Chapter 1: Solid State

Very Short Answer Questions (1 Mark)

1. Effect on density in Frenkel defect:

o Frenkel defect does not affect the density of a solid because the ions remain within
the lattice structure, only relocating to interstitial sites.

2. Example of a diamagnetic substance:

o A common example of a diamagnetic substance is sodium chloride (NaCl).

Diamagnetic materials have all their electrons paired, leading to no net magnetic
moment.

3. Common property of hcp and ccp crystal lattices:

o Both hcp (hexagonal close-packed) and ccp (cubic close-packed) lattices have a
packing efficiency of 74% and coordination number 12.

4. Relationship between radius of atom (r) and edge length (a) in fcc unit cell:

o In a face-centered cubic (fcc) unit cell, the relationship is: a=22ra = 2\sqrt{2}r where
"a" is the edge length and "r" is the atomic radius.

5. Diagram of bcc unit cell:

o A body-centered cubic (bcc) unit cell has atoms at the eight corners of the cube and
one atom at the center. (Illustration needed)

6. Number of tetrahedral voids for N/2 atoms:

o The number of tetrahedral voids is equal to twice the number of atoms in the
crystal. For N/2 atoms, there will be N tetrahedral voids.

7. Percentage of empty space in bcc lattice:

o Packing efficiency of a bcc lattice is approximately 68%, so the percentage of empty

space is: 100−68=32%100 - 68 = 32\%

8. Volume occupied by particles in simple cubic unit cell with total volume 6.817 × 10⁻²³ cm³:

o Packing efficiency of a simple cubic lattice is 52.4%. The volume occupied by

particles is: 6.817×10−23×0.524=3.57×10−23 cm36.817 × 10⁻²³ × 0.524 = 3.57 × 10⁻²³
\text{ cm}³

9. Number of octahedral voids in 0.5 mol of hcp structure compound:

o In an hcp structure, the number of octahedral voids equals the number of atoms.
For 0.5 mol of atoms: Number of voids=0.5×6.022×1023=3.011×1023\text{Number
of voids} = 0.5 \times 6.022 \times 10²³ = 3.011 \times 10²³

10. Number of atoms in fcc unit cell:

o In a face-centered cubic unit cell, the total number of atoms is:

8×18+6×12=4 atoms per unit cell.8 \times \frac{1}{8} + 6 \times \frac{1}{2} = 4 \
text{ atoms per unit cell.}
Short Answer Questions (Type I) (2 Marks)

1. Isomorphism and Polymorphism with examples:

o Isomorphism: Substances with similar chemical composition but different crystalline

structures are called isomorphs. An example is Potassium Nitrate (KNO₃) and Sodium
Nitrate (NaNO₃), both of which exhibit similar crystal structures.

o Polymorphism: Polymorphism refers to a single compound existing in more than

one crystalline form. An example is Carbon, which can exist as Diamond (tetrahedral
structure) and Graphite (layered structure).

2. Classification of solids:

o Molecular solids: These consist of molecules as constituent particles. Example: SO₂,

where intermolecular forces hold the molecules together.

o Ionic solids: These consist of cations and anions held together by strong electrostatic
forces. Example: MgF₂.

o Covalent solids: These consist of atoms interconnected by covalent bonds. Example:

Quartz (SiO₂).

o Metallic solids: These consist of metal atoms held together by a "sea of electrons."
Example: Lead (Pb).

3. Vacancy defect with diagram:

o Explanation: A vacancy defect occurs when some lattice points in a crystal remain
unoccupied. This reduces the density of the substance because fewer atoms occupy
the crystal lattice than theoretically expected.

o Diagram: A regular lattice structure with a few missing atoms at specific lattice
points.

4. Number of unit cells in 0.3 g species with density 8.5 g/cm³ and edge length 3.25 × 10⁻⁸
cm:

o Step 1: Calculate the volume of a unit cell: a3=(3.25×10−8)3=3.45×10−23 cm3a^3 =

(3.25 \times 10⁻⁸)^3 = 3.45 \times 10⁻²³ \text{ cm}³

o Step 2: Calculate the mass of one unit cell:

Mass of unit cell=Density×Volume=8.5×3.45×10−23=2.93×10−22 g\text{Mass of unit
cell} = \text{Density} \times \text{Volume} = 8.5 \times 3.45 \times 10⁻²³ = 2.93 \
times 10⁻²² \text{ g}

o Step 3: Calculate the number of unit cells:

Number of unit cells=Total massMass of one unit cell=0.32.93×10−22=1.02×1021\
text{Number of unit cells} = \frac{\text{Total mass}}{\text{Mass of one unit cell}} = \
frac{0.3}{2.93 \times 10⁻²²} = 1.02 \times 10²¹

5. Unit cell edge length for bcc structure with atom diameter 120 pm:
 o Step 1: Calculate the radius of the atom: r=Diameter2=1202=60 pmr = \frac{\
text{Diameter}}{2} = \frac{120}{2} = 60 \text{ pm}

o Step 2: For a bcc lattice, the relationship between edge length aa and radius rr is:
a=4r3a = \frac{4r}{\sqrt{3}} Substituting: a=4×601.732=138.6 pma = \frac{4 \times
60}{1.732} = 138.6 \text{ pm}

6. Difference between crystalline and amorphous solids:

o Crystalline Solids:

 Structure: Regular and ordered arrangement of particles.

