SOLAR ENERGY

UNIT-1
Introduction:
 Renewable energy is energy that comes from a source that won’t run
out. They are natural and self-replenishing, and usually have a low- or
zero-carbon footprint.
 Examples of renewable energy sources include wind power, solar
power, bioenergy (organic matter burned as a fuel) and hydroelectric,
including tidal energy.
 Burning fossil fuels to create electricity has long been a major
contributor in the emission of greenhouse gases into our atmosphere, so
these renewable sources are considered vital in the race to tackle climate
change.

Why Do We Need Renewable Energy?

 Fossil Fuels Are Limited
The first and main reason for why governments and businesses are keen to move to
renewable energies as soon as possible is that fossil fuels are a finite resource. We
may or may not have reached the point at which demand outstrips supply and by
current figures, we can tell that depending upon the demand it is difficult to predict
precisely when it will run out. Whichever way we look at it, fossil fuels will run
out eventually and it will take some 10,000,000 years to replenish what we have
used in around 150 years.
As the human population increases, our rate of consumption of these fossil fuels
also increases. Geologists and others whose job it is to locate and access these
pockets of crude oil are finding it increasingly difficult to locate and extract new
sources and because it’s not sustainable it will run out eventually and so we should
prepare for a post-fossil fuel world now.
 Carbon Emissions & Climate Change
The most immediate problem, particularly in light are the changes we have seen to
the climate in the last 150 years and the carbon emissions that are forcing it
In the last few years especially, no part of the world has been untouched by freak
weather conditions. Most continents have recorded record high temperatures in
summer, record lows in winter and increased frequency of typhoons and
hurricanes, record dry spells, drought and flooding. There is no doubt that these
freak weather conditions are affecting every country.
Most renewable energy sources, and the technology used to harness them, are low
carbon emission. In most cases, once installed they have minimal or no carbon
output and can still provide our energy needs. We can never go fully carbon neutral
as it takes resources to make a solar panel, build a dam and so on, but it is a critical
and significant reduction of our carbon output. What we do need to do, is to take
the steps we can to reduce our carbon footprint, to help those in the developing
world, and to protect ourselves against the freak weather. We also know that the
ice caps are melting and the sea levels are rising which creates food shortages and
national instability as well as being an expensive situation for our insurance.
 Energy Security
Energy security is a relative newcomer to public perception when we consider the
greater need for renewable energy .why have these political issues in other parts of
the world encouraged the rest of the world to think about its energy plan?
The Middle East is one of the biggest suppliers of oil to the world. South America
also produced oil, North America and South America supplies coal and the UK,
Russia and other European Atlantic powers mine for gas... Being dependent on
other countries for our energy supply is problematic in itself, threatening to
destabilize the economy is the least that could happen. If a supply is cut off, then
disaster could strike. For this reason alone, we need spare capacity and multiple
avenues of energy acquisition.
Energy security will become a much greater factor as fossil fuels begin to dwindle.
More than ever before, demands on energy supply often outstrip supply of
conventional production forcing prices
 Economic Stability
Related to some of the issues mentioned above, where renewable energy offers a
constant and sustained supply (such as hydroelectric, wave power, solar and
biofuels), energy prices are likely to remain stable and in turn, keep the economy
stable. In many cases, energy produced from renewable sources is already cheaper
than that produced by non-renewable means. Mentioned above, example is Texas
where energy produced from wind power is noticeably cheaper for the state's
citizens.
 Environmental Damage
As fossil fuel supply gets harder to acquire, and prospectors search for new pockets
of oil and have to drill longer and deeper to acquire it, there has been conflict
between environmental groups and industry and between governments and both
groups when local wildlife and environmentally sensitive areas are threatened.
Public consciousness and the need to protect our wildlife and natural landscapes
means that many new developments are protested with concerns of environmental
damage. Though some renewable will have an environmental impact, many do not
and when built, have no further impact - unlike ongoing drilling.
  Public Health
Oil, gas and coal drilling and mining have high levels of pollution that are pumped
into local environments and the wider atmosphere, so while protestors attempt to
prevent the building of pipelines or new prospecting in virgin areas and wilderness,
it is as much about public health as it is about conservation. We have known for
decades about the knock on effect of industrial processes for public health .Few
renewables are entirely emission-free, but their output is much lower than
conventional fossil fuel acquisition and processing.

Renewable sources:
Renewables are by definition unlimited, but it is important to note that not all
forms are environmentally friendly. Here, we look at some of the most common
types of renewable energy and discuss their advantages and limitations.
Hydroelectricity
Using water's motion power to generate electricity is not a new concept; we have
been doing so for around one hundred years and most countries have some form of
water generated electricity source. There are two basic forms of using water for
green energy needs. Hydroelectricity is produced by processing and controlling the
flow of water through a dam. This is one of the most encouraging forms of
renewable energy. Globally, it generates some 3,500 terawatts of power and has
increased year on year since 2003. Hydroelectric power is likely to be one of our
most common forms of energy production in the next few years and in the post oil
world

What are the Advantages of Hydroelectric Power?

