14

Laser Shock Peening:

Modeling, Simulations,
and Applications
Y.B. Guo
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,
The University of Alabama,
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487
U.S.A.

1. Introduction
Laser shock peening (LSP) is a surface treatment process to improve surface integrity and
fabricate micro surface structures. The mechanism of LSP is shown in Figure 1. LSP is a cold
mechanical process where pressure waves caused by expanding plasma plastically deform
the surface of a material. LSP uses a thin layer of ablative material that is opaque to the laser.
The opaque ablative material, typically black spray paint or tape, is used as a sacrificial layer
in the early study by Fairland and Clauer (Fairland & Clauer, 1976). The sacrificial layer also
minimizes undesirable thermal effects on the surface caused by the laser. The laser partially
vaporizes the ablative layer to form high pressure plasma. The plasma, confined by a thin
layer of water film, expands rapidly resulting in a recoiling pressure wave on the order of
GPa reported by Fairland et al. (Fairland et al., 1972), Fabbro et al. (Fabbro et al., 1990),
Masse and Barreau (Masse & Barreau, 1995), Berthe et al. (Berthe et al., 1997), Fan et al. (Fan
et al., 2005), Warren, et al. (Warren et al., 2008), and Caslaru, et al. (Caslaru et al., 2008). The
pressure wave is the cold mechanical process that plastically deforms the surface. The
plasma-induced shock pressure on the order of GPa can be much larger than the dynamic
yield strength of the work material. Once the peak pressure exceeds material yield strength,
the transient shock pressure causes severe plastic deformation, refined grain size,
compressive residual stresses, and increased hardness at the surface and in the subsurface.
As a result, the mechanical properties on the workpiece surface are enhanced to improve the
performance of fatigue, wear, corrosion and foreign object damage.
Besides producing favorable surface integrity, LSP can also be used to fabricate various
micro surface structures such as dent arrays using an automatic x-y positioning system. The
micro surface structures may have various functions. For example a laser peened dent array
can act as lubricant reservoirs to reduce coefficient of friction in bearings and to reduce flow
drag of compressor blades.
Just due to the transient nature of shocking pressure, real time in-situ measurement of
laser/material interaction is very challenging. A numerical simulation method may provide
an ideal tool to shed light on the process mechanics and resultant surface integrity.

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332 Numerical Simulations - Applications, Examples and Theory

Focal Lens
Laser Beam
Plasma Formation

Water
Ablative Layer

Mg-Ca
Shock wave
Fig. 1. Process principle of micro dent fabrication by LSP

2. State-of-the-art of LSP simulation

2.1 LSP for enhanced surface integrity
LSP is a surface treatment process to modify surface properties for improved wear and
fatigue performance. LSP is primarily conducted on metallic components. The principle of
LSP is to use a high intensity laser and suitable overlays to generate high pressure shock
waves on the workpiece surface.
An increase in fatigue strength is achieved by large magnitudes of compressive residual
stresses which develop in the subsurface. The maximum compressive residual stress is
usually on the surface and decreases with depth. The transient shock waves can also induce
microstructure changes near the surface and cause high density of dislocations. The
combined effect of the microstructure changes and dislocation entanglement contribute to
improved surface properties.
It has been shown by previous research (Clauer et al., 1983; Clauer & Koucky, 1991; Peyre et
al., 1996; Vaccari, 1992; Ashley, 1998; Brown, 1998; Banas et al., 1990) that improved fatigue
life of metallic components such as bearings, gears, shafts, etc can be accomplished by
inducing compressive residual stress using LSP. An advantage of LSP is that the affected
depth is very deep (≈ 1 mm) as compared with other surface treatment processes such as
conventional shot peening.
During LSP (Figure 1), the sample surface is first coated with a thin layer of material such as
black paint which is opaque to the laser beam. This opaque layer acts as sacrificial material
and is converted to high pressure plasma as it absorbs energy from a high intensity laser (1-
10 GW/cm2) for very short time durations (< 100 ns). If the sample surface is also
submerged in a transparent media such as water, the rapidly expanding plasma cannot
escape and the resulting shock wave is transmitted into the sample subsurface. The shock
pressure can be much larger than the dynamic yield strength of the material (>1 GPa), which
causes surface plastic deformation and compressive residual stresses which can extend to a
deep depth (≈ 1 mm) in the subsurface. Due to the high strains/strain rates that the material
experiences, there can also be significant microstructure changes thus causing the surface
properties such as hardness, strength, and fatigue strength to be improved. Because thermal
rise in the sample is nearly eliminated by the water overlay, LSP is primarily a cold working
process.

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Laser Shock Peening: Modeling, Simulations, and Applications 333

A significant amount of LSP research has been conducted to investigate the surface
integrity. Most experimental work has focused on the determination of residual stress
magnitudes and distributions in the near surface. The effect of LSP on surface properties
and fatigue life has been relatively less studied. The resulting surface integrity can be
correlated with the LSP process parameters such as laser intensity, laser spot size, peening
pass, and peening spacing. The following is a brief overview of previous research results.
Residual stress can vary with LSP process parameters. Increasing the laser intensity
increases both the magnitude and affected depth of compressive stress in the subsurface.
However, it has been shown that laser intensities greater than a particular threshold serve to
decrease the surface stress magnitude, but continue to increase the magnitude and affected
depth in the subsurface (Peyre et al., 1996). This was attributed to expansion release waves
that are formed due to high energy shock waves. An investigation of laser spot size effect
showed that energy attenuation is less for larger spot sizes allowing the stress shock wave to
propagate deeper into the material (Fabbro et al., 1998). Thus larger spot sizes increase the
depth of plastic deformation. A study of overlapped laser spots (Clauer & Koucky, 1991;
Peyre et al., 1996; Peyre et al., 1998; Ruschau et al., 1999) showed that the residual stress
distribution is nearly uniform and is entirely compressive.
Previous numerical simulations of LSP have been performed to gain better understanding
of the physical process. Because LSP is a highly transient process, it is difficult (if not
impossible) to experimentally observe and quantify the stress wave propagation into the
sample surface. Simulations have been used to aid in determining accurate shock pressure
models, verify experimental data, and predict residual stress profiles. Zhang et al. (Zhang
et al., 2004) improved the shock pressure models by Clauer (Clauer & Holbrock, 1981) and
Fabbro (Fabbro et al., 1990) by accounting for the non-linear mass transfer of LSP. The
model also accounts for the time dependent radial expansion of plasma for micro sized
laser peening. Finite element simulations have been performed to verify and predict
residual stress profiles after LSP (Braisted & Brockman, 1999; Ding, 2003; Zhang & Yao,
2002).