 Melting Point: Sharp and well-defined.

 Examples: NaCl, Diamond.

o Amorphous Solids:

 Structure: Irregular and disordered arrangement of particles.

 Melting Point: Over a range of temperatures.

 Examples: Glass, Rubber.

7. Density of gold with fcc structure (edge length 408 pm, molar mass 197 g/mol):

o Step 1: Use the formula: ρ=Z×Ma3×NA\rho = \frac{Z \times M}{a^3 \times N_A}
where Z=4Z = 4, M=197 g/molM = 197 \text{ g/mol}, a=408×10−8 cma = 408 \times
10⁻⁸ \text{ cm}, NA=6.022×1023N_A = 6.022 \times 10²³.

o Step 2: Substituting values: ρ=4×197(408×10−8)3×6.022×1023\rho = \frac{4 \times

197}{(408 \times 10⁻⁸)^3 \times 6.022 \times 10²³}

 Calculate: ρ=19.27 g/cm3\rho = 19.27 \text{ g/cm}³

8. Substitutional and interstitial impurity defects:

o Substitutional defect:

 Explanation: Foreign atoms replace some host atoms in the lattice. Example:
In Brass, Zinc atoms replace Copper atoms.

o Interstitial defect:

 Explanation: Smaller atoms occupy voids between host atoms. Example:

Carbon atoms in the iron lattice in steel.

Short Answer Questions (Type II) (3 Marks)

1. Packing efficiency of bcc lattice:

o The packing efficiency is the fraction of the total volume of a unit cell that is
occupied by atoms. For a bcc lattice:
  Step 1: Volume of one atom: Volume of one atom=43πr3\text{Volume of
one atom} = \frac{4}{3} \pi r^3

 Step 2: Total volume occupied by 2 atoms in a bcc unit cell:

Volume of 2 atoms=2×43πr3\text{Volume of 2 atoms} = 2 \times \frac{4}
{3} \pi r^3

 Step 3: Packing efficiency:

Packing efficiency=Volume occupied by atomsVolume of unit cell×100\
text{Packing efficiency} = \frac{\text{Volume occupied by atoms}}{\
text{Volume of unit cell}} \times 100 Substituting a=4r3a = \frac{4r}{\
sqrt{3}}, the packing efficiency is calculated to be approximately 68%.

2. Arrangement of spheres in hcp structure:

o In an hcp structure:

 First Layer: The spheres are arranged in a hexagonal pattern.

 Second Layer: The spheres fit into the triangular depressions of the first
layer.

 Third Layer: The spheres align directly above the first layer, forming an
ABAB stacking pattern.

 This arrangement ensures high packing efficiency of 74%, and the

coordination number of each sphere is 12.

3. Molar mass from density (density = 21.5 g/cm³, fcc structure, edge length 367.8 pm):

o Step 1: Use the formula: M=ρ×a3×NAZM = \frac{\rho \times a^3 \times N_A}{Z}

o Step 2: Convert edge length to cm: a=367.8×10−8 cma = 367.8 \times 10^{-8} \
text{ cm}

o Step 3: Substituting values: M=21.5×(367.8×10−8)3×6.022×10234M = \frac{21.5 \

times (367.8 \times 10^{-8})^3 \times 6.022 \times 10^{23}}{4}

o Step 4: Simplify: M=161.1 g/molM = 161.1 \text{ g/mol}

o Conclusion: The molar mass of the element is 161.1 g/mol, consistent with its
calculated density and structure.

4. Radius of Na atom (bcc, density = 0.97 g/cm³, molar mass = 23 g/mol):

o Step 1: Use the density formula: ρ=Z×Ma3×NA\rho = \frac{Z \times M}{a^3 \times
N_A}

o Step 2: Rearrange to find edge length aa: a3=Z×Mρ×NAa^3 = \frac{Z \times M}{\
rho \times N_A} Substituting values: a3=2×230.97×6.022×1023a^3 = \frac{2 \times
23}{0.97 \times 6.022 \times 10^{23}} a=4.29×10−8 cma = 4.29 \times 10^{-8} \
text{ cm}

o Step 3: For bcc, a=4r3a = \frac{4r}{\sqrt{3}}, solve for rr: r=a×34=4.29×10−8×1.7324r

= \frac{a \times \sqrt{3}}{4} = \frac{4.29 \times 10^{-8} \times 1.732}{4}
r=1.86×10−8 cmr = 1.86 \times 10^{-8} \text{ cm}
 o Conclusion: The radius of the sodium atom is approximately 1.86 × 10⁻⁸ cm.