 The building of dams at key strategic places as decided by environmental
engineer’s means that energy generation can be increased or decreased
depending on the needs of the community that uses it.
 During times of low use output may be reduced, and increased during times
of high output need
 These changes can be made quickly compared to oil production which has a
delay due to the need to refine the raw product. The speed with which output
of hydroelectricity can be changed is a major advantage to our growing
energy needs.
 Hydroelectricity is one of the lowest cost forms of energy as it requires no
fuel; this means no mining, no processing, and no transportation cost.
 It is one of the cleanest forms of energy. Though the construction process of
building and maintaining a dam will mean carbon emissions, this is the only
output - still a significant reduction over the burning of fossil fuels
  The relative cheapness of construction and maintenance, and the low cost of
generation means it is used increasingly in both the developed and the
developing world.
 Finally, dams do not exist purely for their energy generation; they have
many uses today. Flooding and drought are a major cause for concern with
many countries having suffered both in recent years, often one season after
another. Dams regulate water supply during floods and maintain water
supplies during a drought
What are the Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Power?
 Hydroelectricity and dam building does not come without cost and it's
important that environmental engineers and decision makers keep this in
mind when planning the siting of a new facility. Building a dam destroys an
area of landscape and changes the ecology downstream
 Dam building can and does destroy important cultural landscapes too.
 Finally, the potential for failure of a dam is catastrophic. Should it burst, any
settlement in the valley below would be flooded, leading possibly to loss of
human life, destroyed houses, disrupted power supply to all the homes
affected and possibly flooding of the winder landscape beyond, more
ecological damage, more loss of human life. Thankfully, burst dams are rare
and when they do occur, usually cause minimal disruption.
Tidal Power
Tidal power is not yet common but it has been demonstrated that it is possible to
generate electricity at sea by reacting to the ebb and flow of the oceans. This a
common form of power generation across the Atlantic, in the eastern US states and
Western Europe
Tidal power generators come in four general types:
 Stream generators use the water flow to power a turbine which then generates
electricity.
 Tidal barrage uses small dam like structures alongside natural features under
water that seize the potential energy as the water flows in and converts it to
mechanical energy as it flows out.
 Tidal lagoons are still in development, but they work in a similar fashion to the
barrage but are completely artificial.
 Dynamic tidal power is still theoretical and has not been tried, but requires the
building of dams that are tens of kilometers long to regulate water flow.
What are the Advantages of Tidal Power?
 The first major advantage is that tidal power is more predictable than other
well-known renewable systems such as wind and solar power thanks to the
natural relationship between The Moon and the Earth.
 The pattern of the tides is predictable to a high degree of accuracy, a system
on which we have been reliant for thousands of years of human existence.
We have accurately measured these systems that people living in coastal
areas where there is more than a minor variation, know the high and low tide
times. This has always helped plan a number of maritime functions and now
it is helping us begin to generate electricity
 The second advantage is that the volume of water on the planet is fairly
constant and unlikely to run out, even without a significant temperature rise
way beyond the 2-3⁰ predicted by climate scientists at present. Melting ice
caps is not likely to affect these tidal ranges by a great degree, as the Moon
is the only influencing factor on the fluctuations.
 The third and most important is the low input to high output production. The
density of water and its tidal motions means that we can, in theory, produce
a lot of energy even from low wave activity. Choppy seas and stormy
weather is not required to generate massive amounts of energy.
What are the Disadvantages of Tidal Power?
 The technology has largely not been taken up due to high cost
 It is mostly still in development stage so some authorities are reluctant to
invest in the technology while there are still cheaper alternatives available.
 As mentioned above, the technology is limited to those areas of the world
with a wide variation in its tidal range to warrant harnessing the power of the
sea .The overwhelming majority of coastal sites will not be suitable for this
technology.
 Underwater ecologies are just as delicate as land ecologies and any intrusion
into the seabed or disruption to the natural marine landscape is going to
affect the wildlife and alter it forever; what's worse is it seems that we don't
know what (if any) long term effects are on the marine ecology.
Solar
We can be pedantic and point out that the sun is not renewable, that it has a finite
end - but the fact that it has some 4.5bn years of life left in it is not a major or
immediate cause for worry. Solar power is arguably one of the best-known
renewable energy sources and many argue that solar power should have been more
common much earlier than it was. Interest began in the 19 th century with the same
people who understand that coal would eventually run out. Also, growing
environmental awareness and the prominence of peak oil meant we once again
need to look for cleaner energies. There are two basic types of solar energy:
 Photovoltaic: These are the most common form and have always been, , and
that which are now increasingly common on top of our homes, use the same
basic technology as that used in the 1970s and 1980s. Each cell converts the
light of the sun into electrical energy, which can then be used to power
electrical devices
 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP): If you have ever seen a solar array using a
large number of curved panels, it is most likely this type of technology. They
may look similar to PV, but they work differently in that they draw in a
concentrated beam of sunlight, reflecting it through a system of mirrors. The
resulting heat generated by the process activates a turbine that produces
electricity through a conventional generator. Where PV produces energy from
light, this produces energy from heat.
What are the Advantages of Solar Power?
 The most obvious advantage is that it will last as long as the sun will last -
which is billions of years against the maximum 70-80 years that we believe
is the remaining life span of our oil supply, and against the several decades
of gas and coal.
 It is a very flexible energy source and not only can it generate electricity, but
can be used to heat water directly, and is a source of light.
 The second is the cost saving of the system. Many people are concerned
about the cost of the initial outlay, but they are far cheaper today than they
were in the 1980s and far more efficient, representing long-term investment
and saving.
 They are noise-free and work all the time too. Plus, if you use your solar
panels in line with your local or national grid, you can save a lot of money
using solar energy. In some cases, you may be able to feed that energy back
to the supply, effectively selling it, and making money in the process.
 Once installed, they are low maintenance and with very little pollution
compared to other forms of fuel.
 As it will be an important form of our energy supply in years to come, it is
constantly under development. Investment in better technologies is likely to
lead to more efficient systems in future.
What are the Disadvantages of Solar Power?
 There are three major disadvantages to solar. Firstly, their efficiency drops
during cloudier days, during the winter when there is less sunlight generally,
and during storms. Though the PV systems of today are far more efficient
than they used to be, there is still a way to go. If you live in warmer and
 sunnier climes (such as California, Texas, Arizona and so on) you are likely
to get more efficient use out of them than you would living in the northern
states or places in the world where there is less sunshine.
 The second disadvantage is that you need to consider careful placement. The
rotation of the Earth doesn't need to be explained here beyond the
understanding that the sun does not remain in the same place all day. It rises
in the east and sets in the west. Unless you have an expensive system by
which to rotate your panels, or panels on every slant of your roof to capture
sunlight at every stage of the day (and most don't because both systems
would be expensive) your PV paneling will be less efficient at certain times
of the day.
 The third is what to do with all that energy and power to get maximum
efficient use of the energy that the PV panels capture. You may purchase
batteries to stop all that energy going to waste, but these can be expensive
even if it is energy efficient. What most people do though is use energy
generated from solar sources during the day and use grid power at night - for
the environmentally conscious person this could be counterproductive for
what they are trying to achieve.
Wind Power
 There are few countries in the world that do not use wind-generated energy.
Often subject to campaigns to have them shut down or planning permission
