2 Computer SCienCe – ClaSS xi

Chapter 1 The CPU is given instructions and data through

programs. The CPU then fetches the program and data
from the memory and performs arithmetic and logic
Computer System Keyboard operations as per the given instructions and stores the
result back to memory.
While processing, the CPU stores the data as well
as instructions in its local memory called registers.
Mouse
1.1 IntroductIon to computer SyStem “A computer would deserve Registers are part of the CPU chip and they are limited
to be called intelligent if it in size and number. Different registers are used for
A computer is an electronic device that can be storing data, instructions or intermediate results.
programmed to accept data (input), process it and could deceive a human into
Other than the registers, the CPU has two main
generate result (output). A computer along with believing that it was human.” Scanner
components — Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control
additional hardware and software together is called a –Alan Turing Unit (CU). ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic
computer system. operations that need to be done as per the instruction in a
A computer system primarily comprises a central program. CU controls sequential instruction execution,
processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output devices Touch Screen interprets instructions and guides data flow through the
and storage devices. All these components function computer’s memory, ALU and input or output devices.
together as a single unit to deliver the desired output. CPU is also popularly known as microprocessor. We will
Figure 1.2: Input devices
A computer system comes in various forms and sizes. study more about it in section 1.5.
It can vary from a high-end server to personal desktop,
laptop, tablet computer, or a smartphone. 1.1.2 Input Devices
Figure 1.1 shows the block diagram of a computer The devices through which control signals are sent
system. The directed lines represent the flow of data to a computer are termed as input devices. These
and signal between the components. devices convert the input data into a digital form that is
acceptable by the computer system. Some examples of
Secondary
Storage Devices input devices include keyboard, mouse, scanner, touch
screen, etc., as shown in Figure 1.2. Specially designed
Primary braille keyboards are also available to help the visually
Memory
In this chapter impaired for entering data into a computer. Besides, we
Input Control Unit Output » Introduction to Display monitor can now enter data through voice, for example, we can
Device (CU) Device Computer System use Google voice search to search the web where we can
» Evolution of input the search string through our voice.
Arithmetic Logic Computer
Unit (ALU) Data entered through input device is temporarily
» Computer Memory Speaker stored in the main memory (also called RAM) of the
Central Processing
Unit (CPU) » Data Transfer computer system. For permanent storage and future use,
Figure 1.1: Components of a computer system between Memory the data as well as instructions are stored permanently
and CPU in additional storage locations called secondary memory.
1.1.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU) » Data and Printer
1.1.3 Output Devices
It is the electronic circuitry of a computer that carries Information
out the actual processing and usually referred as the » Microprocessors The device that receives data from a computer system
brain of the computer. It is commonly called processor for display, physical production, etc., is called output
» Software
also. Physically, a CPU can be placed on one or more 3D printer device. It converts digital information into human-
» Operating System understandable form. For example, monitor, projector,
microchips called integrated circuits (IC). The ICs
comprise semiconductor materials. Figure 1.3: Output devices headphone, speaker, printer, etc. Some output devices

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 Computer SyStem 3 4 Computer SCienCe – ClaSS xi

are shown in Figure 1.3. A braille display monitor is The Von Neumann architecture is shown in Figure
useful for a visually challenged person to understand 1.5. It consists of a Central Processing Unit (CPU)
the textual output generated by computers. for processing arithmetic and logical instructions, a
A printer is the most commonly used device to get memory to store data and programs, input and output
output in physical (hardcopy) form. Three types of devices and communication
commonly used printers are inkjet, laserjet and dot
channels to send or receive the
matrix. Now-a-days, there is a new type of printer
A punched card is a output data. Electronic Numerical
called 3D-printer, which is used to build physical
replica of a digital 3D design. These printers are being piece of stiff paper that Integrator and Computer (ENIAC)
used in manufacturing industries to create prototypes
stores digital data in is the first binary programmable
the form of holes at
of products. Their usage is also being explored in the predefined positions.
Figure 1.5: Von Neumann architecture for computer based on Von Neumann
the computer
medical field, particularly for developing body organs. architecture.
During the 1970s, Large Scale Integration (LSI) of
1.2 evolutIon of computer electronic circuits allowed integration of complete
From the simple calculator to a modern day powerful CPU on a single chip, called microprocessor. Moore’s
data processor, computing devices have evolved in a Law predicted exponential growth in the number
relatively short span of time. The evolution of computing In 1965, Intel co-
of transistors that could be assembled in a single
devices in shown through a timeline in Figure 1.4 founder Gordon Moore microchip. In 1980s, the processing power of computers
introduced Moore’s increased exponentially by integrating around 3 million
EDVAC/ENIAC
Pascaline Law which predicted
Blaize Pascal invented a mechanical
John Von Neumann introduced components on a small-sized chip termed as Very
calculator known as Pascal calculator
the concept of stored program that the number of
or Pascaline to do addition and
computer which was capable of
transistors on a chip Large Scale Integration (VLSI). Further advancement in
storing data as well as program
subtraction of two numbers directly in the memory. The EDVAC and would double every two technology has made it feasible to fabricate high density
and multiplication and division through then the ENIAC computers were
repeated addition and subtraction. years while the costs of transistors and other components (approx 106
developed based on this concept.
would be halved.
components) on a single IC called Super Large Scale
Tabulating Machine Integrated Circuit
Herman Hollerith designed An Integrated Circuit (IC) is Integration (SLSI) as shown in Figure 1.6.
1642 a tabulating machine for
summarising the data stored
1945 a silicon chip which contains
entire electronic circuit on a
IBM introduced its first personal computer (PC) for
on the punched card. It is very small area. The size of the home user in 1981 and Apple introduced Macintosh
computer drastically reduced
step towards programming. because of ICs.

