HARSHIT KUMAR (23118034) MT-2

Optical Microscope

Introduction

A light microscope is very crucial in metallurgy for the examination of the microstructure of
metals.It allows for the examination of grain size, phase distribution, inclusions, and defects,
all factors that determine strength, hardness, and ductility.From such an examination,
engineers can develop ways to improve material performance, ensure quality control, and
avoid failures in industrial applications.This knowledge is critical in aerospace, automotive,
and manufacturing industries because material reliability plays a crucial role.Metallurgists
utilize microscopic analyses for designing novel alloys, establishing optimum heat treatment
processes,detecting defects at earlier stages, thus culminating in the safest, most efficient,
and lasting metal components product in most disciplines of engineering.

Impact created
Microscope is the soulmate for industries in their advancements and transformations.It
shows fellow humans the hidden, assists in innovation, and thus helps in leading better
lives.It was just one little tool among many others in upheld health-by spotting germs,
vaccines, and antibiotics were developed that save millions today.This vital tool has been in
aid of engineers designing stronger, lighter materials for construction and aerospace in
materials science.An electronic microscope is the tool that enables the electronics field to
fabricate tiny, powerful chips for iPhones and computers.Microscopes also serve to light the
flame of curiosity and to teach children.They provide students and researchers with a small
view of the world of cells, crystals, and microorganisms.This is how they help fill the gap
between what's invisible and what's felt in passing into nanotechnology and environmental
science.
Microscopy and Resolution Principles in Metallurgy

Optical microscopy, or light microscopy, is a technique in which an assemblage of lenses,

with visible light, is used to magnify small specimens. It is, owing to its ability to project
visible information about the structure of specimens, applied in most biological and
material science disciplines as the basic technique in any medical diagnosis.

1. Human Vision and Microscopy

●​ The human eye can resolve objects as small as 0.1–0.2 mm.

●​ Anything smaller than that requires a microscope.
●​ In metallurgy, microscopes are crucial to study grain structure, phase
composition, inclusions, and defects—all of which influence material properties
like strength and hardness.

2. Core Concepts in Resolution

Basic Principle Optical microscopes are instruments that either transmit light through the
medium or reflect light from the specimen or object that is viewed and make use of lenses
to amplify the resulting image. The two primary components in this process are the
objective lens and the ocular eyepiece. The objective lens is that lens in front of the
specimen and produces an enlarged real image.

The image is in turn enlarged by the eyepiece, enabling the observer to see an image
greatly enlarged. Magnification and Resolution In optical microscopy, magnification is
achieved by the combined action of the objective and eyepiece lenses. Total magnification
is a function of the two lens systems. Unfortunately, magnification alone does not control
image clarity. Of equal importance is the concept of resolution. Resolution in microscopy
refers to the ability of the microscope to perceive, as separate entities, two very closely
spaced points. The resolving power of an optical microscope is limited by the wavelength of
visible light and the numerical aperture of the lenses.

(i) Airy Discs (1835, George Biddell Airy)

●​ The diffraction produced when light moves through a round aperture is commonly referred to
as an Airy disc.

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 ●​ The central point has 84% of light intensity, and the rest makes a diffraction pattern around it.
●​ The image in microscopy consists of many overlapping Airy patterns rather than just a single
point of light.

(ii) Abbe’s Diffraction Limit (1873, Ernst Abbe)

The resolution formula is d = λ / (2NA).

●​ λ = Wavelength of light
●​ NA = Numerical aperture (μ sin α, where μ is refractive index and α is the angle of
collection).
●​ To enhance resolution
●​ Use a shorter wavelength, like UV or X-rays, or
●​ NA is increased by using better optics or a medium with a higher refractive index.

(iii) Rayleigh Criterion (1896, Lord Rayleigh)

●​ It defines the smallest resolvable distance as: δ = 0.61λ / μ sin α.

●​ If two Airy discs just overlap, they are said to be resolved.
●​ For light microscopy using green light (λ = 550 nm), the limit is around 300 nm,
which is still too large for atomic-scale imaging.

3. Electron Microscopy Advances

●​ Electron microscopes are better than light microscopes since electrons have much
shorter wavelengths.
●​ Electron wavelength formula: λe (nm) = 1.22 / √E, where E is the energy in eV.
●​ For 100 keV electrons, the wavelength is 0.0037 nm, which will provide atomic-level
resolution.