refused, to many they are a blot on the landscape that ruins a perfectly
attractive natural view.
 To others, they are a great way of harnessing an unlimited resource
generated by the natural processes of the planet's weather systems. We have
captured the wind for thousands of years - it drove our ships until relatively
recently, and in many places still grinds our wheat into flour.
 The same principle is behind the generation of electricity through the
turbines of wind farms. At sea or on land, these giant spinning windmills
capture the power of the air around it.
 Wind power is far more popular in Europe than in North America, with
nearly have of the global capacity produced across various European
countries. Many of these are at sea where most of the wind power is
produced.
What are the Advantages of Wind Power?
 The advantages of wind power are well-documented. Firstly, wind is a
constant as it is part of the planet's natural weather cycles. There is nowhere
on Earth untouched by wind, not at sea or on land. There is greater levels of
wind at sea as the topography does not act as wind breaks as it does on land,
 this means greater potential to harness energy and most wind farms are at
sea. This is a potentially limitless source of energy if it can be properly
harnessed.
 The weather is predictable and certainly within a day or two. This means
that turbines can be altered for maximum efficiency of use to generate as
much energy as possible. Because it is efficient, it is also very low cost
compared to most others - including other forms of renewable energy,
arguably the cheapest form available. They can also be placed in rural areas
on ranches, where they make minimal impact on the land.
What are the Disadvantages of Wind Power?
 The optimum sitting of wind farms is often counterintuitive to the needs of
the people that will use the energy it generates.
 Wind sources are best out at sea where there are no cities, and on large,
expansive plains which are far from the settlements that will need it. That
means there needs to be great investment in an infrastructure to transport the
energy from the place of generation to the place of consumption if we are to
use wind power as a major power source.
 Like solar power, wind energy generation is not constant and varies from
season to season and even day to day, even though periods of low and high
wind can be easily predicted. This means that warm, dry summers with very
little wind means that other sources of energy generation will be needed to
make up any potential shortfall
 Energy from wind generation is also geographically limited. As mentioned
above, the best places are at sea and on vast plains. There are areas where
they are completely unsuitable such as in mountain valleys and in urban sites
where natural and artificial structures will shield any turbines from wind
capture.
 On top of mountains may be a good place, but the wind must be strong
enough to warrant placement. Poor placement could be a hindrance and not
an advantage to power generation.
Geothermal
 One of the most intriguing concepts of renewable energy, and one being
used in the US today, is harnessing heat from under the surface of the planet
produced as a result of geological processes such as natural heat loss,
volcanic activity, or from perfectly normal and safe processes such as
radioactive decay.
 We have used the heat of the Earth for centuries; hot springs all over the
world have been places of spiritual significance and centers of settlement.
  Indeed, one of the first examples of this form of energy is in the England.
Not only were the hot springs a source of the famous public baths in the city,
but they were used to warm local houses and to provide a constant supply of
hot, clean water to the city's population.
 We have come a long way since then, and today there are many geothermal
power processing plants across the world providing clean energy to local
areas. In the US, the most significant states that use geothermal power are
Idaho, Hawaii, Alaska and Nevada mostly as a result of harnessing volcanic
and tectonic processes.
What are the Advantages of Geothermal Power?
 Geothermal energy is one of, if not the, cleanest form of energy production
available. We are feeding off the heat generated by the natural motions of
the Earth as it spins on its axis. The planet is a hotbed of geological activity
that is constant and renewable. It only produces as much greenhouse gas as
it would produce anyway, so there is no increase in the carbon footprint
when harnessing this power source
 Lower production cost also means lower maintenance costs and lower end
cost to the consumer. Multiple studies have shown that geothermal energy is
one of the cheapest forms presently available.
 Many consider this a great answer to our growing energy needs. Though big
power plants supply towns and cities, it is possible for houses to install their
own simple geothermal power system that will only have minimal impact on
the ground beneath the surface. These simple units available for the home
vary in terms of usefulness and efficiency, but it is possible for every home
in the US to have one, simply drawing off the heat from below ground.
What are the Disadvantages of Geothermal Power?
 The major disadvantage of geothermal power is that for the most efficient
use, they are geographically limited. The best use is from areas close to
tectonic plate boundaries and areas of high volcanic activity.
 Where these are present, they can produce a limitless supply of energy that
will not deplete the more reliant we become on it, but in other areas it may
not be particularly intensive, nor profitable.
 It may not be the best source of energy in parts of the world with little to no
volcanic activity and in a temperate climate.
 While the harnessing of such energy does not produce greenhouse gases in
itself, we must remember that a large volume of carbon, methane and other
harmful gases do exist beneath the surface.
 Locally, there is potential for major environmental disaster should these be
released as a result of feeding off the geothermal energy; globally, we are
 trying to reduce the amount of GHG released into the atmosphere. Any
increase would be unintentional, but counterproductive to a cleaner, greener
world nonetheless.
 There is a heavy upfront cost that could mean initially, that energy produced
as a result of this process would be relatively expensive to the end consumer.
Building large geothermal energy harnessing complexes can be expensive
and intense, and maintenance costs may be high .That said, in the long run it
will still be a cheaper alternative than dwindling fossil fuel sources.
Biofuel & Biomass:
Biofuel is the production of the types of fuel we use in our vehicles (though
normally and typically diesel) from plants or other organic matter rather than from
the fossil fuels extracted from the ground. Biofuels are produced in one of two
ways:
 Directly processing a raw plant material, such as extracting its natural oils, and
processing it into a type of fuel
 Extraction of residues or decomposing matter as a result of natural anaerobic
processes (such as broken down by bacteria or algae into an alcohol substance -
bioethanol)
Biomass is different from biofuel in that it is waste organic material such as wood
and other plant matter, and not a derivative byproduct that results from processing.
Biomass is chopped wood (logs and kindling), grasses, leaves, brush and scrub,
and other raw organic material that may burn and produce energy, including
manure and animal dung. In the past, and indeed in areas where there are few trees
to burn as fuel people may burn bone or as a source of fuel.
What are the Advantages of Biofuels and Biomass?
 Whether burning the organic material itself or resulting substances that are
processed from the breakdown of the raw organic material, as it is organic it
is renewable. These are not a finite resource so long as we continue to plant
vegetation to replace that which we harvest
 Flexibility of source is a considerable advantage for biofuels and biomass,
especially when producing liquid fuels such as ethanol. Different
topographies are suitable for different types of crop, which means that most
countries should be able to produce biofuels - it is not limited to one crop
type.
 Biofuel or biomass that is produced in a shorter radius will have a much
lower carbon footprint for having eliminated the transportation process of
getting fuel from source to consumer, and of course increases energy
security.
What are the Disadvantages of Biofuels and Biomass?
 To many, biofuels are a stopgap at best until we can find something cleaner
and greener than ethanol. The energy output of biofuels and biomass is much
lower than conventional fossil fuels and much greater quantity is needed to
produce the same energy output; this is counterproductive to the lower
carbon emissions of the fuel type. As a knock-on effect, more areas of land
will be required to produce biofuels and biomass, meaning that we will need
more land on a planet that is a finite size.
 On a related note and one of the major contentions of the use of biofuel and
biomass is how we can justify turning over virgin land to agriculture to
supply the world with fuel and energy while half the world's (estimated)
population still starves. Aside from the ethics, more pressure on the land will
mean less space to produce food and higher food prices, and more water use
turned over to keep our energy needs supplied. By volume of land, biofuels
and biomass production for the purpose of energy is simply not that
efficient.

