, “Motivation is the willingness
to exert high levels Of effort toward organization goals, conditioned
by the effort ability to satisfy some individual need.”
According to Lillis, “It is the stimulation of any emotion desire
operating upon one’s Willing and Promoting or driving it to action.”
 According to Dubin, “Motivation is the complex of forces
starting and keeping a person at work in an organization.”
Thus the efforts of the management will not bear fruit if the
employees are not encouraged to work more. The motivated
employees become an asset to the organization.
The following are the various types of motivation,
(1) Negative Motivation : It is based on force or fear, i.e., workers can
be threatened with demotion, dismissal, lay-off, pay cut etc. Negative
motivation results in disloyalty to the group as well as to organization.
(2)Position Motivation : It is based on reward. It is a process of
attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility
of gain or reward.
(3)Extrinsic Motivation : Increase in wages, retirement benefits, rest
periods, holidays, health wages, health insurance and the like are the
examples of extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is available
only after the completion of job.
(4)Intrinsic Motivation : Intrinsic motivation is available at the time
of performance of work. These motivation provide a satisfaction
during the performance of the work itself. Praise, recognition, power,
delegation of authority and responsibility, competition and
participation in the decision-making process are some of the examples
of intrinsic motivation.
(5)Financial Motivation : Financial motivation is directly or indirectly
associated with money, wages salaries, bonus, profit-sharing, paid
vacation, retirement benefits, free-medical service are some of the
financial motivations.
(6)Non-Financial Motivation : These are not associated with monetary
rewards, praise, job- rotation, delegation of authority and
responsibility, participation, recognition and power are some of the
examples of non-financial motivation.
Motivation techniques suitable to small scale entrepreneur:
The following are some motivation techniques for small scale
Entrepreneurs,
(1)Employee Empowerment : One of the best ways to motivate your
people is to give them more responsibility and decision-making
powers so that they have enough realm of control over a given task.
This simple strategy goes a long way to diminish frustrations arising
from being held responsible wrongfully for something over which one
does not have any control (e.g. lacking proper resources to carry out a
task). Besides, you can divert energy from self-preservation to better
and improved task accomplishment by empowering your workforce.
(2)Learning Opportunities : There is a reason why multi-nationals and
large enterprises invest in employee learning programs. It is a great
employee retention policy that also helps you to motivate your people
to achieve more by enhancing their skills All you need to do is
provide required tools and Opportunities to your employees to
accomplish more Chances are most of your staff will take on this
challenge.
Accreditation and licensing programs are effective in escalating
employee knowledge and motivation and are in great demand.
Thought leadership and management education also provides a deep
understanding of business to your employees and can improve their
attitudes toward the company and clients, while boosting self-
confidence.
However, providing trainings and learning programs is not
enough. You must ensure that employees are able to apply the
knowledge gained to accomplish their work and further benefit their
career utility. In other words, the acquisition of knowledge must be
worthwhile for both the employee and employer to influence
motivation, otherwise it is just wastage of time and effort.
(3)Encourage Innovation and Creativity : Companies where
employees hesitate to express their creative ideas to management for
the fear of being ignored or worse, ridiculed can hardly make it to the
list for employee motivators. In fact, both the employee and the
company suffer from such practices. A better approach is to push the
power down to line personnel. Give opportunities to employees who
know the jobs or products/services best to use their ideas for further
improvement. Encourage exchange of insightful information and
ideas among your employees and departments. This way you are
using your employees experience more wisely and making them feel
valued and wanted.
It will not only bolster employee motivation within the
organization but also help in creating a more flexible working
environment as it creates an openness to change. Furthermore, you
will gain the ability to react fast to market changes as well as gain
first mover advantages in the marketplace.
(4)Financial Incentives : Compensation/pay tops the list of aspects
that contribute to employee job satisfaction. Money holds a major
place in motivating employees to become more productive. It is
therefore no surprise that many companies share their Profits with
employees in form of incentives. Providing financial incentives to
employees motivate them to produce a better quality product, offer
quality service and/or improve the quality of organizational Process. It
is essential to make your workforce realize that what benefits the
company also benefits them directly. You can provide monetary
incentives for various Purposes, such as,
(i) Generating process-improving and, cost-savings ideas.
(ii)Reducing absenteeism.
(iii)enhancing Productivity.
On the down- side, the motivating effects of money (although
effective) are short-lived.In addition, it must be made available to all
employees (based on his/her contribution towards the success)
otherwise it can prove counter productive. You should therefore
couple monetary incentives with other, nonmonetary motivators
which brings to our next method.