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4. Why This Matters in Metallurgy
●​ Light Microscopes help us study grain structures and microstructures at the micron scale,
with ~300 nm resolution.
●​ Electron Microscopes have been essential in nanoscale characterization of materials,
detection of atomic defects, and optimization of metallurgical processes in aerospace,
automotive, and manufacturing industries.

Numerical Aperture (NA)

●​ The Numerical Aperture (NA) of a microscope is an important factor that determines the
resolution and brightness of the image captured by the optical system of the microscope. It is
defined as: NA = n * sin(α) Where: n = Refractive index of the medium between the lens and
the specimen (e.g., air, oil, or water).
●​ α = Half of the angular aperture (the maximum angle at which light enters the lens from the
specimen).
●​ Significance of NA in Optical Microscopy:
More the NA better is the resolution and higher is the contrast and more finer the details
captured
An NA around 1.0 means it has high resolution and this can be achieved using oil immersion
lenses.
It also impacts the amount of light that can be gathered. This is highly critical while imaging
at higher magnifications or in very low-light conditions. Generally, a higher NA corresponds
to gathering more light and brightness in the image. This is very advantageous for brightfield
as well as fluorescence microscopy.
●​ To fully exploit the available detail, the camera sensor and its resolution must match the NA
of the optical system.
High-resolution camera and large pixel size are matched with microscopes of high NA to
come out with fine structural details with minimal noise.

2. Polarization in Optical Microscopy

●​ Polarization refers to the orientation of light waves as they move in space. Through optical
microscopy, polarized light is often used to enhance contrast and bring to light certain
features of a specimen that would otherwise be difficult to see.

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 Polarization and Digital Cameras:
●​ Polarizers are parts included in the microscope setup to eliminate glare or enhance contrast
by bringing out structural detail, not seen when illuminated in the normal mode.
●​ Digital cameras can also be polarized to reduce the reflection of the specimen. This reduces
the glare or haze that creates low-quality images in harsh lighting.

Metallurgy Application
Polarized light microscopy is particularly helpful in metallurgy when it comes to grain
boundaries, phase compositions, and material stress because it increases the contrast
between the various phases within a metal specimen.

3. Depth of Field (DoF) in Optical Microscopy

●​ This would be described as the depth in the specimen in focus at one specific instant, and
this remains a matter when discussing the influence of optical factors on optical microscope
images.
●​ Factors that influence depth of field
●​ Higher magnification = shallower depth of field
●​ Higher NA = shallower DoF
●​ A higher NA lens brings into sharp focus things at very definite planes.
●​ Shorter wavelength light = Shallower DoF as smaller features are resolved, but more precise
focusing is required.
●​ DoF and Digital Cameras:
●​ Digital cameras that are attached to microscopes need to capture a large number of focused
planes in a single image, especially for three-dimensional specimens.
●​ Focus stacking is an approach of superimposing different images at distinct focal points over
one high-depth image to further expand the DoF and achieve higher overall sharpness of the
final result.

Control in Metallurgy
●​ To get a high magnification clear view of details in microstructures of metals, precise control
over DoF ensures the sharp definition of three-dimensional samples of diverse heights like
fracture, inclusions, and grain structures.
●​ In optical microscopy, interactions of Numerical Aperture, polarization, and depth of field
significantly affect image quality, especially when used in conjunction with a digital camera.
Higher NA brings sharper resolution while polarization enhances contrast for features difficult

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 to see. Lastly, the control of depth of field ensures that you can capture everything relevant
into focus, which is important in metallurgical analysis since fine details do matter.

1.Numerical Aperture (NA):

Microscopy Basics | Numerical Aperture and Resolution

https://zeiss-campus.magnet.fsu.edu/articles/basics/resolution.html

2. Polarization in Optical Microscopy:

https://www.leica-microsystems.com/science-lab/applied/the-polarization-microscopy-principle

3. Depth of Field (DoF) in Optical Microscopy:

https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/depth-of-field-and-depth-of-focus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_stacking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_stacking

4.Understanding Numerical Aperture in Microscopy:

https://www.zeiss.com/microscopy/en/resources/insights-hub/foundational-knowledge/understanding
-numerical-aperture-image-resolution.html