1890 1970
10,000,000,000

Number of Transistors
per Integrated Circuit
1,000,000,000 Core 2 DUO Core i7
100,000,000 Intel Microprocessors Pentium IV
Pentium II Pentium III
1834 1947 10,000,000 Pentium
1,000,000 486
486
Analytic Engine Transistor 100,000 Invention of the 386
Vacuum tubes were Transistor 286
Charles Babbage invented
replaced by transistors
10,000 8086
analytical engine, a
500 BC mechanical computing device 1937 developed at Bell Labs, 1,000 4004
for inputting, processing, using semiconductor
storing and displaying the materials. 100 Doubles every 2 years
output, which is considered 10
to form the basis of modern 1
computers.
Abacus Turing Machine
Computing is attributed to The Turing machine concept was a 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
the invention of ABACUS general purpose programmable
almost 3000 years ago. It machine that was capable of solving
was a mechanical device any problem by executing the
capable of doing simple program stored on the punched cards. Figure 1.6: Exponential increase in number of transistors used in ICs over time
arithmetic calculations only.
Figure 1.4: Timeline showing key inventions in computing technology

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 Computer SyStem 5 6 Computer SCienCe – ClaSS xi

machines in 1984. The popularity of the PC surged Table 1.1 Measurement units for digital data
by the introduction of Graphical User Interface (GUI) Unit Description Unit Description
based operating systems by Microsoft and others in KB (Kilobyte) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes PB (Petabyte) 1 PB = 1024 TB
place of computers with only command line interface, MB (Megabyte) 1 MB = 1024 KB EB (Exabyte) 1 EB = 1024 PB
like UNIX or DOS. Around 1990s, the growth of World GB (Gigabyte) 1 GB = 1024 MB ZB (Zettabyte) 1 ZB = 1024 EB
Wide Web (WWW) further accelerated mass usage of TB (Terabyte) 1 TB = 1024 GB YB (Yottabyte) 1 YB = 1024 ZB
computers and thereafter computers have become an
indispensable part of everyday life. 1.3.2 Types of Memory
Further, with the introduction of laptops, personal
Human beings memorise many things over a lifetime, and
computing was made portable to a great extent. This recall from memory to make a decision or some action.
was followed by smartphones, tablets and other However, we do not rely on our memory completely, and
personal digital assistants. These devices have leveraged we make notes and store important data and information
the technological advancements in processor using other media, such as notebook, manual, journal,
miniaturisation, faster memory, high speed data and document, etc. Similarly, computers have two types of
connectivity mechanisms. memory — primary and secondary.
The next wave of computing devices includes (A) Primary Memory
the wearable gadgets, such as smart watch, lenses, Primary memory is an essential component of a
headbands, headphones, etc. Further, smart appliances computer system. Program and data are loaded into the
are becoming a part of the Internet of Things (IoT), by primary memory before processing. The CPU interacts
leveraging the power of Artificial Intelligence (AI). directly with the primary memory to perform read or
write operation. It is of two types viz. (i) Random Access
1.3 computer memory Memory (RAM) and (ii) Read Only Memory (ROM).
RAM is volatile, i.e., as long as the power is supplied
A computer system needs memory to store the data and
to the computer, it retains the data in it. But as soon
instructions for processing. Whenever we talk about the
as the power supply is turned off, all the contents of
‘memory’ of a computer system, we usually talk about the
RAM are wiped out. It is used to store data temporarily
main or primary memory. The secondary memory (also
while the computer is working. Whenever the computer
called storage device) is used to store data, instructions
is started or a software application is launched, the
and results permanently for future use.
required program and data are loaded into RAM
1.3.1 Units of Memory for processing. RAM is usually referred to as main
A computer system uses binary numbers to store and memory and it is faster than the secondary memory or
process data. The binary digits 0 and 1, which are the storage devices.
basic units of memory, are called bits. Further, these On the other hand, ROM is non-volatile, which
bits are grouped together to form words. A 4-bit word means its contents are not lost even when the power is
is called a Nibble. Examples of nibble are 1001, 1010, turned off. It is used as a small but faster permanent
0010, etc. A two nibble word, i.e., 8-bit word is called a storage for the contents which are rarely changed. For
byte, for example, 01000110, 01111100, 10000001, etc. Think and Reflect example, the startup program (boot loader) that loads
Like any other standard unit, bytes are grouped the operating system into primary memory, is stored
Suppose there is a
together to make bigger chunks or units of memory. computer with RAM
in ROM.
Table 1.1 shows different measurement units for digital but no secondary (B) Cache Memory
data stored in storage devices. storage. Can we install RAM is faster than secondary storage, but not as fast
a software on that
computer? as a computer processor. So, because of RAM, a CPU