Prospects of solar energy:

 Renewable energy is generated from natural resources, such as the sun,
wind, and water, both renewable and sustainable. This type of energy has a
long history. However, it has seen resurgence in recent years as concerns
about climate change and the need for energy independence have grown.
 In the coming years, we can expect to see continued growth in the use of
solar and wind power, as well as the development of new technologies such
as offshore wind, wave and tidal energy, and advanced biomass.
 One of the biggest challenges facing the renewable energy industry is
storage. Because the sun doesn't always shine and the wind doesn't always
blow, it can be difficult to store the energy that is generated by these
sources so that it can be used when it is needed.
 However, there are many different storage technologies in development,
such as batteries, hydrogen fuel cells, and compressed air systems that may
help to solve this problem in the future.
 Another challenge is the cost of renewable energy. While it has come down
significantly in recent years, it is still more expensive than fossil fuels in
many cases. However, it is projected that the cost will continue to decrease
as the technology improves and economies of scale are achieved.
 Renewable energy resources make up 26% of the world’s electricity today,
but according to the IEA its share is expected to reach 30% by 2024. The
resurgence follows a global slowdown in 2019, due to falling technology
costs and rising environmental concerns.
  Renewable energy in the future is predicted that by 2024, solar capacity in
the world will grow by 600 giga-watts (GW), almost double the installed
total electricity capacity of Japan. Overall, renewable electricity is predicted
to grow by 1 200 GW by 2024, the equivalent of the total electricity capacity
of the US.
 Solar Will Become 35% Cheaper By 2024
 Onshore Wind Energy Capacity Will Increase 57% By 2024
 Geothermal Capacity Will Increase 28% by 2024 the Future Lies in
Using Renewable Energy
 Renewable energy will continue to rise in the upcoming decade, edging out
fossil fuels and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
 “This is a pivotal time for renewable energy, “Technologies such as solar
and wind are at the heart of transformations taking place across the global
energy system. Their increasing deployment is crucial for efforts to tackle
Green-house gas emissions, reduce air pollution, and expand energy access.”
Equivalent circuit of PV cell: IV-PV characteristics:
What is a photovoltaic cell?
A photovoltaic cell is a specialized semiconductor device that operates on the
principle of the photovoltaic effect.
What is Photovoltaic effect?
The photovoltaic effect is a process in which a light-sensitive semiconductor
converts the visible light into a voltage or into a direct current.
Construction of Photovoltaic Cell:
 Semiconductor devices are not efficiently conducting in nature therefore to
increase the conductivity of the cell, A N type semiconductor being fourth
group element will be added with a five group element (pentavalent element)
as an impurity in the process of doping making the N-type semiconductor
more conducting, the nature of N type semiconductor becomes in such a way
that electrons are majority carriers and holes as minority carriers.
 Similarly a P type semiconductor being fourth group element will be added
with a third group element (trivalent element) as an impurity in the process
of doping making the P-type semiconductor more conducting, the nature of
P type semiconductor becomes in such a way that holes are majority carriers
and electrons as minority carriers
 In the construction of a photovoltaic cell (PV), two separate semiconductors
are sandwiched together forming a p-n junction at the interface. A very thin
layer of p-type semiconductor is grown on a relatively thicker n-type
semiconductor
  In the device, although both materials are electrically neutral, n-type has
excess electrons and p-type silicon has excess holes.
 The device is constructed in such a way that when the junction is exposed to
visible light, a voltage difference is produced between the p-type and n-type
materials.
 This is due to the flow of excess electrons from the n-type material to the p-
type material, and the holes thereby vacated from p-type material flow
towards n-type material.
 Due to these electrons and hole flow, the two semiconductors act as a battery
creating an electric field at the junction.
 Electrodes connected to the semiconductor layer, allow current to be drawn
from the device which is proportional to the intensity of incident light.