2.2 LSP fabrication of micro dent arrays

The controlled patterning of solid surfaces improves the wear, friction and lubrication
(Anderson et al., 2007). Micro dents serve as fluid reservoirs that effectively retain lubricant.
Also micro dents function as traps for wear debris, eliminating a potential plowing effect
caused by entrapped particles. The long term benefit of surface patterning is to extend the
life of contacting surfaces. Micro dents on the surface can improve the surface lifetime by a
factor of ten (Romano et al., 2003). Experimental studies on the effect of dent patterns on
micro-grooved sapphire discs lead to the conclusion that fabricated micro dents on metallic
surfaces is a useful method to reduce friction in sliding contact. Manufacturing techniques
to fabricate micro dents arrays on component surfaces include micro indentation (Nakatsuji
& Mori, 2001), micro-drilling (Friedrich, 2002), and laser ablation (Etsion, 2005). These
processes often induce surface damage such as cracks and phase transformation which may
shorten component life. A new process to make dents while avoid material damage is highly
needed. When the pressure exceeds the dynamic yield stress in LSP, plastic deformation
occurs and forms a dent on the surface. LSP is a flexible and economic technique to fabricate
micro dent arrays on metallic component surfaces using an automatic x-y positioning
system.

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334 Numerical Simulations - Applications, Examples and Theory

2.3 LSP biomaterials

Biodegradable implants are a relatively new and emerging form of treatment for common
bone ailments. Biodegradable implants are useful to the healing process due to the ability to
gradually dissolve and absorb into the human body after implantation. The development of
biodegradable implants has had a beneficial effect on in-vivo treatment of patients with
various bone ailments.
Currently, biodegradable implants are mainly made of polymers, such as poly-L-Lactic acid.
However, these polymer based implants usually have an unsatisfactory mechanical
strength. An alternative to biodegradable polymer implants is permanent metallic implants
composed of steel or titanium alloys. Permanent metal implants have superior strength
compared to polymers. As a consequence, metal implants are often too stiff resulting in a
stress shielding effect that can be damaging to the healing process (Benli et al., 2008;
Completo et al., 2008; Au et al., 2007; Shi et al., 2007; Isaksson & Lerner, 2003; Nagels et al.,
2003; Gefen, 2002). Stress shielding occurs when bone is shielded by an implant from
carrying load. As a result, the bone tends to weaken over time resulting in more damage. To
minimize the effects of stress shielding on the human body while still retaining strength, a
soft lightweight metal is required. Therefore, Mg alloys are proposed as an ideal
biodegradable implant material due to its biocompatibility and superior strength to weight
ratio compared to that of other biomaterials.
Magnesium is an element essential to the human body. Intake of a certain amount of
magnesium (300 ~ 400 mg/day) is normally required for regular metabolic activities (Seiler,
1987). The direct corrosion product of magnesium, Mg2+, is easily absorbed or consumed by
the human body (Song, 2007). However, the rapidly generated by-products of magnesium
corrosion, such as hydrogen gas and hydroxides, are not physiologically favorable.
Hydrogen evolution and alkalinization resulting from corrosion of Mg are the most critical
obstacles in using magnesium as an implant material. A straightforward strategy to tackle
these difficulties is to control the corrosion rate of a biodegradable magnesium implant. The
adjustment of surface property is one promising solution to control the corrosion rate of Mg
in human body.
In this chapter, calcium (Ca) was alloyed with Mg to form a Mg-Ca alloy. It is well known
that Ca is a major component in human bone and is also essential in chemical signaling with
cells (Ilich & Kerstetter, 2000). Ca has a low density (1.55 g/cm3) such that when alloyed
with Mg, the density is similar to that of bone. The Ca in Mg-Ca alloys produces
hydroxyapatite (HA) as a corrosion product on the surface of the implant. HA mineral is a
naturally occurring form of calcium apatite with the formula Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 and has close
resemblance to the chemical and mineral components of teeth and bone. As a result of this
similarity it stimulates bone cells to attack the implant surface and make proper bonding
(Aksakal & Hanyaloglu, 2008), which allows for fractured segments to realign in correct
anatomical position which is critical to recovery.
Laser shock peening (LSP) is a promising surface treatment technique to improve the
surface integrity by imparting compressive residual stresses that are beneficial for
controlling corrosion of Mg-Ca implants. LSP has been initiated to fabricate an array of
dents on component surfaces (Warren et al., 2005; Warren & Guo, 2007; Caslaru et al., 2008;
Sealy & Guo, 2008). Previous finite element analyses (FEA) of LSP investigate individual
peening of a metal substrate. FEA of single peens neglects the effect of neighboring dents on
topography, hardness and residual stress. The purpose of this chapter is to determine the

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Laser Shock Peening: Modeling, Simulations, and Applications 335

effects of sequential peening of Mg-Ca alloy on surface topography as well as predict the
residual stress profile. Sequential peening experiments and simulations were performed and
compared to single peening experiments and simulations.