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may have to slow down. To speed up the operations of and (iii) Control bus to communicate
the CPU, a very high speed memory is placed between control signals between different
the CPU and the primary memory known as cache. It components of a computer. All these
stores the copies of the data from frequently accessed three buses collectively make the
primary memory locations, thus, reducing the average system bus, as shown in Figure 1.8.
time required to access data from primary memory. As the CPU interacts directly with
When the CPU needs some data, it first examines the main memory, any data entered from
cache. In case the requirement is met, it is read from input device or the data to be accessed
the cache, otherwise the primary memory is accessed. from hard disk needs to be placed in the
main memory for further processing.
(C) Secondary Memory Figure 1.8: Data transfer between components through The data is then transferred between
Primary memory has limited storage capacity and Pen system bus CPU and main memory using bus.
is either volatile (RAM) or read-only (ROM). Thus, a Drive
The CPU places on the address bus, the address of
computer system needs auxiliary or secondary memory the main memory location from which it wants to read
to permanently store the data or instructions for data or to write data. While executing the instructions,
future use. The secondary memory is non-volatile and the CPU specifies the read or write control signal through
has larger storage capacity than primary memory. It the control bus.
is slower and cheaper than the main memory. But, it CD/DVD As the CPU may require to read data from main
cannot be accessed directly by the CPU. Contents of memory or write data to main memory, a data bus is
secondary storage need to be first brought into the main bidirectional. But the control bus and address bus are
memory for the CPU to access. Examples of secondary unidirectional. To write data into memory, the CPU
memory devices include Hard Disk Drive (HDD), CD/ places the data on the data bus, which is then written
DVD, Memory Card, etc., as shown in Figure 1.7. to the specific address provided through the address
However, these days, there are secondary storage bus. In case of read operation, the CPU specifies the
devices like SSD which support very fast data transfer address, and the data is placed on the data bus by a
speed as compared to earlier HDDs. Also, data transfer dedicated hardware, called memory controller. The
between computers have become easier and simple due memory controller manages the flow of data into and
to the availability of small-sized and portable flash or out of the computer's main memory.
pen drives. 1.5 mIcroproceSSorS
1.4 data tranSfer between memory and cpu In earlier days, a computer's CPU used to occupy a large
Figure 1.7: Storage devices room or multiple cabinets. However, with advancement
Data need to be transferred between the CPU and in technology, the physical size of CPU has reduced and
primary memory as well as between the primary and it is now possible to place a CPU on a single microchip
secondary memory. only. A processor (CPU) which is implemented on a
Data are transferred between different components of single microchip is called microprocessor. Nowadays,
a computer system using physical wires called bus. For almost all the CPUs are microprocessors. Hence, the
example, bus is used for data transfer between a USB terms are used synonymously for practical purpose.
port and hard disk or between a hard disk and main Microprocessor is a small-sized electronic component
memory. Bus is of three types — (i) Data bus to transfer inside a computer that carries out various tasks involved
data between different components, (ii) Address bus to in data processing as well as arithmetic and logical
transfer addresses between CPU and main memory. operations. These days, a microprocessor is built over
The address of the memory location that the CPU wants an integrated circuit comprising millions of small
to read or write from is specified in the address bus, components like resistors, transistors and diodes.