(5)Nonmonetary Incentives : Studies indicate that nonmonetary
incentives are effective tools for Monitoring employees As
mentioned, there are certain downsides of using Monetary systems as
motivators. Expectations, in such cases, often exceed results, besides,
disparity between salaried individuals can divide them instead, of
uniting the work force.
Nonmonetary incentives that serve as positive motivators
include responsibility, recognition and advancement. Employers and
managers also need to recognize Employees small wins in order to
promote participatory environments. In addition, it is imperative to
treat all employees equally with fairness and respect to Create highly
motivated working environment.
Other effective nonmonetary rewards include time off from
work, letters of commendation, enhanced personal fulfilment and
sincere praise from peers and the higher management. Such personal
gestures are by far most effective employee motivator. When
combined with monetary rewards, these programs have potentials to
satisfy intrinsic and self-actualizing needs of your workforce.
How an entrepreneur motivated :
Entrepreneurial performance may refer to measure of
business success and the rewards .may refer to the
recompense financial or psychic accruing to the entrepreneur.
The convergence is attained when and where the success of the
venture itself is perceived as a personal reward.
The various measures of business p e rformance include,
longevity of survival or more. popularly age of the
enterprise,'sales growth, growth in market share, growth in
market scope (local, national or international), growth in
investment (in the same unit), a dditional units created via
acquisition and diversification growth in number of
employees, profits and so on. Most of these are physical
growth and financial growth parameters and have been
t r a d i t i o n a l measures of entrepreneurial performance. Of
late, other measures of performance such as customers'
satisfaction, employee satisfaction, image, credit rating, etc.
are also becoming increasingly relevant. These measures are
typically ·referred to a stakeholder-based parameters. As the
small firms grow into acquiring corporate identities, 'market'
based parameters such as stock price, EPS etc. May also
be the relevant measures of entrepreneurial performance. Fig
provides· a look into the classification of the measures of
entrepreneurial performance.

Expected results from the motivation

Motivation is an important function of personnel management
because management of personnel means getting the work done by
the people to achieve the organizational objectives. Motivation is one
of the methods to induce the man on the job to get the Work done
effectively to have the best results towards the common objectives.
Motivation is necessary for the better performance’
The expected results from motivation are as follows,
(1)Best Utilization of resources: All other resources (except human
resource) can produce no results unless the man tries to put them into
action. Man should be motivated To carry out the plans, policies and
programmers laid down by the organization by utilizing the other
resources to the best of their efforts.
(2)Will to Contribute : A distinction should be made between capacity
to work and willingness to work. A man can be physically, mentally
and technically fit to work but he may not be willing to work.
Motivation concerns to create a need and desire on the part of the
workman to present his better performance.
(3) Reduction in Labour Problems : All the members try to
concentrate their efforts to achieve the objectives of the. organization
and carry out the plans in accordance with the policies and
programmes laid down by the organization. If the management
introduces motivational plans, it reduces the labour problems like
labour turnover, absenteeism, indiscipline, grievances etc., because
their real wages increase by the motivational plans.
(4)Sizable Increase in Production productivity : Motivation induces
the men to work hence it results in increased production and
productivity efforts to produce more an more and thus their efficiency
increases.
(5)Basis of Cooperation :In a zeal to produce more, the members
work as a team to pull the weight effectively, to get their loyalty to the
group and the organization to carry out properly the activities
allocated and generally to play an efficient part in achieving the
purposes which the organization has undertaken. Thus motivation is
basis of cooperation to get the best results out of the efforts of the men
on the job.
(6)improvement upon skill and knowledgeable :the members will try
to be as efficient as possible and will try to improve upon their skill
and knowledge so that they may be able to contribute to the progress
of the organization.
Behaviour is basically goal oriented. In other words our behaviour is
generally motivated by a desire to attain same goal.
The basic unit of behaviour is an activity. In fact any behaviour
is a series Of activities and motives. The motivation of people
depends on the strength of their motives, Motives are defined as
needs, wants, drives, with in the individual. Motives are the ways of
behaviour. They arouse and maintain activity and determine the
general direction Of the behaviour of an individual.
Maslow’s motivation theory for needs:
 There are two types of needs basic and secondary or acquired.
Basic needs are important for survival whereas, acquired needs are
not so important. We know various Needs as felt by a man but, do not
know about their preferential order. A.H. Maslow solved this problem
and presented a theory on priority order of needs. Some important
Prepositions of Maslows need priority model are as under,
(1) Man is wanting animal.
(2) A satisfied need is no longer a motivator.
(3) Needs have hierarchy of importance.