3. LSP modeling and simulation procedures

3.1 Modeling of 3D spatial and temporal shock pressure
Because the laser spot is circular, a two-dimensional finite element simulation can not reflect
the true nature of LSP. For this reason a 3D model must be used for realistic simulation of
the laser induced shock pressure. The simulation mesh is shown in Figure 2. The mesh has
two regions with different mesh densities. With a high mesh density, the results from a
simulation converge to a unique solution. As expected, the area where the pressure is
applied contains a higher mesh density than the outer regions of the model. The dense mesh
region consists of elements of 1 µm cubes. Micron elements provide a suitable spatial
resolution of the output variables.

Peening direcon
200 μm

1 μm

2 1
3 100 μm

Fig. 2. Three-dimensional (3D) FEA simulation of LSP

The spatial and temporal pressure distribution during LSP is neither uniform nor linear. For
this reason a subroutine VDLOAD was used to apply the non-uniform shock pressure. The
subroutine allows the pressure intensity to vary simultaneously with respect to radial
distance from the center of the laser spot and elapsed time of the laser pulse. It works by
assigning local origins at the center of the desired shock peen locations and calculates the
radial distance to each node surrounding this new origin from the equation of a circle as

r= ( curcoord ( i ,1) ) + ( curcoord ( i , 2 ) )

2 2
(1)

where curcoord ( i ,1 ) and curcoord ( i , 2 ) are the coordinates in the 1 and 2 directions,
respectively, for the current node at each time increment of the analysis.
The pressure as a function of radial distance from the center of the laser spot follows a
Gaussian distribution (Zhang et al., 2004). Maximum pressure is located at the center of the
laser spot and decreases with increasing radial distance from the center.

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336 Numerical Simulations - Applications, Examples and Theory

The pressure distribution is also a function of the elapsed time of laser pulse. The pressure
is initially zero and reaches a peak value when the elapsed time equals the total pulse time.
Following the results by Zhang, et al. (Zhang et al., 2004), the pressure versus time can be
well represented as fourth order polynomials to follow the pressure vs. time relationships
shown in Figure 3.

5
7 ns
7 ns
4
15 ns
30 ns
45 ns
Stress (GPa)

3
60 ns
2

0
0 15 30 45 60
T ime (ns)

The pressure P ( r , t ) at any point and time can be calculated as

Fig. 3. Theoretical pressure vs. time curve

⎛ r2 ⎞
P ( r , t ) = P ( t ) exp ⎜ − 2 ⎟
⎝ 2R ⎠
(2)

where P ( t ) is the pressure at time t during the laser pulse interpolated from Figure 3, r is
the radial distance from the center of the laser spot in Eq. (1), and R is the laser spot radius.

3.2 Modeling of dynamic mechanical behavior

Due to the extremely high strain rates (> 106 s-1) that occur during LSP, traditional material
models are not adequate. For this reason a subroutine VUMAT was used to incorporate the
plasticity/failure model developed by the internal state variable (ISV) plasticity model
(Bammann et al., 1993; Bammann et al., 1996). The BCJ constitutive equations can be written
below.

σ = σ − W σ + σW = λtr (D )I + 2 μ D
e e e e
(3)

D =D−D
e p
(4)

⎡ σ − α − {R + Y (T )} ⎤ σ − α
D = f (T )sinh ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ σ − α
p
(5)
V (T )

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Laser Shock Peening: Modeling, Simulations, and Applications 337

α = α − W α + αW
e e

⎡ 2 ⎤
= h(T )D − ⎢ rd (T ) D + rs (T )⎥ α α
(6)

⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦
p p

⎡ 2 ⎤
R = H (T )D − ⎢ Rd(T ) D + Rs(T )⎥ R 2
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
p p
(7)
3

The evolution equations (6) and (7) for the internal state variables α and R are motivated

hardening internal state variable α representing directional hardening is related to the

from dislocation mechanics and are in a hardening-minus-recovery format. The kinematic

dislocations in cell interior. The variable captures the softening effect due to unloading, also
termed as Bauschinger’s effect. The isotropic hardening internal state variable R is related
to the dislocations in walls and it captures the continued hardening at large strains. The use
of internal state variables and the evolution equations enable the prediction of strain rate
history and temperature history effects.
The model uses nine temperature dependent functions to describe the inelastic response.
They can be classified into three basic types: those associated with the initial yield, the
hardening functions, and the recovery functions. The rate-independent yield stress Y (T ) ,
the rate-dependence of initial yield stress f (T ) , and the magnitude of rate-dependence of
yield stress V (T ) are assumed to be of the forms

V (T ) = C 1 exp( −C 2 / T ) (8)

Y (T ) = C 3 exp(C 4 / T )([1 + (tanh(C 19 (C 20 − T )))] / 2) (9)

f (T ) = C 5 exp( −C 6 / T ) (10)

The three functions of rd (T ) , h(T ) , rs (T ) describe the tensor or kinematic hardening and
recovery, which can be thought of as the center of yield surface. The functions of Rd (T ) ,
H (T ) , and Rs (T ) describe the scalar or isotropic hardening and recovery, which can be
thought of as the radius of the yield surface.

rd (T ) = C7 exp( −C 8 / T ) (11)

h(T ) = C 9 − C 10T (12)

rs (T ) = C 11 exp( −C 12 / T ) (13)

Rd (T ) = C 13 exp( −C 14 / T ) (14)

H (T ) = C 15 − C 16T (15)

Rs (T ) = C 17 exp( −C 18 / T ) (16)

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338 Numerical Simulations - Applications, Examples and Theory

The material constants ( C 1 − C 20 ) can be determined by fitting the BCJ model to the
baseline test data using a non-linear square fitting method. The very short pulse duration
(< 100 ns) makes the simulation an ideal transient case. For this purpose, Abaqus/Explicit
(HKS, 2008) was used to implement the simulation scheme.