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Microprocessors have evolved over time in terms Activity 1.2 clock inside a computer. The clock speed indicates the
of their increased processing capability, decreasing speed at which the computer can execute instructions.
Find out the clock speed
physical size and reduced cost. Currently available of the microprocessor
Earlier, it was measured in Hertz (Hz) and Kilohertz
microprocessors are capable of processing millions of of your computer and (kHz). But with advancement in technology and chip
instructions per millisecond. Table 1.2 lists different compare with that of density, it is now measured in Gigahertz (GHz), i.e.,
types of microprocessors along with their generation, your peers? billions of pulses per second.
time period, and underlying technology since their (D) Cores
inception in early 1970s. Core is a basic computation unit of the CPU. Earlier
Table 1.2 Generations of Microprocessor processors had only one computation unit, thereby
capable of performing only one task at a time. With the
Generation Era Chip Word Maximum Clock Cores Example*
advent of multicore processor, it has become possible
type size memory size speed
for the computer to execute multiple tasks, thereby
First 1971-73 LSI 4 / 8 1 KB 108 KHz- Single Intel 8080
bit 200 KHz
increasing the system’s performance. CPU with two,
Second 1974-78 LSI 8 bit 1 MB Upto 2 MHz Single Motorola 6800 four, and eight cores is called dual-core, quad-core and
Intel 8085 octa-core processor, respectively.
Third 1979-80 VLSI 16 bit 16 MB 4 MHz - 6 Single Intel 8086
MHz 1.5.2 Microcontrollers
Fourth 1981-95 VLSI 32 bit 4 GB Upto 133 Single Intel 80386 The microcontroller is a small computing device which
MHz Motorola 68030 has a CPU, a fixed amount of RAM, ROM and other
Fifth 1995 till SLSI 64 bit 64 GB 533 MHz - Multicore Pentium,
peripherals all embedded on a single chip as compared
date 34 GHz Celeron, Xeon
to microprocessor that has only a CPU on the chip. The
*few prominent examples are included.
structure of a microcontroller is shown in Figure 1.9.
1.5.1 Microprocessor Specifications Keyboard, mouse, washing machine, digital camera,
pendrive, remote controller, microwave are few examples
Microprocessors are classified on the basis of different of microcontrollers. As these are designed for specific
features which include chip type, word size, memory tasks only, hence their size as well as cost is reduced.
size, clock speed, etc. These features are briefly Because of the very small size of the
explained below: microcontroller, it is embedded in another device
(A) Word Size or system to perform a specific functionality. For
Word size is the maximum number of bits that a Clock CPU Memory
example, the microcontroller in a fully automatic
microprocessor can process at a time. Earlier, a word washing machine is used to control the washing cycle
was of 8 bits, as it was the maximum limit at that Bus System without any human intervention. The cycle starts
time. At present, the minimum word size is 16 bits and with the filling of water, after which the clothes are
maximum word size is 64 bits. Input Output soaked and washed; thereafter the water is drained
I/O-ports
(B) Memory Size and the clothes are spin dry. The simple use of
Depending upon the word size, the size of RAM varies. microcontroller has permitted repetitive execution
Activity 1.1 of tedious tasks automatically without any human
Initially, RAM was very small (4MB) due to 4/8 bits word Figure 1.9: Structure of
size. As word size increased to 64 bits, it has become The maximum memory microcontroller intervention, thereby saving precious time.
feasible to use RAM of size upto 16 Exabytes (EB). size of microprocessors
of different generations
(C) Clock Speed are given at Table 1.2. 1.6 data and InformatIon
Computers have an internal clock that generates pulses Represent each of the A computer is primarily for processing data. A computer
memory size in terms
(signals) at regular intervals of time. Clock speed simply system considers everything as data, be it instructions,
of power of 2.
means the number of pulses generated per second by the pictures, songs, videos, documents, etc. Data can also be