Circuit symbol of Photovoltaic Cell:

Operation of PV cell:
 When semiconductor materials are exposed to light, the some of the photons
of light ray are absorbed by the semiconductor crystal which causes a
significant number of free electrons in the crystal. This is the basic reason
for producing electricity due to photovoltaic effect.
 Photovoltaic cell is the basic unit of the system where the photovoltaic
effect is utilized to produce electricity from light energy.
 Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material for constructing the
photovoltaic cell. The silicon atom has four valence electrons. In a solid
crystal, each silicon atom shares each of its four valence electrons with
another nearest silicon atom hence creating covalent bonds between them. In
this way, silicon crystal gets a tetrahedral lattice structure.
 While light ray strikes on any materials some portion of the light is reflected,
some portion is transmitted through the materials and rest is absorbed by the
materials.
 The same thing happens when light falls on a silicon crystal. If the intensity
of incident light is high enough, sufficient numbers of photons are absorbed
by the crystal and these photons, in turn, excite some of the electrons of
covalent bonds.
 These excited electrons then get sufficient energy to migrate from valence
band to conduction band.
 As the energy level of these electrons is in the conduction band, they leave
from the covalent bond leaving a hole in the bond behind each removed
electron. These are called free electrons move randomly inside the crystal
structure of the silicon.
 These free electrons and holes have a vital role in creating electricity in
photovoltaic cell. These electrons and holes are hence called light-
generated electrons and holes respectively.
 In n-type semiconductor mainly the free electrons carry negative charge and
in p-type semiconductor mainly the holes in turn carry positive charge
therefore free electrons in n-type semiconductor and free holes in p-type
semiconductor are called majority carrier in n-type semiconductor and p-
type semiconductor respectively.
 So as soon as one n-type semiconductor and one p-type semiconductor come
into contact the electrons from n-type will transfer to p-type and holes from
p-type will transfer to n-type. The process is very fast but does not continue
forever. After some instant, there will be a layer of negative charge (excess
electrons) in the p-type semiconductor adjacent to the contact along the
contact surface. Similarly, there will be a layer of positive charge (positive
ions) in the n-type semiconductor adjacent to contact along the contact
surface.
  The thickness of these negative and positive charge layer increases up to a
certain extent, but after that, no more electrons will migrate from n-type
semiconductor to p-type semiconductor.
 This is because, In other words, negative charge layer in the p-type side and
positive charge layer in n-type side together form a barrier which opposes
migration of charge carriers from its one side to other. Similarly, holes in the
p-type region are held back from entering the n-type region. Due to positive
and negative charged layer, there will be an electric field across the region
and this region is called depletion layer.
 As the concentration of electrons becomes higher in one side, i.e. n-type
side of the junction and concentration of holes becomes more in another
side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a
small battery cell. A voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If we
connect a small load across the junction, there will be a tiny current flowing
through it.
 A single photovoltaic cell can produce about 1 to 2 watts of electricity. This
energy is too less for use in any household or for a commercial purpose.
 In order to increase the output of electricity, several photovoltaic cells are
electrically connected together to form a photovoltaic module and these
modules are further electrically connected to form a photovoltaic panel /
photovoltaic array. The number of modules connected to form an array
depends on the amount of solar electrical energy needed.

Equivalent circuit of a PV Cell :( Refer PDF)

V-I Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Cell:

Open circuit case short circuit case

P-V Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Cell:

Application of photovoltaic cell:

1. The photovoltaic cells are used in low-power devices such as light meters.
2. They are used in solar-powered scientific calculators.
3. A large set of photovoltaic cells can be connected together to form solar
modules, panels, or arrays.
Parameters:
1. Short circuit current
2. Open circuit voltage
3. Fill factor
4. Efficiency
Short circuit current:
 Maximum current obtained from the solar cells when the circuit is short circuited
 Solar thermal energy collectors:
 A solar collector is a device that collects and/or concentrates solar
radiation from the Sun. These devices are primarily used for active solar
heating and allow for the heating of water for personal use. These collectors
are generally mounted on the roof and must be very sturdy as they are
exposed to a variety of different weather conditions.
 The use of these solar collectors provides an alternative for
traditional domestic water heating using a water heater, potentially
reducing energy costs over time. As well as in domestic settings, a large
number of these collectors can be combined in an array and used to generate
electricity in solar thermal power plants.
Following are some of the most common uses of solar collectors:
 Pool water heating
 Heating systems
 Electricity production in large solar thermal power plants
 Domestic hot water ( DHW)
The important performance indices of a solar collector are
1. Collector efficiency
2. Concentration ratio
3. Temperature range