4. Simulation case studies

3D finite element simulation models in peening several engineering materials have been
developed to investigate transient laser/material interactions at nano timescale during
peening. Three application case studies in automotive, aerospace, and biomedical industries
are presented using the developed simulation method.

4.1 Case 1: LSP simulation of enhancing surface integrity of hardened steel

The purpose of this case study is to micro laser shock peening hardened AISI 52100 steel (62
HRc) by varying the laser pulse duration (time elapsed for maximum pressure) for times of
5, 10, 50, and 100 ns. For comparative purposes, a conventional material model which uses
experimental compression stress/strain data and the failure/plasticity model termed the
ISV model is be used to predict the material behavior. The results will provide insight into
the highly transient LSP process and assist in proper selection of experimental parameters
for control of surface integrity requirements after LSP.
The fitted material constants are shown in Table 1. The simulation was performed as a single
pass of laser shock peening with a laser spot radius of 6 µm. The simulated laser intensity is
5.5 GW/cm2 which attains a maximum pressure of ≈ 4 GPa. The laser pulse time was
varied as 5, 10, 50, and 100 ns in order to test the effect of strain rate on the transient stress
and strain.

BCJ Parameter Material Constants BCJ Parameter Material Constants

C1 (MPa) 1.00E+00 C11 (s/MPa) 2.39E-03
C2 (K) 1.00E+00 C12 (K) 4.00E+02
C3 (MPa) 2.52E+03 C13 (1/MPa) 5.00E-02
C4 (K) 5.85E+01 C14 (K) 0.00E+00
C5 (1/s) 1.00E+00 C15 (MPa) 1.50E+02
C6 (K) -1.20E+04 C16 (MPa/K) -1.40E+01
C7 (1/MPa) 4.00E-02 C17 (s/MPa) 2.70E-03
C8 (K) 0.00E+00 C18 (K) 0.00E+00
C9 (MPa) 5.60E+03 C19 4.15E-03
C10 (MPa/K) 9.00E+00 C20 (K) 6.65E+02
Table 1. ISV material constants of AISI 52100 steel
The greatest magnitude (stress or strain) during the simulation was retrieved across and
beneath the laser spot as shown in Figure 4. This allows direct comparison of various laser
pulse times on the transient behavior of the material during LSP. For comparative purposes,
the results are plotted for simulations using the BCJ model and direct data input in table
format (hereafter “Table”) which use only compression stress/strain data for modeling
material behavior.

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Laser Shock Peening: Modeling, Simulations, and Applications 339

Across

Down

Full Half view

Fig. 4. Result path locations

4.1.1 Stress distributions

The maximum subsurface normal stress in the peening direction is shown in Figure 5a. The
maximum stress occurs on the surface for the greater pulse times (50 ns and 100 ns) while it
occurs in the subsurface (≈ 3.5 µm) for the lower pulse times (5 ns and 10 ns). This may be
due to higher strain rates generated by the shorter pulse times. However, the stress at all
depths greater than 3.5 µm is more compressive for the shorter pulse durations. It is
observed that the subsurface stress difference at the same depth can be as much as 750 MPa
between the shortest and longest laser pulse times. Another observation is the consistently
higher stress (at depths > 3.5 µm) predicted by the BCJ model than that for simulations
using table format. This is reasonable due to the extremely high strain rates during LSP for
which there is no experimental data available. At pulse times of 50 ns and 100 ns, the strain
rate has less influence and the stress distribution curves are nearly identical for the BCJ
model and table format.
The maximum normal stress across the specimen surface is shown in Figure 5b. From the
figure it is observed that the difference between the experienced surface stress at the laser
center can be as large as 1.0 GPa by varying the laser pulse time. However, the difference is
negligible beyond the diameter of the laser spot (12 µm).

Fig. 5. Stress variation (peening direction a) down and b) across

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340 Numerical Simulations - Applications, Examples and Theory

The subsurface von Mises profile is shown in Figure 6a. The maximum value of von Mises
stress occurs at a depth of 4.2 µm for all simulation cases. It is also observed that the stress
magnitude is inversely proportional to the laser pulse time. The difference between the 5 ns
and 10 ns pulse times is, however, much larger (500 MPa) than for the 50 ns and 100 ns cases
(50 MPa) at the surface showing that the relationship is not linear. In addition, the variation
of the stress for the 5 ns and 10 ns pulse is larger than that for the 50 ns and 100 ns pulse
times when comparing the BCJ model and table format.
Figure 6b shows the von Mises distribution across the top surface. The trend is similar to
that of the transverse normal stress in that the largest magnitude occurs across the entire
surface by order of decreasing pulse time. A sharp rise in von Mises stress occurs across a
diameter of ≈ 24 µm reaching a maximum at the center of the laser spot. The influence of the
high strain rate induced by the 5 ns pulse is seen by the 30% higher equivalent stress when
compared to the next pulse time (10ns).

Fig. 6. Von mises variation a) down and b) across

4.1.2 Strain rate

The maximum strain occurred in the loading direction and is shown in Figure 7a. For each
case, the greatest strain magnitude occurred in the subsurface, the depth of which is
dependent on the pulse duration. For the 10, 50, and 100 ns cases, the maximum value
occurred at a depth of ≈ 2.8 µm, while the 5 ns case reached a maximum strain of -1.87×10-2
at a depth of 4.3 µm. After the maximum strain is reached, the strain magnitude decreases
with the highest value occurring at each depth in order of decreasing pulse duration.