Need Hierarchy

Maslow has presented the hierarchy of needs in the following order,

(1) Basic Physiological Needs : The needs that are taken as the
starting point for motivation theory are the so called physiological
needs. These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of human
life. These needs include such things as food, clothing, shelter, air,
water and other necessities of life.
(2)Safety and Security Needs : After satisfying the physiological
needs, people want the Assurance of maintaining a given economic
level. They want job security Of source of income, provision for old
age, insurance against risks etc.
(3)social Needs : Man is social being. He is, therefore, interested in
conversation, sociability, exchange of feelings and grievances,
companionship, recognition, belongingness etc. Non-satisfaction of
this level of needs may affect the mental health of the dividual.
(4)Ego(Esteem and Status) Needs : Egoistic needs can take Inward
and outward orientations,
(i)inward Orientation : Inward directed ego needs embrace such
things. as self confidence, independence, achievement, competence,
knowledge and success. They have to be earned by the individual
himself through his intelligence and hard work. They lead to earned
recognition by the society.
(ii) Outward Orientation : Outwardly directed ego needs are
concerned with prestige, status and other marks of respect because of
some position in the organization or control over economic, social and
political power. .
(5) Self Actualization : The final step under the need priority mode is
the need for self- fulfilment or the need to fulfil what a person
considers to be his mission in life. It involves releasing ones
potentialities for continued self-development and for being creative in
the broadest sense of the work. After his other needs are fulfilled, a
man has the desire for personal achievement. He wants to do
something which is challenging and since this challenge gives him
enough dash and initiative to work. It is beneficial to him in particular
and to the society in general. The sense of achievement gives him
Psychological satisfaction.
Maslow has further classified the needs as lower order needs and
higher order needs. First two needs in the hierarchical order are lower
needs and rests three are higher order needs.
Critical Appraisal of The Model
The Model is very simple and helps in understanding the human
behaviour of people At work but, it has certain limitations.
(i)Model may not be applicable at all times, in all places and in all
circumstances.
(ii)There are many determinants of behaviour other than needs.
(iii)Motivation is not a result of single need.
(iv) one need does not lead all people to the same behaviour.
(v)Hierarchical Order is not rigid.
Fayol’s principles for motivation:
Henry Fayol was one more contemporary along with.F.W.
Tayler who Also excelled and contributed to the management in the
scientific management Period. The difference in view points of Fayol
and Taylor was that Taylor focussed his contributions on Working
methods (work-oriented) where as, Fayol’s thought pattern was in a
broader Sense towards the organization as a whole.
Henry Fayol was a French industrialist who defined
management as, “To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to
command, to coordinate and control”. Being an industrialist he
framed the principles of management based on his practical
experience.
Henry Fayol defined management as, “A social process of all
functions”. He found that all activities of industrial undertaking must
be classified as follows,
(1) Technical : (Relating to. production and manufacturing).
(2) Commercial : (Buying, selling and exchanging).
(3) Financial ;:(Search for capital and credit, optimum use of them).
(4) Security : (Protection of property and persons).
(5) Accounting : (Taking stocks, keeping balance sheets and tracking
costs with statistical
data).
(6) Managerial : (Planning, organizing, commanding, co-ordinating
and controlling).
Fayol listed fourteen Principles of management based on his
experience. The principles are,
(1) Division of Work : Division of work means dividing the work on
the principle of specialization. The functions of management like
planning, organizing, directing, coordination cannot be performed by
one group of directors. These functions are to be performed by the
experts in the specific area. Specialization in decision-making, policy
formulation, controlling, leading would lead to more efficient and
systematic working of the firm.
(2) Authority and Responsibility : Authority and responsibility should
go together. An executive can do justice to his responsibilities only
when he has proper authority Responsibility means accountability.
Authority means right and power to act. Those who accept authority
should be willing to share responsibility. When a person is authorized
to do a job, he will be responsible for his performance. Everybody in
the organizational structure Must understand the limits of authority
and responsibility.
(3)Discipline : Discipline is very important for the efficient
functioning of an enterprise. Discipline maintained among the
officials and sub ordinates at all levels can guarantee the fulfilled of
objectives of the management. Management involves direction of
efforts Of people has to be invariably matched by marked discipline,
among the people whose skills and energy are to be channels in
particular directions. Superiors are required to be reasoned,
considerate among their personnel discipline.
(4) Unity of Command : Unity of command means, employees should
receive orders from only one superior. If the individuals are assigned
work under more than one superior then performance and degree of
the discipline will not be guaranteed, personnel will be confused,
whom they should report. Effective exercise of authority,
responsibility, discipline among the individuals are based on the
management structure.