Collector efficiency: The ratio of the energy absorbed and transferred to the
transporting fluid by the collector to the energy incident on the collector.
Concentration ratio: The ratio between the concentrated flux on the receiver and
the ambient flux from the sun is called the concentration ratio (C). It is the same as
the ratio of the area of the receiver to the total area of the reflectors (assuming the
entire area of the receiver is illuminated).
Temperature range: The range of the temperature to which the heat transport
fluid is heated up by the collector.
Types of Solar Thermal Collectors:
There are many solar thermal energy collectors depending upon the focus methods,
depending upon the concentration technique below is the classification of
collectors

Liquid flat plate collector:

The flat-plate solar collectors are probably the most fundamental and most studied
technology for solar-powered domestic hot water systems. The overall idea behind
this technology is pretty simple. The Sun heats a dark flat surface, which collects
as much energy as possible, and then the energy is transferred to water, air, or
other fluid for further use.
These are the main components of a typical flat-plate solar collector:
 Black surface - absorbent of the incident solar energy
 Glazing cover - a transparent layer that transmits radiation to the absorber,
but prevents radiative and convective heat loss from the surface
 Tubes containing heating fluid to transfer the heat from the collector
 Support structure to protect the components and hold them in place
 Insulation covering sides and bottom of the collector to reduce heat losses
 Working:
 The solar radiation received on a surface is captured by flat plate solar
collectors and used to heat a fluid.
 The heat loss is often decreased because of the greenhouse effect. The core
of the thermal solar collector of this type is made of a series of metal tubes
that are vertically oriented and conduct cold water in parallel.
 The pipes are connected by a horizontal pipe at the bottom to intake cold
water, and another similar pipe is connected at the top to the outlet.
 There is a cover at the top to encase the tubes. It is generally double glass
and has an insulating material at the bottom.
 Solar energy collectors of this type are used in low-temperature installations,
typically below 79 degrees Celsius. For instance, they are used for heating
the water in swimming pools.
Collector construction:
The key considerations in flat plate collector design are maximizing absorption and
effective heat transfer from the collector plate to the fluids. One of the important
issues is obtaining a good thermal bond between the absorber plate and tubes or
ducts containing the heat-transfer fluids. Different construction designs (shown
below) try to address this issue, they are classified as
1. Pipe and fin type(a,b)
2. Water sandwich type (d)
3. Semi sandwich type (c)
Color codes: light blue - glass cover, dark blue - fluid channels, black - absorber material, gray -
insulation. Some constructions (b, c) include fluid channels in the absorber plate structure to maximize
thermal conductance between the components. Other modifications (a, d) include tubes and channels
soldered or cemented to the plate.

Advantages of the flat-plate collectors are that they are:

 Collect both beam and diffuse radiation
 Permanently fixed (no sophisticated positioning or tracking equipment is
required)
 Little maintenance
 Flat plate collector devices have relatively low maintenance costs and longer
working life.
 More energy can be generated even at low temperatures.
 It can be installed effortlessly. FPCs are fixed to a mounting structure in tilt
and orientation in which they receive maximum sunlight.

The primary drawback of a flat plate collector is the deprivation of optical

concentration. Due to this, there is a larger area from which the heat energy is lost.

Flat plate air heating:

An air-based collector is a type of solar collector in which air is is used as the
medium for heat transfer instead of a liquid. The heat thus obtained from the
incident solar energy is stored in holders, which may be filled with gravel, for
example. The energy collected from air-based solar collectors can be used for
ventilation air heating, space heating, or crop drying.

The main components of the flat plate air collector are,

  absorbing plate,
 top covering plate (glass cover),
 insulating material and
 Channel pipes covered with insulating material.
Absorber plates are covered with a high absorbent coating. The top cover should
be made of a maximum transmittance. The effectiveness of the flat plate air
collector is highly affected by the losses through the top covering material and also
due to the low heat transfer coefficient between the absorber plate and the air
flowing through it. Most of the experiments and studies have shown that efficiency
can be increased by using different types of solar collector.

The classification of flat plate collector is

1. Fin type
2. Corrugated type
3. Metal matrix type
 4. Thermal trap

These types of arrangements to the solar collector are done to increase its thermal
efficiency by enhancing the rate of heat transfer between air and the absorber plate
by using rough surface on the absorber plate.
Modified flat plate collector:
((Draw this diagram for compound parabolic concentrators))
Solar Pond:
 The concept of solar pond was derived from the natural lakes where the
temperature rises towards the bottom. It happens due to natural salt gradient
in these lakes where water at the bottom is denser.
 In salt concentration lakes, convection does not occur and heat loss from the
water takes place only by conduction. This technique is utilized for
collecting and storing solar energy.
 An artificially constructed pond filled with salty water in which significant
temperature rises are caused to occur in the regions by preventing
convection is called solar pond. The usual method adopted to prevent
convection is to dissolve a salt in the water and to maintain a concentration
gradient. Such ponds are also called as salt gradient solar pond.
 The first solar ponds were constructed in Israel in the early sixties by Tabor
and his co-workers. A maximum temperature of about 100 degree celsius
was attained at the bottom of the pond