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raw and unorganised facts that are processed to get It is clear that such data is organised in row/column
Think and Reflect
meaningful information. format and is easily understandable. Structured data
So understanding the concept of data along with Can you give some may be sorted in ascending or descending order. In the
more examples of
its different types is crucial to understand the overall unstructured data?
example, attendance data is sorted in increasing order
functioning of a computer. Sometimes people use the on the column ‘month’. Other examples of structured
terms data, information and knowledge interchangeably, data include sales transactions, online railway ticket
which is incorrect. bookings, ATM transactions, etc.
1.6.1 Data and Its Types (B) Unstructured Data
Data which are not organised in a pre-defined record
A computer system has many input devices, which format is called unstructured data. Examples include
provide it with raw data in the form of facts, concepts, audio and video files, graphics, text documents, social
instructions, etc., Internally everything is stored in media posts, satellite images, etc. Figure 1.10 shows a
binary form (0 and 1), but externally, data can be input report card with monthly attendance record details sent
to a computer in the text form consisting of English to parents. Such data are unstructured as they consist
alphabets A–Z, a–z, numerals 0 – 9, and special symbols of textual contents as well as graphics, which do not
like @, #, etc. Data can be input in other languages too follow a specific format.
or it can be read from the files. The input data may
be from different sources, hence it may be in different
formats. For example, an image is a collection of Red, Attendance record for the month of July
School Logo
Green, Blue (RGB) pixels, a video is made up of frames,
and a fee receipt is made of numeric and non-numeric
characters. Primarily, there are three types of data. Attended:

(A) Structured Data

Data which follows a strict record structure and is easy Guardian’s Signature Principal’s Signature
to comprehend is called structured data. Such data with
pre-specified tabular format may be stored in a data file Figure 1.10: Unstructured data: Monthly attendance record
to access in the future. Table 1.3 shows structured data
related to monthly attendance of students maintained
by the school. (C) Semi-structured Data
Data which have no well-defined structure but
Table 1.3 Structured data: Monthly attendance records of students maintains internal tags or markings to separate data
Roll No Name Month Attendance (in %) elements are called semi-structured data. Examples
R1 Mohan May 95 include email document, HTML page, comma separated
R2 Sohan May 75 values (csv file), etc. Figure 1.11 shows an example of
R3 Sheen May 92 semi-structured data containing student’s month-wise
R4 Geet May 82 attendance details. In this example, there is no specific
R5 Anita May 97 format for each attendance
Name: Mohan Month: July Class: XI Attendance: 98
R1 Mohan July 98 Name: Sohan Month: July Class: XI Attendance: 65 record. Here, each data value
R2 Sohan July 65 Name: Sheen Month: July Class: XI Attendance: 85 is preceded by a tag (Name,
Name: Geet Month: May Class: XI Attendance: 82
R3 Sheen July 85 Name: Geet Month: July Class: XI Attendance: 94 Month, Class, Attendance) for
R4 Geet July 94 Figure 1.11: Semi-structured data: Month-wise total the interpretation of the data
R5 Anita July 85 attendance record maintained by the school value while processing.

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1.6.2 Data Capturing, Storage and Retrieval Activity 1.3 Activity 1.4 accidentally erase data from storage devices, or a hacker
To process data, we need to first input or capture or malware can delete the digital data intentionally.
Visit some of the places Explore possible ways
the data. This is followed by its storage in a file or a of recovering deleted Deleting digitally stored data means changing the
like bank, automobile
database so that it can be used in the future. Whenever showroom, shopping data or data from a details of data at bit level, which can be very time-
corrupted device.
data is to be processed, it is first retrieved from the mall, tehsil office, etc., consuming. Therefore, when any data is simply deleted,
file or database so that we can perform further actions and find out 2 – 3 names its address entry is marked as free, and that much
of tools or instruments
on it. space is shown as empty to the user, without actually
used to capture data in
digital format. deleting the data.
(A) Data Capturing
It involves the process of gathering data from different In case data gets deleted accidentally or corrupted,
sources in the digital form. This capturing may vary there arises a need to recover the data. Recovery of the
from simple instruments like keyboard, barcode readers data is possible only if the contents or memory space
used at shopping outlets (Figure 1.12), comments or marked as deleted have not been overwritten by some
posts over social media, remote sensors on an earth other data. Data recovery is a process of retrieving
orbiting satellite, etc. Sometimes, heterogeneity among deleted, corrupted and lost data from secondary
data sources makes data capturing a complex task. Figure 1.12: Capturing storage devices.
(B) Data Storage data using barcode reader There are usually two security concerns associated
It is the process of storing the captured data for with data. One is its deletion by some unauthorised
processing later. Now-a-days data is being produced at person or software. These concerns can be avoided
a very high rate, and therefore data storage has become by limiting access to the computer system and using
a challenging task. However, the decrease in the cost passwords for user accounts and files, wherever
of digital storage devices has helped in simplifying
possible. There is also an option of encrypting files to
this task. There are numerous digital storage devices
protect them from unwanted modification.
available in the market like as shown in Figure 1.7.
Data keeps on increasing with time. Hence, the The other concern is related to unwanted recovery of
Activity 1.5
storage devices also require to be upgraded periodically. data by unauthorised user or software. Many a times,
Create a test file and we discard our old, broken or malfunctioning storage
In large organisations, computers with larger and then delete it using
faster storage called data servers are deployed to store Shift+Delete from
devices without taking care to delete data. We assume
vast amount of data. Such dedicated computers help the keyboard. Now that the contents of deleted files are permanently
recover the file using removed. However, if these storage devices fall into the
in processing data efficiently. However, the cost (both
the methods you have hands of mischief-mongers, they can easily recover
hardware and software) of setting up a data server as explored in Activity 1.4.
well as its maintenance is high, especially for small data from such devices; this poses a threat to data
organisations and startups. confidentiality. This concern can be mitigated by using
proper tools to delete or shred data before disposing off
(C) Data Retrieval
It involves fetching data from the storage devices, for its any old or faulty storage device.
processing as per the user requirement. As databases
grow, the challenges involved in search and retrieval of 1.7 Software
the data in acceptable time, also increase. Minimising Till now, we have studied about the physical
data access time is crucial for faster data processing. components or the hardware of the computer system.
1.6.3 Data Deletion and Recovery But the hardware is of no use on its own. Hardware
needs to be operated by a set of instructions. These
One of the biggest threats associated with digital data is sets of instructions are referred to as software. It is that
its deletion. The storage devices can malfunction or crash component of a computer system, which we cannot
down resulting in the deletion of data stored. Users can