(5)Unity of Direction : Unity of direction deals with the functioning
of body corporate. There should be one common plan for one unity.
Unity of direction means one unit, one plan, where as unity of
command is defined as one person should have orders from one boss
only. Unity of direction is provided by body corporate organization.
Unity of direction neither exist nor flow without unity of command. .
(6) Subordination of Individual to General Interest : The interest of an
individual person should not be permitted to prevail upon the general
interests of the firm. Both the employee and employer should
subordinate their interest to the general interest.
Fayol suggested,
(i) Agreement between management and employee as much .as
possible.
(ii) Constant supervision by Superiors.
(iii) Firmness on the part of superiors.
(7)Remuneration : Remuneration is the price paid to the employees
for the services rendered by them to the enterprise. Remuneration
should enable the employees to lead a Satisfactory life and other
special offers like share or profits, festival bonus are paid to the
employees. Remuneration should be given based on the living cost
and Capacity of the enterprise.
(8)Centralization of Authority : Centralization of authority means that
the authority is In the hands of the centre i.e., the authority will not be
distributed among different sections. Small concerns have absolute
centralization because orders from the management goes directly to
the employee. But, in large concerns the orders from the management
pass through different levels to reach the employee.
(9) Scalar Chain : Managers are a chain of superiors There should be
a unbroken line of authority and command from all levels to highest
or lowest rank.
T

X I

Scalar Chain
The Fig shows that T holds the authority on two departments. T
will give orders to U and U will pass onto V and so on. T will also
issue instructions to F, who will pass on these to G and so on. Now, If
W wants to consult H, then W will approach V and V to U, U to T so,
it will take long time. Hence, chain is necessary to make the
communication fast and effective.
(10) Order : This promotes the idea of keeping the right man at the
right place. Order lines in work can be obtained by the management
through the suitable organization of men and material. If proper
utilization of resources and workers employed without proper
placement then employed personnel will not be accurate and there
will be wastage of material and equipment also.
(11) Equity : Manager should deal with his subordinates with
kindness and justice. This will make employees more loyal and
devoted towards the management and enterprise. Equity ensures
cordial relations between employee and employer. The successful
enterprise depends on good industrial relations which are built on fair
play.
(12) Stability : Stable and secure workforce is an asset to the firm,
because unnecessary labour turnover is costly. It indicates avoiding
of the frequent transfers of the employee before he settles down.
(13) Initiative : Initiative is concerned with execution of a plan.
Managers should secure initiative from the subordinates. The manager
should permit subordinates to exercise authority. This implies sharing
of decision making authority with subordinates.
(14) Esprit De Corps : This principle of management emphasizes the
need for teamwork among the employees and shows the importance
of communication in obtaining such teamwork. Strength, stability,
stature and reputation depends on the relations among the personnel.
Mc Gregor’s theory of X and Y:
Douglas Mc Gregor argued that manager's view of the nature of
human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and
he/she tends to mould his/her behaviour toward employees according
to these assumptions.
Douglas Mc Gregor in 1960, stressed the importance of
understanding the relationships between motivation and behaviour.
He believed that managers motivate employees by one of two basic
approaches, which he termed as theory X and theory
The traditional view, theory X, suggests that managers must
control or threaten employees in order to motivate them.
Theory X
In this theory, Management assumes employees are inherently lazy
and will avoid work, if they can. Workers need to be closely
supervised and a comprehensive system of controls and a hierarchical
structure is needed to supervise the workers closely. It is also
assumed, that workers generally place security above all other factors
and will display little ambition.
Assumptions of Theory X
(1) The average human being has an inherent dislike for work and will
avoid it if he can.
(2) Because of their dislike of work, most people must be coerced,
controlled, directed and threatened with punishment to get them to put
forth adequate effort towards the attainment of organizational
objectives.
(3) The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid
responsibility, has relatively little ambition and wants security above
all.
Theory Y
In this theory, management assumes employees may be
ambitious, self-motivated, anxious to accept greater responsibility and
exercise self-control, self-direction, autonomy and empowerment, It-
is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work
duties, it is also believed that, if given the chance employees have the
desire to be creative and forward thinking in, the workplace. There is
a chance for greater productivity by giving employees the freedom to
perform to the best of their abilities without being bogged down by
the rules.
Assumption of Theory Y:
(i)The average human being does not inherently dislike work. The
expenditure of Physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play
or rest.
(ii)External control and the threat of punishment are not the only
means of bringing About effective Organizational effort.
(iii) Part of rewards of achievement are found in the ego satisfaction
and self-fulfilling aspects Of the individual commitment.