Working Principle:
The concept of a solar pond is derived from the observation that in some naturally
occurring lakes, a significant temperature rise of about 40 degree Celsius to 50
degree Celsius. This is because of the fact that there is a natural salt concentration
gradient in these lakes, whereby the water at the bottom remains denser even when
it is hotter than the water at the top. Thus convection does not occur and heat is lost
from the hot water only by conduction. The salt concentration gradient in such
lakes is maintained naturally because of the presence of salt deposits at the bottom
of the lakes, which approximates to saturation concentrations because of fresh
water streams which flow across the top.
There are 3 distinct layers of water in the pond:
 The top zone or the surface zone is called the UCZ (Upper Convective Zone)
and is atmospheric temperature. It has little salt content.
 The bottom zone is the hot zone also called the LCZ (Lower Convective
Zone). Temperatures in the range of 70°– 85° C. It has a high concentration of
salt. It energy in the form of heat.
 The zone of separation is called NCZ (Non-Convective Zone). The salt content
increases in this zone as the depth increases. Water in a particular layer cannot
rise as the water above it is lighter due to lower salt content and vice versa. The
salt gradient also acts as an insulator trapping the sunlight.

Advantages of Solar Pond:

 Saves money as the cost associated with it is only its initial cost. Very large
area collectors can be constructed just with the cost of the clay or plastic pond
liner.
 This technology is attractive for rural areas in developing countries.
 The accumulated salt crystals which are a by-product from solar pond can be
used further.
 Separate collector is not needed for this thermal storage system.
 Environmental friendly.
 Flexibility of location as they can be located anywhere regardless of the
distance to the nearest power outlet provided that there is access to direct
sunlight near the pond site.

Disadvantages of Solar Pond:

 The accumulated salt crystals have to be removed periodically and this adds
maintenance expense.
 Solar ponds require a significant amount of land area to function properly.
 Can only operate in sunny days and if the site is shaded by tall trees or building,
it may not work properly.
 Proper algae and dust removal is needed as the thermal efficiency of a solar
pond sturdily dependents on the clarity of the pond.

Applications of Solar Pond:

 Power production: A solar pond can be used to generate electricity by driving a
thermo electric device or a Rankine cycle engine. The organic working fluid
produces mechanical power in a Rankine cycle, which in turn generates
electrical power using an alternator.
 Industrial process heat.
 Heating animal housing on farms: In farms which have enough land for solar
ponds, the low grade heat from them can be used for heating animal housing,
drying crops etc.
 Salt production: Salt is obtained as the by-product from solar pond. Solar pond
can be used for purification of salt that is for the production of ‘vacuum quality’
salt.
 Aquaculture: Using the saline water from the solar pond fishes like brine
shrimp can be grown.
 Heating and Cooling of Buildings.
 Desalination: The low cost thermal energy can used to purify water for drinking
or irrigation.

Solar pond electric power plant:

Write everything of solar pond and draw this diagram below showing the later
stages of how the hot brine solution is converted to electricity .
Solar heating:
 The use of sunlight to heat water or air in buildings. There are two types of
solar heating, passive and active.
 Passive heating relies on architectural design to heat buildings.
The building’s site, structure, and materials can all be utilized to maximize
the heating (and lighting) effect of the sunlight falling on it, thereby
lowering or even eliminating its fuel requirement.
 A well-insulated building with a large glass window facing south, for
instance, can effectively trap heat on sunny days and reduce reliance on gas
or oil (for heating) or electricity (for lighting).
 Entering sunlight warms the air and the solid surfaces in those rooms
exposed to it, and this warmth is carried to other rooms in the building by
natural convection. Interior finishes such as brick or tile are often
incorporated into buildings to absorb the sunlight and reradiate the heat at
night.
 In active heating, mechanical means are used to store, collect, and
distribute solar energy in buildings in order to provide hot water or space
heating. The sunlight falling on a building’s collector array is converted to
heat, which is transferred to a carrier fluid (usually a liquid, less commonly
air) that is then pumped to a conversion, storage, and distribution system. In
liquid-based systems, water (or less commonly glycol) is pumped through
tubes that are in contact with a flat-plate collector.

 The latter is a blackened metal plate that absorbs sunlight and is insulated on
the front with layers of glass and air; the glass allows visible light to fall on
the plate but traps the resulting heat, which is then transferred to the carrier
fluid. Alternatively, the fluid may be pumped through an evacuated glass
tube or a volume of space onto which a large volume of sunlight has been
focused (and hence concentrated) by reflecting mirrors.

 After picking up heat from the collector, the carrier fluid is pumped down to
an insulated storage tank, where it can be used immediately or stored for
later use. The system can supply a home with hot water drawn from the
storage tank, or, with the warmed water flowing through tubes in floors and
ceilings, it can provide space heating.
 The storage tank allows water heated during sunny periods to be used at
night or during cloudy days. If the carrier fluid contains antifreeze to keep it
from freezing during cold weather, a heat exchanger is used to transfer the
carrier fluid’s heat to water that can be used for domestic purposes.
 Residential heating systems using flat-plate collectors typically heat carrier
fluids to temperatures between 66° and 93° C (150° and 200° F).
 Solar green house:
What is a green house?
 To understand a solar energy greenhouse, we must be clear about the term
‘greenhouse’ itself.
 Simply put, a greenhouse is a glass structure used to grow plants in extreme
weather conditions. A greenhouse can regulate its climate by absorbing light
without using complicated and energy-intensive heating systems. It helps
grow plants that require a regulated temperature to grow.
 A solar energy greenhouse is a structure that has solar panels installed. They
collect the light from the sun and transform it into heat. It provides the right
environment for the growth of plants even in unfavorable climatic
conditions.
 Undoubtedly, the sun provides all greenhouses with the necessary light for
photosynthesis. But by using a light-altering dye or adding solar panels on
 the roof, a solar energy greenhouse can assist plants in the process of
photosynthesis.