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 Computer SyStem 15 16 Computer SCienCe – ClaSS xi

touch or view physically. It comprises the instructions access and security to the users of the system. Some
and data to be processed using the computer hardware. of the popular operating systems are Windows, Linux,
The computer software and hardware complete any Macintosh, Ubuntu, Fedora, Android, iOS, etc.
task together. (B) System Utilities
The software comprises a set of instructions which Software used for maintenance and configuration of the
on execution deliver the desired outcome. In other computer system is called system utility. Some system
words, each software is written for some computational utilities are shipped with the operating system for
purpose. Some examples of software include operating example disk defragmentation tool, formatting utility,
systems like Ubuntu or Windows 7/10, word processing system restore utility, etc. Another set of utilities are
tool like LibreOffice or Microsoft Word, video player like those which are not shipped with the operating system
VLC Player, photo editors like GIMP and LibreOffice but are required to improve the performance of the
draw. A document or image stored on the hard disk or system, for example, anti-virus software, disk cleaner
pen drive is referred to as a soft-copy. Once printed, the Hardware refers to the
physical components tool, disk compression software, etc.
document or an image is called a hard-copy. of the computer system
(C) Device Drivers
which can be seen and
1.7.1 Need of Software touched. For example, As the name signifies, the purpose of a device driver is to
Activity 1.6
The sole purpose of a software is to make the computer RAM, keyboard, ensure proper functioning of a particular device. When
printer, monitor, CPU, Ask your teacher to
hardware useful and operational. A software knows how it comes to the overall working of a computer system,
etc. On the other hand, help you locate any two
to make different hardware components of a computer device drivers installed the operating system does the work. But everyday new
software is a set of
work and communicate with each other as well as with instructions and data on your computer. devices and components are being added to a computer
the end-user. We cannot instruct the hardware of a that makes hardware system. It is not possible for the operating system alone
computer directly. Software acts as an interface between functional to complete to operate all of the existing and new devices, where each
the desired task.
human users and the hardware. device has diverse characteristics. The responsibility
Depending on the mode of interaction with hardware for overall control, operation and management of a
and functions to be performed, the software can be broadly particular device at the hardware level is delegated to
classified into three categories viz. (i) System software, its device driver.
(ii) Programming tools and (iii) Application software. The device driver acts as an interface between the
device and the operating system. It provides required
1.7.2 System Software
services by hiding the details
The software that provides the basic functionality of operations performed at the
to operate a computer by interacting directly with its hardware level of the device. Just
constituent hardware is termed as system software. A like a language translator, a device
system software knows how to operate and use different driver acts as a mediator between
hardware components of a computer. It provides services
the operating system and the
directly to the end user, or to some other software.
attached device. The categorisation
Examples of system software include operating systems,
system utilities, device drivers, etc. of software is shown in Figure 1.13.
(A) Operating System 1.7.3 Programming Tools
As the name implies, the operating system is a system In order to get some work done
software that operates the computer. An operating by the computer, we need to give
system is the most basic system software, without instructions which are applied on the
which other software cannot work. The operating system input data to get the desired outcome.
manages other application programs and provides Computer languages are developed
Figure 1.13: Categorisation of software for writing these instructions.