(iv) The average individual under the proper conditions, learns not
only to accept but to seek responsibility.
(v)The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination,
ingenuity and creativity in seeking to solve an organizational problem
is quite widely distributed throughout the population.
(vi)Under the conditions, that exist in today’s industrial and
economical life, the intellectual potential of the average person Is only
partially tapped.
Criticism OF THEORY X AND Y:
(1) The theory X is not an unpopular theory today. Those who put
credence in its three assumptions would have very little interest, if
any in motivation.
(2) Theory X is perhaps visible in low paid or menial work.
(3) On the other hand, the assumptions of theory Y, certainly a
positive and enlightened
approach, suggest areas that might indeed motivate employees.
(4) Theory Y style is more enlightened and it attempt to create
consensus.
CHANGE BEHAVIOUR
Change behaviour:
A behaviour is something that you do, some action that you take.
Conventionally, a behaviour is something that you act out physically,
such as taking a walk, or smoking a cigarette, or rolling your eyes
when your spouse is complaining. However, behaviours can be subtle,
non-physical things too. Thinking can be considered a behaviour, for
instance.
The four styles recognized in the DISC model for understanding
human behaviour are,
(1) Dominance : The results-oriented, quick decision maker
(2) Influence : The people-person, who loves to interact and has lots
of enthusiasm.
(3) Steadiness : The dependable, loyal team player.
(4) Conscientious : The detail-oriented, analytical thinker
The transtheoretical model of behaviour change assesses an
individual's readiness to act on a new- healthier behaviour and
.provides strategies, or processes of change to guide The
individual through the stages of change to Action and
Maintenance·. It is composed of the following constructs,
(1) Stages of change.
(2) Processes of change.
(3) Self-efficacy.
(4) Decisional balance and temptations.
The construct refers to the temporal dimension of behavioural change.
In the Transtheoretical model, change is a process involving progress
through a Series of stages:
(1)precontemplation (Not Ready) : People are not intending to take
action in the foreseeable future and can be unaware that their
behaviour is problematic”.
(2)contemplation (Getting Ready) : People are beginning to recognize
that their Behaviour is problematic and start to look at the pros and
cons of their continued actions.
(3)Preparation (Ready) : People are intending to take action in the
immediate future and may begin taking small steps toward behaviour
change.
(4)Action : “People have made specific overt modifications in
modifying their problem behaviour or in acquiring new healthy
behaviours”.
(5)Maintenance : “People have been able to sustain action for at least
six months and are working to prevent relapse”.
(6) Termination :Individuals have zero temptation and they are sure
they will not return to their old unhealthy habit as a way of coping.
TIME MANAGEMENT, VARIOUS APPROACHES OF TIME
MANAGEMENT, THEIR STRENGTH AND WEAKNESSES
Time management and it’s different elements:
Time Management refers to managing time effectively so that
the right time is allocated to the right activity.
Time Management refers to making the best use of time as time is
always limited.
Time management is the way that you organize and plan how long
you spend on Specific activities.
Elements of time management are
(i)Effective Planning : Plan your day well in advance. Prepare a “To
Do List” or a “task plan”.Jot down the important activities that need
to be done in a single day against the time that Should be allocated to
each activity. High Priority work should come on top followed by
those which do not need much of your importance at the
moment.Complete pending tasks one by one. Do not begin fresh work
unless you have Finished your Previous task.Tick the ones you have
already completed. Ensure you finish the tasks within the stipulated
time frame.
(ii)Setting Goals and Objectives : Working without goals and targets
In an organization Would be similar to a situation where the captain of
the ship loses his way in the Sea, Yes You would be lost Set targets for
yourself and make sure they are realistic ones and achievable.
(iii)Setting Deadlines : Set deadlines for yourself and strive hard to
complete task ahead of the deadlines. Do not wait for your superiors
to ask you everytime, Learn to take Ownership of work. One person
who can best set the deadlines is you.Ask yourself how much time
needs to be devoted to a particular task and for how many days. Use a
planner to mark the important dates against the set deadlines.
(iv)Delegation of Responsibilities : Learn to say “no” at
workplace.Don't do everything on your own, There are other people
as well.One should not accept something which he knows is difficult
for him.The roles and responsibilities must be delegated as per
interest and specialization of employees for them to finish tasks
within deadlines.A person who does not have knowledge about
something need more time than someone who knows w o r k
well. .