How Is A Solar Greenhouse Different From Traditional

Greenhouses?
The term ‘solar greenhouse’ typically refers to a passive solar energy greenhouse.
Here’s a fun fact: All greenhouses are ‘solar’ because they use the sunlight to
create a suitable environment for the plants to grow. Yet, the way in which they
work is different – hence, the variation.
Significant differences between solar and conventional greenhouses are as follows:
 – A traditional greenhouse uses propane, gas, or electricity to heat the air at night
or in the winter. In contrast, a passive solar energy greenhouse uses light from the
sun.
 – A passive solar energy greenhouse depends upon the sun and natural elements
instead of the propane heaters that a traditional greenhouse uses.
 – If needed, a solar energy greenhouse can also generate electricity that can run
appliances like fans for cooling if it gets too hot.

Construction of solar green house:

 A solar greenhouse has large windows facing the South. The north side has
black stone blocks that help absorb and hold the sunlight. In other words,
solar energy greenhouses are glass-oriented to maximise the energy from the
sun. Natural ventilation reduces heat in the summer and minimises heat loss
in the winter
  While water barrels are the standard heat sink for passive solar greenhouses
due to their cost, ease of installation, and effectiveness, you can use
materials like dark-colored rocks, bricks, cob, etc
 The greenhouse is a structure made by assembling different parts or
components. Each part has specific role in greenhouse structure. The main
components of a greenhouse are its structural components like trusses,
purlins, and side posts. Most frames are made from steel, aluminum, plastic,
or wood.
 There are 5 key components in a home's solar system: solar panels, an
inverter, an electrical panel, the electric meter, and the sun. In this blog we'll
walk you through how each component works together to create a complete
solar system.
 The traditional gable construction, with straight walls and sloping roofs that
create a triangular gable on either end of the structure, works well for a
greenhouse. It's the most common design, providing plenty of sun and room
to move inside.

Working Of a Solar Greenhouse:

 Greenhouses heat the structure through the greenhouse effect. But as
mentioned earlier, a solar energy greenhouse is oriented toward the sun.
 A solar greenhouse has large windows facing the South. The north side has
black stone blocks that help absorb and hold the sunlight.
 In other words, solar energy greenhouses are glass-oriented to maximize the
energy from the sun. Natural ventilation reduces heat in the summer and
minimizes heat loss in the winter.
Please note: If you’re using solar panels to build your solar greenhouse, you can
have solar panels cover the windows facing the South direction.

Solar Greenhouse and Carbon Emissions:

 Solar energy greenhouses are one of the least carbon-intensive ways to
generate solar electricity. Solar energy causes no carbon emissions during
the process of absorbing sunlight and generating energy.
 Therefore, solar energy greenhouses are efficient and cost-effective energy
sources that help the environment by curbing carbon emissions.

Advantages of a Solar Greenhouse:

Let us learn about the numerous advantages of a solar-powered greenhouse.
1. A step towards sustainable living: The fact that the sun is a renewable energy
source is one of the most crucial benefits of a solar energy greenhouse itself. It
helps in walking a step towards sustainable development.
2. Environment friendly: A solar energy greenhouse can curb conventional and
toxic greenhouse emissions. Greenhouse gas emissions are one of the most severe
and significant environmental problems. Thus, the importance of solar energy
greenhouse increases multifold in this case.
3. Cost-effective: Electric or natural gas-heated greenhouses can be expensive to
maintain. On the other hand, a person won’t typically have to worry about the
electricity bill when using a solar energy greenhouse. After all, there is no cost
involved when using the sun as a resource. You only need to bear the installation
cost, maintenance is inexpensive.
Disadvantages of Solar Greenhouses:
We have learned about the different advantages of a solar energy greenhouse.
However, there are a few minor disadvantages that must also be considered before
installing one.
1. Less efficiency under a cloud cover: When a cloud cover and rain limit
sunlight, the efficiency of the solar greenhouse reduces. But that shouldn’t hold
you back. You can actually buy a small battery bank to store solar power for
emergency uses.
2. A little pricey upfront: The price of a solar energy greenhouse with solar
panels is higher. But the cost is recovered in a couple of years. And the reduction
in electricity bills saves a lot of money for decades.

Solar radiation at earth’s surface:

Solar radiation, often called the solar resource or just sunlight, is a general term
for the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. Solar radiation can be
captured and turned into useful forms of energy, such as heat and electricity,
using a variety of technologies.
BASIC PRINCIPLES:
Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part of the year. The amount of
solar radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to:
 Geographic location
 Time of day
 Season
 Local landscape
 Local weather.

The different types of radiation that reach the earth’s surface is:
 Beam radiation: Beam radiation is the solar radiation received from the Sun without
having been scattered by the atmosphere.
 Diffuse radiation: Diffuse radiation is that radiation received from the Sun after its
direction has been changed by the scattering of clouds in the atmosphere.
  Global radiation (or) Total radiation: The total global radiation is the sum of the
radiation directly from the sun and the so-called diffuse radiation.
 Extra terrestrial radiation: The solar radiation which is incident outside the
atmosphere is called extra Terrestrial solar radiation.
 Terrestrial radiation: The solar radiation received by the earth in short wave forms
and heats up the surface is called terrestrial radiation.

x-----------------------------------------END--------------------------------------------------x