Fig. 7. Strain variation a) down and b) across

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Laser Shock Peening: Modeling, Simulations, and Applications 341

The maximum strain in the loading direction across the surface is shown in Figure 7b. The
maximum value of -1.4×10-2 was attained for the 5 ns pulse time using the BCJ model. A ≈
7% lower strain was predicted by the table format for each simulation pulse time. The
maximum strain attained by the 10, 50, and 100 ns cases was ≈ -1.2×10-2.

4.1.3 Residual stress

The predicted residual stresses were obtained from the surface element located at the center
of the laser spot. A comparison of the measured and simulated residual stress values are
shown in Figure 8. Both the predicted and measured residual stresses are compressive, so
they agree with the nature and trend. There is some discrepancy between the two which
may be due to several factors that differentiate the experimental procedure from the
simulation. In addition to numerical errors, the first is the massive parallel LSP used for the
experiment which was not accounted for in the benchmark simulation. The overlaps of
consecutive laser peenings that occurred in LSP experiments would increase the magnitudes
of compressive residual stress. The predicted residual stresses from both single and two LSP
passes are expected to be lower than those from the experiments. The second is that the x-
ray diffraction technique using CrKα radiation actually measures an average residual stress
in the depth of x-ray penetration (5-10 μm). In addition, the exact location of residual stress
measurement with regard to the laser peened zone can not be accurately controlled for the
experiment. For the measurement itself, the residual stress magnitudes across the peened
surface are different just due to the nonuniform nature of surface integrity. Unless high
precision calibration and control can be carried out first, the x-ray and other non-destructive
measurement methods are only useful for comparative purpose.

Simulation Experiment

1 Pass 2 Pass
Residual Stress s11, MPa

-100

-200
-220
-300
-310
-400 -367
-500 -434

Fig. 8. Comparison of predicted surface residual stress s11 with measured data

4.2 Case 2: LSP simulation of fabricating micro dent arrays on titanium surface
A 3D finite element simulation model was developed to fabricate micro dent arrays on
titanium Ti-6Al-4V surfaces as shown in Figure 2, for improving tribology performance. Ti-
6Al-4V is a widely used engineering material in aerospace, automotive, and biomedical

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342 Numerical Simulations - Applications, Examples and Theory

industries. Micro surface structures of the LSP processed Ti-6Al-4V components is critical
for product performance. However, the surface deformation and mechanical behavior in
patterning a Ti-6Al-4V surface has not been well understood. The simulation aims to
understand the laser/material interaction and the related mechanical phenomena. The
material constants (C1 – C20) were determined by fitting the ISV model to the baseline test
data using a non-linear square fitting method. The fitted material constants are shown in
Table 2 (Guo et al., 2005). The modulus of elasticity for Ti-6Al-4V is 114 GPa. Poisson’s ratio
is 0.34 at room temperature. The density is 4430 kg/m3.

ISV Material ISV Material

parameter constants parameter constants
C1 (MPa) 1.0 C11 (s/MPa) 205
C2 (K) 0.2 C12 (K) 0
C3 (MPa) 1570 C13 (1/MPa) 1.9E-3
C4 (K) 10 C14 (K) 0
C5 (1/s) 1.0E-5 C15 (MPa) 619
C6 (K) 0 C16 (MPa/K) 3.8E-1
C7 (1/MPa) 7.0E-2 C17 (s/MPa) 5.0E-4
C8 (K) 0 C18 (K) 0
C9 (MPa) 1866 C19 1.0992E-3
C10 (MPa/K) 0.3 C20 (K) 876
Table 2. ISV material constants of Ti-6Al-4V

4.2.1 Simulated dent geometry

Figure 9a depicts the dent profiles for the various pulse times. Each dent was measured 50
ns after the simulation. Initially, increasing the pulse time leads to an increase in depth.
However, the 30 ns simulation has the maximum depth at 0.9 µm. The simulations with
pulse times greater than 30 ns exhibited a decrease in the depth. This suggests there is an
optimal pulse time which produces the deepest dents given a peak pressure.

0.2 2.0
0.0 0.0
Depth (microns)
Depth (microns)

-0.2
-2.0
-0.4 3 GPa
7 ns
15 ns
-4.0 4 GPa
-0.6
30 ns 5 GPa
45 ns -6.0
-0.8 6 GPa
60 ns
-1.0 -8.0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Normalized radial position (microns) Normalized radial position (microns)
(a) constant peak pressure of 4 GPa (b) constant pulse time of 30 ns
Fig. 9. Simulated dent profiles
Figure 9b shows the dent profiles as the peak pressure increases. There is a non-linear
relationship between the dent depth and peak pressure. As the load increases, the depth of the
dent increases as well. However, the radius of each dent is about 20 microns. A comparison
between the simulated dent contours and measured ones will be conducted in a future study.

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Laser Shock Peening: Modeling, Simulations, and Applications 343

4.2.2 Surface material behavior at different peening time

Material behaviors at the surface are characterized by the stress/strain graphs along the
peening or depth direction (axis-3). Each stress/strain profile plotted represents the
maximum transient stress/strain during the peening process. The corresponding radial
curves are corresponding stress/strain graphs where the maximum occurs along the depth.
Transient stress profiles: Von Mises stress along the depth is plotted in Figure 10a. In each
simulation, the maximum von Mises is 1.45 GPa and occurs about 3 µm below the surface
and gradually decreases to 1.27 GPa. The stress then sharply decreases toward zero as the
depth increases. Surface material at different peening times experiences similar von Mises
characteristics but at different depths. Figure 10b shows von Mises profile in the radial
direction 3 µm in the subsurface. In the radius of 9 µm, the von Mises stress remains greater
than 1.2 GPa. Then, the stress begins to decrease exponentially.