(v)Prioritizing Tasks·:Prioritize the tasks as per their

importance and urgency. the difference between important
and urgent work. Identify which tasks. Should be done with
in a day, which all should be done with in, a month and so
on. Tasks which are most important should by. Done earlier.·
(vi)Spending the Right time on Right Activity_:-Develop the
habit of doing the right at the right time. Work done at the
wrong time is not of, much use. Don't waste complete day on
something which can be done in an hour or so. Also keep
some time separate for your personal calls or checking
updates on Facebook or Twitter After all human being is not
a machine.
Different approaches of time management:
Effective time management involves three skills,
(1)Prioritization Techniques : First, make a to-do list for the day You
need to get done today, with no regard to the order.
Date
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Next three method are suggested to help prioritize your things to do.
The ABC rank order method involves assigning the letters A, B or C
to various tasks,
A= Highest priority activities (must do immediately).
B=second-priority activities (not immediately, but you should do
soon).
C=Low-priority tasks or things you would like to do (can wait to do).
In this method of prioritization, assign tasks from your to-do list
to the.A, B or C categories as appropriate to their priority. Once you
have prioritized each task as A, B or C then complete the A tasks first,
then B and finally C.

The Pareto principle states that 20 percent of the tasks we do

give us 80% of the rewards or satisfaction. Thus, with a list of ten
things to do, the is principle suggests that individuals should give
their time and attention to the top two prioritized tasks in their list. (If
one has done the ABC rank ordering ,then these task would most
likely be in the A category)
 Sometimes it is difficult to differentiate among responsibilities,
all of which seem important. In this case, use the important versus-
urgent matrix to help you Prioritize tasks. Note that people tend to
direct their energies toward box IV because these responsibilities look
quick and easy. But attention and time should be focused on activities
in box I, because they are both high in urgency and importance. Next,
put time and attention to tasks in box III and finally to box IV.

(2)Scheduling Techniques : Once you have a solid idea of what needs

to get done, there are several choices you can make about scheduling
your responsibilities. If you have a few major projects to do, try to
boxing method.
(i)Boxing : Divide you day into five parts : morning, noon
hour,afternoon, dinner hour and evening (or designate other parts of
the day if these don't fit Your Particular daily routine). Then write
down the significant tasks and assign them a block of time that is
most suited to your schedule.
8a - 12p
12p - 1p
1p - 6p
6p - 7p
7p - 10p
(ii) Time Mapping: If you have Many little things to do, try the time
Mapping schedule,
8:00 .
8:30
9:00
9:30
10:00
10:30
11 :00
11:30
(3) Execution techniques: Execution is the implementation of your
prioritized schedule (what you have accomplished with the first two
skills of Prioritization and scheduling):
Here are some tips. to help you execute your daily schedule
(i) Assign a deadline (goal) for each task or project.
(ii) Break large Projects down into smaller tasks and assign a deadline
for each task.
(iii) Work on one section if the Project or task at a time. Work until it
is completed tasks than a handful of unfinished Ones,
(iv) Reward your accomplishments with small Pleasures to motivate
yourself to accomplish designated goals. Avoid immediate
gratification that is, rewardd Your self after satisfactory completion of
each job, Not before.
Some times it helps to list your goals and deadlines and also the
rewards you can Give yourself for completing the goal or meeting
your deadline.
Strength and weakness of time management:
Time management advantages are,
(1) More tasks Completed : As your time is well planned you can do
more tasks during your workday.
(2) Flexibility : It is flexible when planning with next meeting
because all the tasks are listed in to-do list and can use priorities to set
task execution sequence.
(3) No Event Missed : Doesn't need to worry about missing events
because the workday is Scheduled and reminders and alerts are set for
urgent events.
(4)Reduces Stress Level : It highly applicable to reduce the work
stress associated with Complicated tasks and activities.
(5)Focus Task : It helps to remain focused on the various tasks to
perform with in the constraints.
(6)Minimizes Procrastination : It helps to minimize the
procrastination i.e., can easily make the Whole action plan or to-do-
listed activities by delaying or postponing,
(7)Self-Confidence : It increase the self-confidence and improve the
possibility to Perform, the activity into well developed manner.
(8)Reach Goals : It is also helpful to reach the set goals in order to
operate the Whole activities to set standards.
(9)Guaranteed : It helps to make the operation with the guaranteed
commitment, towards to reach the activities.
(10)Achievement : It easily develop and create a sense of
achievement according to set standards.
Time management disadvantages are,
(1)Non-clear Objectives: The productive behaviour is definitely one
of the main goals in time Management. Sometimes, it leads to non-
clear objectives which usually struck People for worse. An unaware
person doesn’t know what to do? If you are not being able to do better
management of workload, you will get more struck in non-done tasks
in no time.