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It is important to understand here that computers and noteS Code in high language. The program code written in assembly or
level language
humans understand completely different languages. high-level language is called source code. The source
(Source Code)
While humans are able to write programs in high-level code is converted by a translator into the machine
language, computers understand machine language. understandable form called object (machine) code as
There is a continuous need for conversion from high depicted in Figure 1.14.
Language
level to machine level language, for which translators translater As we have different types of computer languages,
are needed. Also, to write the instruction, code editors different translators are needed to convert the source
(e.g., IDLE in Python) are needed. We will briefly describe code to machine code. The three types of translators
here the programming languages, language translators
used in computing systems are assembler, compiler
and program development tools. Code in machine
language and interpreter.
(A) Classification of Programming Languages (Object Code) The translator used to convert the code written
It is very difficult for a human being to write in assembly language to machine language is called
Figure 1.14: Translator to
instructions in the form of 1s and 0s. So different types convert source code into assembler. Each assembler can understand a specific
of computer programming languages are developed to object code
microprocessor instruction set only and hence, the
simplify the coding. Two major categories of computer
machine code is not portable.
programming languages are low-level languages and
high-level languages. We also need translators to convert codes written
Low-level languages are machine dependent languages in high level language (source code) to machine
and include machine language and assembly language. understandable form (machine code) for execution by
Machine language uses 1s and 0s to write instructions the computer. Compiler converts the source code into
which are directly understood and executed by the machine code. If the code follows all syntactic rules of
computer. But writing a code in machine language is the language, then it is executed by the computer. Once
difficult as one has to remember all operation codes translated, the compiler is not needed.
and machine addresses. Also finding errors in the code An interpreter translates one line at a time instead of
written in machine language is difficult. the whole program at one go. Interpreter takes one line,
To simplify the writing of code, assembly language converts it into executable code if the line is syntactically
was developed that allowed usage of English-like words correct, and then it repeats these steps for all lines in
and symbols instead of 1s and 0s. But one major the source code. Hence, interpreter is always needed
drawback of writing a code in this language is that the
whenever a source code is to be executed.
code is computer specific, i.e., the code written for one
type of CPU cannot be used for another type of CPU. (C) Program Development Tools
High level languages are machine independent and Whenever we decide to write a program, we need a text
are simpler to write code into. Instructions are using editor. An editor is a software that allows us to create a
English like sentences and each high level language text file where we type instructions and store the file as
follows a set of rules, similar to natural languages. the source code. Then an appropriate translator is used
However, these languages are not directly understood to get the object code for execution. In order to simplify
by the computer. Hence, translators are needed to the program development, there are software called
translate high-level language codes into machine Integrated Development Environment (IDE) consisting
language. Examples of high level language include C++, of text editor, building tools and debugger. A program
Java, Python, etc. can be typed, compiled and debugged from the IDE
(B) Language Translators directly. Besides Python IDLE, Netbeans, Eclipse, Atom,
As the computer can understand only machine Lazarus are few other examples of IDEs. Debugger, as
language, a translator is needed to convert program the name implies, is the software to detect and correct
written in assembly or high level language to machine errors in the source code.

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 Computer SyStem 19 20 Computer SCienCe – ClaSS xi