1.5 1.5
7ns 7ns
von Mises (GPa)
1.2 1.2 15ns
von Mises (GPa)

15ns
30ns
0.9 30ns 0.9 45ns
45ns 60ns
0.6 0.6
60ns
0.3 0.3

0 0
0 15 30 45 60 75 0 5 10 15 20
Depth below surface (microns) Radial position (microns)
Fig. 10. von Mises stress distributions at different peening time
Transient strain profiles: The effective plastic strain PEEQ along the depth, Figure 11a,
exhibits an inverse relationship with the peening time. The plastic strain decreases with the
increased peening time. However, below the surface that is not the case. The 30 ns peening
time induces the maximum plastic strain. PEEQ converges to zero at 15 µm to 20 µm in
subsurface. Figure 11b illustrates the radial profiles of PEEQ which extends 10 µm in the
radial direction.

0.12 0.12
0.1 0.1 7ns
7ns
15ns
0.08 15ns 0.08
PEEQ

PEEQ

30ns 30ns
0.06 0.06 45ns
45ns
60ns 0.04 60ns
0.04
0.02 0.02

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 2 4 6 8 10
Depth below surface (microns) Radial position (microns)

Fig. 11. Effective plastic strain distributions at different peening time

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344 Numerical Simulations - Applications, Examples and Theory

Strain rate profiles: Figure 12a shows the strain rate along the depth for each peening time.
Material at the 7 ns peening case experiences the largest strain rate at 31×106/s at 3 µm in
the subsurface. As peening time increases, the strain rate decreases non-linearly. In each
case, the peak rate occurs at 2 to 3 µm below the surface. Figure 12b shows the radial profiles
of the strain rate which extends approximately 10 µm from the peening center. The strain
rate for the 7 ns case converges more rapidly in the radial direction than other cases.

5 5

-5 -5
ER33 (E6/s)

ER33 (E6/s)
7ns
7ns
-15 -15 15ns
15ns
30ns 30ns
-25 45ns -25 45ns
60ns 60ns
-35 -35
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20
Depth below surface (microns) Radial position (microns)
Fig. 12. Strain rate distributions at different peening time

4.2.3 Surface material behavior at different peening pressure

Transient stress profiles: Von Mises profiles in the depth are plotted in Figure 13a. At peak
pressures 3 GPa and 4 GPa, the maximum von Mises occurs at 3 µm in the subsurface. As
peak load increases the maximum von Mises moves toward the surface. It is also observed
that von Mises profiles overlap at peak pressures 5 GPa and 6 GPa. It implies that increasing
the peak pressure over 6 GPa will saturate von Mises stress. Initially, the stress gradually
decreases along the depth. Once it decreases to 1.3 GPa, it rapidly drops and converges
toward zero. Figure 13b shows the stress along the radial direction. It exhibits a similar
phenomenon seen in the depth direction.

1.6 1.6
3 GPa 1.4
1.4
4 GPa 1.2
1.2
von Mises (GPa)
von Mises (GPa)

5 GPa 1.0
1
6 GPa 3 GPa
0.8 0.8
0.6 4 GPa
0.6
0.4 0.4 5 GPa

0.2 0.2 6 GPa

0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 5 10 15 20
Depth below surface (microns) Radial position (microns)

Fig. 13. von Mises stress distributions at different peening pressure

Strain profiles: The equivalent plastic strain in the depth is plotted in Figure 14a. The
maximum plastic strain at 6 GPa peak pressure is on the surface, while it moves deeper into
the subsurface as the peak load decreases. For example, it moves to 3 µm deeper for the case of
3 GPa peak pressure. The corresponding radial profiles for PEEQ are shown in Figure 14b.

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Laser Shock Peening: Modeling, Simulations, and Applications 345

2 2
3 GPa
1.6 3 GPa 1.6
4 GPa
1.2 4 GPa 1.2

PEEQ
PEEQ

5 GPa
5 GPa
0.8 0.8 6 GPa
6 GPa
0.4 0.4
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 5 10 15 20
Radial position (microns) Depth below surface (microns)
Fig. 14. Effective plastic strain distributions at different peening pressure
Strain rate profiles: Figure 15a shows that the maximum strain rate is 226×106/s on the
surface at 6 GPa peak pressure. As peak pressure decreases, the maximum strain rate moves
deeper below the surface. In addition, the simulations at peak pressures of 3 GPa and 4 GPa
experienced much smaller strain rates (< 2×106) on the surface. But the maximum strain
rates occur at 3 µm in the subsurface. The corresponding radial profiles of the strain rate in
Figure 15b extend approximately 6 µm from the peening center.

0 0
-50 -50
ER33 (E6/s)
ER33 (E6/s)

-100 3 GPa -100

4 GPa 3 GPa
-150 -150 4 GPa
5 GPa
5 GPa
-200 6 GPa -200
6 GPa
-250 -250
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 2 4 6 8 10
Depth below surface (microns) Radial position (microns)
Fig. 15. Strain rate distributions at different peening pressure

4.3 Case 3: LSP simulation of peening biomedical material for enhanced corrosion
performance
A 3D semi-infinite model was used to simulate micro scale laser shock peening of
biodegradable Mg-Ca. The material constants (C1 – C20) of the biomaterial were determined
by fitting the ISV model to the baseline test data using a non-linear square fitting method
(Guo et al., 2005). The fitted material constants are shown in Table 3 (Guo & Salahshoor,
2010). The modulus of elasticity for Mg-Ca is 45 GPa. Poisson’s ratio is 0.33 at room
temperature. The density is 1750 kg/m3.
A series of four simulations were performed in order to simulate sequential LSP. The Mg-Ca
surface was peened once per simulation. Each simulation is composed of two steps. In the
first step, the shock pressure is applied on the top surface. Next, the stresses and strains are
allowed sufficient time to relax so that the solution has time to stabilize. The results from the
first simulation were imported to the second simulation and so on until the surface was
peened 4 times.