(2)Mismanagement : Organized results to less rework and mistakes
but excess organizing craze leaves a person in blunder. The items,
details and instructions are if forgotten then leads to extra work and a
blame of mismanagement. A Person has to do a task more times if he
forgets something. It will lead to fatigue and it happens because of
predictive behaviour.
(3)Can't say “no” : You might have forgotten an appointment, or
missed· deadline and all happened because of working on others task
as saying 'no’ will be tough for·you. such crazy situation incline life
friction. You can avoid creating such problems by planning and
preparing exactly. No. Body can create more time but it can. be’ used
in better way ·by managing time undoubtedly. It's always better to
keep back because people. simply. Can’t say·no·to any one.
(4)Obstacles : Simple actions like shifting commute or getting a work
done early, produce more issues in life. The time Management leads
you towards an obstacle. When you know what you need to do, you
hate wasting time in idle activities and that leads to disputes and
disturbances. Instead of thinking what to do next, concentrate on steps
a head of work, as anything can go wrong. The people ·face many
problems due to it.
(5)Inactivity : The common misconception make time management
an extra effort. To the contrary, proper time management makes a·
human life easier and inactive. If things are asking for less. effort
than· the usual time, then the consumption of time leads to dullness.
Manage time for Improving life, as time management is all about
spending time in right places and on the right things but some time the
obsession for doing right makes your life stagnant.
(6)Load of Different Works at one Time : When you work according
to time management, then sometimes in over confidence you take too
many tasks in hand. That particular condition leaves you in total
blunder. The people keep too much expectations from you just
because of your flaunting behaviour and at last you feel a load of
work on your shoulders And such confusion creates a
Mismanagement situation.
THE URGENCY ADDICTION AND TIME MANAGEMENT
MATRIX:
Urgency Addiction:
Addiction is a self-destructive behaviour that temporarily fills an
unmet need,
(1) Creates a predictable, reliable sensation.
(2) Becomes the primary focus and absorbs the addicts attention
during the experience.
(3) Temporarily eradicates pain or negative emotions.
(4) Provides an artificial sense of self-worth, Power, control, security,
intimacy, or accomplishment.
(5)Worsens the problems and feelings it sought to remedy.
(6) Causes loss of relationships.
Now think about this in terms of being addicted to urgency,
(1)Creates a predictable, reliable sensation. Yep. By rushing around,
always feel important.
(2)Becomes the primary focus and absorbs the addicts attention
during the experience. Absolutely, By focusing on the project before
me, can block out all the details of life. .
(3)Temporarily eradicates pain or negative emotions. If it focus on
getting this job done NOW, then don’t have time to think about
making that tough decision where don’t want to make, or the fact to
not getting along with my boss, my spouse, or my kids.
(4)Provides an artificial sense of self-worth, power, control, security,
intimacy, or accomplishment, Because everyone knows that need to
get done NOW, and can push harder for them to go the extra mile for
me or get out the way to, get complete.
(5)Worsens the problems and feelings it sought to remedy
. By either rushing ahead or Waiting to the last minute, neglecting the
importance of planning, which means probably MISS key details,
which makes fixing the oversights all the more urgent, Which
Compounds all of the above.
(6)Causes loss of relationships, unfortunately by focusing on
production and not the planning or the people involved can lose trust
with those around me. They begin to see me as uncaring, unconcerned
and eventually unworthy of their time.
Disparate data shock results in an urgency addiction in the
organization. Urgency addition relates to the daily problems of people
who must struggle with the ever increasing demands of their work and
home life. It's a complete inabilty to get excited about anything until a
deadline is looming. It's an invisible but real feeling of constant time
pressure. It consists of some combination of going at too fast a pace,
accepting time demands, monitoring time excessively, giving up
personal time, not enjoying the present moment, not having an
adequate sense of the future and believing that the situation can be
controlled by working faster.
 Urgency addition is being current results oriented, rather than
being long term objectives oriented. It avoids the logical design and
jumps right to the physical implementation. It’s a dangerous and
destructive approach that perpetuates a disparate data resource.
Time management matrix with a example:
Dwight D. Eisenhower, thirty-fourth president of the U.S.,
thought that we should devote attention and time to our activities in
accordance with their importance and urgency. He said rightly that we
are too inclined to focus on the things that are both important and
urgent, generating a reactive behaviour based on what has to be done
right now, instead of focusing on the things that are important and not
urgent, which would be the basis of a more strategic behaviour based
on long-term goals.
Stephen R. Covey popularized the Eisenhower's Time
Management Matrix in his book The 7 Habits of Highly Effective
People, stating that we live a fourth generation of time management,
more effective, in which managing time itself-is no longer the aim,
but managing where to focus at any particular time.