5. Classification of non-stoichiometric defects with metal deficiency defect diagram:

o Non-stoichiometric defects:

 These defects occur when the ratio of cations to anions deviates from the
ideal stoichiometric ratio.

 Types:

1. Metal excess defect: Caused by extra cations or interstitial

electrons. Example: ZnO (appears yellow due to excess zinc ions).

2. Metal deficiency defect: Caused by missing cations, balanced by

higher oxidation states of nearby cations. Example: FeO.

o Diagram: A lattice diagram showing a missing Fe²⁺ ion replaced by two Fe³⁺ ions to
maintain charge neutrality.

6. Diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic examples:

o Diamagnetic: Materials with paired electrons that are repelled by a magnetic field.
Example: NaCl.

o Paramagnetic: Materials with unpaired electrons that are weakly attracted to a

magnetic field. Example: O₂.

o Ferromagnetic: Materials with domains that align strongly in a magnetic field.

Example: Fe (Iron).

7. Relation between edge length (a) and radius (r):

o Simple cubic: a=2ra = 2r

o Body-centered cubic (bcc): a=4r3a = \frac{4r}{\sqrt{3}}

o Face-centered cubic (fcc): a=22ra = 2\sqrt{2}r

o These relationships are derived from geometric considerations of how atoms are
arranged within the unit cell.

8. Definitions:

o Diamagnetic solids: Substances with paired electrons repelled by magnetic fields.

o Paramagnetic solids: Substances with unpaired electrons attracted by magnetic

fields.

o Ferromagnetic solids: Substances exhibiting strong magnetization due to domain

alignment (e.g., Fe).

Long Answer Questions (4 Marks)

1. Non-stoichiometric defects and F-center formation:

 o Definition: Non-stoichiometric defects occur when the stoichiometry of a compound
is not maintained due to missing or excess atoms or ions.

o F-centers: F-centers, or color centers, are a specific type of non-stoichiometric

defect. They form when an anion vacancy is occupied by an electron. This electron
absorbs visible light, imparting color to the crystal. For example, in NaCl, the
presence of F-centers causes the crystal to appear yellow.

o Significance: F-centers are important as they affect the optical and electrical
properties of materials and are widely studied in solid-state physics.

2. Classification of stoichiometric defects with substitutional impurity defect explanation:

o Stoichiometric defects:

1. Vacancy defect: Some lattice sites are vacant, reducing the density of the
substance. Example: NaCl.

2. Interstitial defect: Atoms occupy interstitial sites in the crystal. Example: Fe

in steel.

o Substitutional impurity defect:

 In substitutional defects, foreign atoms replace host atoms in the lattice. For
instance, in brass, zinc atoms replace some of the copper atoms.

 Effect: These defects can alter the electrical, thermal, and mechanical
properties of the material.

3. Density, molar mass, and unit cell edge length relationship:

o The density of a unit cell is given by: ρ=Z×Ma3×NA\rho = \frac{Z \times M}{a^3 \
times N_A} where ρ\rho is the density, ZZ is the number of atoms per unit cell, MM
is the molar mass, aa is the edge length of the unit cell, and NAN_A is Avogadro's
number.

o Derivation: Using this formula, the number of particles and unit cells in a given mass
of metal can be calculated by rearranging for ZZ or aa.

o Applications: This formula is used in determining unknown densities or molar

masses of crystalline solids.

4. Bravais lattices definition and niobium bcc calculation:

o Definition: Bravais lattices are 14 distinct 3D arrangements of points that describe all
possible crystal structures. Examples include cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, etc.

o Calculation for niobium:

 Given density = 8.55 g/cm³, edge length = 330.6 pm.

 Using the formula ρ=Z×Ma3×NA\rho = \frac{Z \times M}{a^3 \times N_A},

calculate the number of atoms and unit cells:

 Number of atoms: 3.237×10213.237 \times 10^{21}.

  Number of unit cells: 1.618×10211.618 \times 10^{21}.

5. Definitions:

o Conductors: Materials that allow the flow of electric current. Example: Copper (Cu).

o Insulators: Materials that block the flow of electric current. Example: Glass.

o Semiconductors: Materials with conductivity between that of conductors and

insulators. Example: Silicon (Si).

o Doping: The process of adding impurities to semiconductors to improve their

electrical conductivity. Example: Adding phosphorus to silicon.

Next: Chapter 2: Solutions.