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346 Numerical Simulations - Applications, Examples and Theory

ISV Material ISV Material

parameter constants parameter constants
C1 (MPa) 1.0 C11 (s/MPa) 1E-4
C2 (K) 600 C12 (K) 0
C3 (MPa) 850 C13 (1/MPa) 0.7
C4 (K) 20 C14 (K) 100
C5 (1/s) 1.0E-7 C15 (MPa) 3E4
C6 (K) 0 C16 (MPa/K) 39
C7 (1/MPa) 0.1 C17 (s/MPa) 380
C8 (K) -300 C18 (K) -900
C9 (MPa) 2500 C19 0.2
C10 (MPa/K) 0 C20 (K) 312.8
Table 3. ISV material constants of Mg-Ca alloy

4.3.1 Simulation scheme

The 3D model in Figure 16 contains a quarter cylinder of 70,818 C3D8R finite elements and
3,575 CIN3D8 infinite elements. The quarter cylinder mesh allows for a comprehensive
analysis of the three dimensional stress and strain behavior below the surface while
minimizing the computation time. Infinite elements as quiet boundary along the back and
bottom surfaces were implemented to allow for stress waves to pass through a non-
reflective boundary.
The mesh has two regions with different mesh densities. As expected, the area where the
pressure is applied contains a higher mesh density than the outer regions of the model. The
dense mesh region consists of 30 µm wide cubic elements. Micron level elements provide a
suitable spatial resolution of the output variables to ensure spatial convergence.

Peening direcon
3000 μm

2 1 Infinite Elements 30 μm

3 2400 μm

Fig. 16. Three-dimensional FEA simulation of LSP

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Laser Shock Peening: Modeling, Simulations, and Applications 347

The pressure induced by LSP is a function of elapsed time and radial position. A useful
approximation for P(t) is to assume it follows a 6th order polynomial as shown in Figure 17.
The generic profile is based on numerous researchers (Berthe et al., 1997; Fabbro et al., 1990;
Devaux et al., 1993; Wu & Shin, 2005; Zhang et al., 2004) who have measured the P(t) as a
function of time. The critical components of P(t) are the pulse time and the peak pressure.
The pressure pulse time typically last 2-3 times longer than the laser pulse (Devaux et al.,
1993; Berthe et al., 1999; Zhang & Yao, 2002). For the purpose of these simulations, the
pressure pulse was assumed to be 3 times longer than the 7 ns laser pulse. The peak
pressure for P(t) in water confined regime was estimated by

α
P(GPa) = 0.01
2α + 3
Z( g / cm2 s) I o (GW / cm2 ) (17)

where P is the peak pressure, Z is combined shock impedance defined by the following Eq.
(18), Io is the power density given by Eq. (19), and α is a correction factor for the efficiency of
the interaction (Fabbro et al., 1990; Peyre et al., 1996). Since the ablative material used in
these experiments was relatively thick and absorbent compared to other materials used in
literature, α was estimated to be low (0.1) such that the majority of the energy was absorbed
by the ablative material. ZMgCa is defined as the product of the density and shock velocity
(ZMgCa=ρMgCaUMgCa). The density of Mg-Ca is 1750 kg/m3 and the shock velocity is
approximated based on the wave speed of sound through Mg-Ca (≈ 5000 m/s). ZMgCa and
Zwater are 8.75x105 and 1.65x105 g/cm2, respectively.

= +
2 1 1
(18)
Z ZMgCa Zwater

Io =
E
(19)
tP A

where E is the average energy per pulse given as 0.2667 J. tp is the simulated pressure pulse
time (21ns). A is the cross-sectional area of the generated plasma. The diameter of the
pressure wave is approximately 250 µm which results in a peak pressure of 5 GPa.

6
Applied Pressure, P(t)

5
4
(GPa)

3
2
1
0
0 10 20
Time (ns)

Fig. 17. Spatially uniform shock pressure, P(t)

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348 Numerical Simulations - Applications, Examples and Theory

In this study, the radial expansion of plasma was taken into account for the following
reasons. First, the experimental laser spot size is on the order of 100 microns. With such a
small spot size, the expansion of plasma may not be neglected in the radial direction.
Furthermore, the experimental ablative layer is not fully vaporized because it is thick and
absorbs energy well. As a consequence, the pressure wave generated by the plasma has time
and space to expand in all directions before entering the metal substrate. Radial expansion
of plasma was modeled by allowing the applied pressure to act perpendicular to the
deformed surface. Initially the pressure is one dimensional. As deformation occurs, the
pressure follows the deformed surface resulting in a spherical shape pressure that expands
in the radial direction.
Implementing the temporal and spatial shock pressure is very challenging and a user load
subroutine is therefore required. The user subroutine VDLOAD (Warren et al., 2008) of
shock pressure has been programmed to apply a non-uniform shock pressure across the top
surface. The circular pressure was applied in four locations. Figure 18 shows the peening
distribution along the top surface. The spacing between simulated peens is 800 µm.

3
rd
2nd

4
th
1st
1
2 1
800 μm
3

Fig. 18. Sequence of peening simulations (quarter shown)

4.3.2 Simulation results

Material behavior is characterized by stress/strain graphs along the peening or depth
direction (axis-3 in Figure 18) and radial directions (axis-1&2). Each stress/strain profile
represents the stabilized residual stress/strain. Residual stress/strain was achieved 30 µs
after the pressure pulse.
Dent geometry: Figure 19a depicts the simulated dent profiles for sequential and single LSP.
The diameter of the simulated dents was 600-700 µm and had a depth of 10 µm. There was a
negligible effect of neighboring dents on the overall dent depth. However, it was observed
that neighboring dents do influence the tensile pile up region. The magnitude of the pile up
increased approximately 50%. It is believed to be due to the radial expansion of neighboring
peens. Tensile pile up is critical to tribological applications such as implants. A tensile
region on the surface can drastically affect the wear and fatigue performance of a surface.
Figure 19b shows the experimental dent profiles for sequential and single LSP. The
experimental dents also had a diameter between 600-700 µm and a depth of 11µm. Results
from the experiments confirms the validity of the simulation. Figure 19c and 19d are optical
images of dents by sequential and single LSP.