The time management matrix tells you a lot about how you
prioritize and how you ‘prioritize says a‘ lot about your performance
at work and your personal well-being.
- Are you a reactive or a proactive worker?
- Do you want to do more of the ‘right’ things with greater control?
To do this I will talk about the,
(1) What causes and symptoms of poor time management?
(2) Simple steps to cure the problem.
But first I need to talk about the four quadrants of the time
management matrix that 100% of your time fits into.
WHICH QUADRANT DO YOU SPEND YOUR TIME IN?
The different quadrants are shown in Fig.
QUADRANT 1 (Important and Urgent (Crises mode)) : This is also
called crises mode in which tasks are important and urgent. This is
often a symptom of poor time management. Upcoming deadlines, last
minute preparations, emergencies, pressing meetings all are
important.
What DO YOU FEEL LIKE IN THIS Quadrant?
Stressed and overwhelmed are the most common responses in
our time management Workshops .
While stress can give us a buzz as adrenaline kicks in, the long-
term effects of stress Leads to burnout and health problems.
The inclination is to do everything in Quadrant 1 first - the
important and urgent tasks because these are the tasks that you have
address.
From a tactical Perspective, I agree. Crises mode calls for urgent
action NOW.
To reduce your time in crises mode you need,
(i)To Spend more time in Quadrant 2.
(ii)less time in quadrant 3 and 4.
Quadrant 2 Important but not urgent (Proactive Mode) : This is also
called proactive mode In which tasks are important and not urgent.
This is the cure for time management problems.
As a time Management coach I ask people what activities fit into this
quadrant.
The typical responses are,
(1) Strategic planning.
(2) Relationship building with clients.
(3) Training and personal development.
These important activities are essential for achieving your goals and
living a life of purpose and meaning.
The benefit of quadrant 2 (compared to quadrant 1) is that you,
(1) Are able to assign the right resources to you key result areas.
(2) Plan, without the added pressure and urgency of a pressing
deadline.
Effective people spend much of their time in this quadrant by
scheduling and Protecting their time in advance.
2 Steps to Get More TIME IN QUADRANT 2?
(1) Identify those activities that generate the greatest returns for your
investment of time. These important activities are typically your
Pareto activities,
(2) Plan these ‘bang for buck’ activities in your weekly planner In my
experience Important activities are easy to procrastinate on.
Quadrant 3 (Urgent but not Important (Reactive mode)) : This is also
called reactive mode in which tasks are not important and urgent. This
is a Cause of time management problems
Don’t let the trivial many crowds out the vital few!
It is frustrating to witter away your time on,
(1) Ineffective meetings.
(2) The deluge of daily emails.
(3) Constant interruptions.
All these crowd out important stuff that you are measured on.
If you feel that you are working hard but don’t have much to show for
it, then you are most likely spending a large amount of time in this
quadrant,
Note: The biggest gains in your time management can be harnessed
from your reducing time in this quadrant.
How TO REDUCE YOUR TIME IN REACTIVE MODE
If you fail to plan you plan to fail.
This is so true in today’s reactive workplace. Without planning you
get caught up in low value but seemingly urgent activities.
Use this 1:1;5 template get your most important activities down and
their supporting actions.
Know Where You Spend Your Time: One of the first solutions to time
management is to isolate your time Management problem. A time
management log or an online tracking tool can be a great way to
identify time thieves and generate solutions to these issues.
Learn to Say No : Defend your priorities with this tip for learning to
say No and spend more time in quadrant 2 of the time management
matrix. How to say No without actually saying No.
Delegate your Low Value Work : Delegation is probably the most
well-known but underutilized time management tool. But learning
how to delegate is critically important to reduce your time in the crisis
and reactive quadrants.
Batch Repetitive Tasks : Batch repetitive tasks such as phone calls
and emails. Research shows that you spend significantly less time on
these tasks when batching.
QUADRANT 4 : Not important and not urgent (Disengagement mode
of the time
management matrix),
This is also called disengagement mode in which tasks are not
important and not urgent. This is a cause of time management
problems.
Watching TV, Facebook, surfing the Net, these quadrant 4 tasks
of the time
Management matrix offer a change of pace.
These tasks are those that are not urgent and not important.
Unfortunately these get done at the expense of more important
tasks because they are generally easier to do and have less stress
associated with them.
While enjoyable, these tasks do not move you towards your
goals.
If you are super busy and looking for a way to use your time
more effectively these are the tasks that could be targeted and
minimized so that you can do more value-added asks.