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Laser Shock Peening: Modeling, Simulations, and Applications 349

4 8
2
4
0
-2 0
Depth (µm)

Depth (µm)
-4
-4
-6
-8 -8
-10
Sequential LSP -12 Sequential LSP
-12
Single LSP Single LSP
-14 -16
-2400 -1800 -1200 -600 0 600 1200 1800 2400 -2400 -1800 -1200 -600 0 600 1200 1800 2400
Radial Position (µm) Radial Position (µm)

(a) Simulated dent profile (b) Experimental dent profile

(c) Sequential LSP (d) Single LSP

Fig. 19. Simulated and measured dent topography
Residual stress profiles: The predicted residual von Mises stress and S33 stress along the
depth direction are shown in Figures 20a and 21a. The von Mises stress penetrated deeper
into the surface for sequential peening. As expected, sequential peening had a greater effect
on the surface residual stress since a larger area was exposed to peening. Along the depth
direction, the residual stress S33 is compressive for approximately 150 µm. The compressed
region is followed by a tensile region that eventually approaches 0 MPa. The magnitude of
the compressive residual stress below the surface is 23 MPa. The predicted residual von
Mises stress and S22 stress along the radial direction are shown in Figures 20b and 21b.
Single peening neglects the effects from neighboring stress fields on the surface residual
stress. Future work will include comparing simulated residual stress profiles to
experimental residual stress.

Fig. 20. Residual von Mises stress along depth (a) and radial (b) directions

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350 Numerical Simulations - Applications, Examples and Theory

Fig. 21. Residual stress, S33 along depth (a) and S22 along the radial (b) directions
Strain and strain rate profiles: The plastic strain in the depth and radial directions is shown
in Figure 22. The plastic strain extended 500 µm below the surface. The residual stress from
previous peens had a negligible effect on the plastic strain. The maximum plastic strain
occurred on the top surface and in the center of the dent. The diameter of the plastic zone is
directly related to the topography of the dent. The peak strain rate in peening direction for
the simulations was 19 × 106 s-1 in Figure 23.
This work focuses on the experiment and FEA simulation of LSP MgCa alloy. More
experimental results are needed to verify the simulation results. Further work is needed to
demonstrate the effectiveness of the resulting surface by this method in improving surgery
of bone ailments.

Fig. 22. Equivalent plastic strain PEEQ along depth (a) and radial (b) directions

2.0E+07
Sequential LSP
1.5E+07 Single LSP

1.0E+07
ER33 (s-1)

5.0E+06

0.0E+00

-5.0E+06
-2400 -1800 -1200 -600 0 600 1200 1800 2400
Radial Positon (µm)

Fig. 23. Strain rate on the top surface, ER33

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Laser Shock Peening: Modeling, Simulations, and Applications 351

5. Conclusions
Laser shock peening (LSP) is a surface treatment process to improve surface integrity which
significantly impacts component performance of fatigue, wear, corrosion, and foreign object
damage. This chapter provides a state-of-the-art of LSP simulation and discussed the
challenging issues to simulate a LSP process using finite element method. The new
contributions of this chapter provide a 3D model of temporal and spatial shock pressure and
material user subroutine of dynamic mechanical behavior at high strain rates. Three
simulation case studies in automotive, aerospace, and biomedical industries are presented

•
using the developed simulation method. The key results may be summarized as follows.

•
The 3D spatial and temporal peening pressure was modeled using a user subroutine.
The dynamic material behavior at high strain rates was modeled using the ISV model.

•
Material constants of three types of important engineering materials were obtained.
The simulated dent geometry and residual stresses are similar to the measured data.
This suggests the pressure model used successfully characterized the formation and

•
propagation of the pressure wave.
The results suggested there is an optimal peening time that produces the deepest dent.

•
Pulse time has a significant effect on the strain rate range.
The maximum transient stress occurred at a certain peening time. The stress along the
radial direction was slightly affected by the peening times. However, the stress along
the depth and radius were drastically affected by the peek pressures. Increasing the

•
peak pressure resulted in larger and shallower maximum stress.
Sequential peening affects the dent topography by increasing the size of the tensile pile
up region. The pile-up region forms from the radial expansion of plasma. It is believed
to have a great significance on tribological aspects of the biodegradable implant

•
material.
There was no observed effect on the depth of dents when sequential peening was used
as opposed to individual peening.

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 Numerical Simulations - Applications, Examples and Theory
Edited by Prof. Lutz Angermann

ISBN 978-953-307-440-5
Hard cover, 520 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 30, January, 2011
Published in print edition January, 2011

This book will interest researchers, scientists, engineers and graduate students in many disciplines, who make
use of mathematical modeling and computer simulation. Although it represents only a small sample of the
research activity on numerical simulations, the book will certainly serve as a valuable tool for researchers
interested in getting involved in this multidisciplinary ï¬​eld. It will be useful to encourage further experimental
and theoretical researches in the above mentioned areas of numerical simulation.

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Applications, Examples and Theory, Prof. Lutz Angermann (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-440-5, InTech, Available
from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/numerical-simulations-applications-examples-and-theory/laser-shock-
peening-modeling-simulations-and-applications

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