1.7.4 Application Software

Activity 1.7 Think and Reflect source code may not be available. Such software are
The system software provides the core functionality of called freeware. Examples of freeware are Skype, Adobe
With the help of your When a computer is
the computer system. However, different users need the Reader, etc. When the software to be used has to be
teacher, install one turned on, who brings
computer system for different purposes depending upon application software in the OS into RAM from purchased from the vendor who has the copyright of the
their requirements. Hence, a new category of software your computer. the secondary storage? software, then it is a proprietary software. Examples of
is needed to cater to different requirements of the end- proprietary software include Microsoft Windows, Tally,
users. This specific software that works on top of the Quickheal, etc. A software can be freeware or open
system software is termed as application software. There source or proprietary software depending upon the
are again two broad categories of application software — terms and conditions of the person or group who has
general purpose and customised application software. developed and released that software.
A computer system
(A) General Purpose Software can work without 1.8 operatIng SyStem
The application software developed for generic application software,
applications, to cater to a bigger audience in general but it cannot work An operating system (OS) can be considered to be a
are called general purpose software. Such ready-made without system resource manager which manages all the resources of a
application software can be used by end users as per software. For example, computer, i.e., its hardware including CPU, RAM, Disk,
we can use a computer
their requirements. For example, spreadsheet tool Calc even if no word Network and other input-output devices. It also controls
of LibreOffice can be used by any computer user to do processing software Types of User various application software and device drivers, manages
calculation or to create account sheet. Adobe Photoshop, is installed, but if no Interface of
system security and handles access by different users.
Operating System
GIMP, Mozilla web browser, iTunes, etc., fall in the operating system is It is the most important system software. Examples of
category of general purpose software. installed, we cannot
work on the computer. popular OS are Windows, Linux, Android, Macintosh
(B) Customised Software In other words, the use and so on.
These are custom or tailor-made application software, of computer is possible Command-based
Interface
The primary objectives of an operating system are
that are developed to meet the requirements of a specific in the absence of two-fold. The first is to provide services for building and
application software.
organisation or an individual. They are better suited to running application programs. When an application
the needs of an individual or an organisation, considering program needs to be run, it is the operating system
that they are designed as per special requirements. Some Graphical User which loads that program into memory and allocates
examples of user-defined software include websites, Interface
it to the CPU for execution. When multiple application
school management software, accounting software, programs need to be run, the operating system decides
etc. It is similar to buying a piece of cloth and getting a the order of the execution.
tailor-made garment with the fitting, colour, and fabric The second objective of an operating system is to
Touch-based
of our choice. Interface provide an interface to the user through which the user
1.7.5 Proprietary or Free and Open Source Software can interact with the computer. A user interface is a
software component which is a part of the operating
The developers of some application software provide system and whose job is to take commands or inputs
Activity 1.8
their source code as well as the software freely to the Voice-based from a user for the operating system to process.
With the help of your Interface
public, with an aim to develop and improve further with
teacher, install one
each other’s help. Such software is known as Free and free and open source
1.8.1 OS User Interface
Open Source Software (FOSS). For example, the source application software on There are different types of user interfaces each of which
code of operating system Ubuntu is freely accessible your computer. provides a different functionality. Some commonly used
Gesture-based
for anyone with the required knowledge to improve or Interface interfaces are shown in Figure 1.15.
add new functionality. More examples of FOSS include (A) Command-based Interface
Python, Libreoffice, Openoffice, Mozilla Firefox, etc. Command-based interface requires a user to enter the
Figure 1.15: Types of user
Sometimes, software are freely available for use but interface of OS commands to perform different tasks like creating,

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 Computer SyStem 21 22 Computer SCienCe – ClaSS xi

opening, editing or deleting a file, etc. The user has to noteS systems which provide voice-based control to users
remember the names of all such programs or specific include iOS (Siri), Android (Google Now or “OK Google”),
commands which the operating system supports. Microsoft Windows 10 (Cortana) and so on.
The primary input device used by the user for (E) Gesture-based Interface
command based interface is the keyboard. Command Some smartphones based on Android and iOS as well
based interface is often less interactive and usually as laptops let users interact with the devices using
allows a user to run a single program at a time. gestures like waving, tilting, eye motion and shaking.
Examples of operating systems with command-based This technology is evolving faster and it has promising
interface include MS-DOS and Unix. potential for application in gaming, medicine and
(B) Graphical User Interface other areas.
Graphical User Interface (GUI) lets users run programs
1.8.2 Functions of Operating System
or give instructions to the computer in the form of
icons, menus and other visual options. Icons usually Now let us explore the important services and tasks
that an operating system provides for managing the
represent files and programs stored on the computer
computer system.
and windows represent running programs that the user
has launched through the operating system. (A) Process Management
The input devices used to interact with the GUI While a computer system is operational, different tasks
commonly include the mouse and the keyboard. are running simultaneously. A program is intended to
Examples of operating systems with GUI interfaces carry out various tasks. A task in execution is known
Operating system is called
include Microsoft Windows, Ubuntu, Fedora and resource manager as it as process. We can activate a system monitor program
Macintosh, among others. manages different resources that provides information about the processes being
like main memory, CPU,
(C) Touch-based Interface I/O devices, so that each executed on a computer. In some systems it can be
Today smartphones, tablets and PCs allow users to resource is used optimally activated using Ctrl+Alt+Delete. It is the responsibility
and system performance does
interact with the system simply using the touch input. of operating system to manage these processes and get
not deteriorate.
Using the touchscreen, a user provides inputs to the multiple tasks completed in minimum time. As CPU is
operating system, which are interpreted by the OS as the main resource of computer system, its allocation
commands like opening an app, closing an app, dialing among processes is the most important service of the
a number, scrolling across apps, etc. operating system. Hence process management concerns
Examples of popular operating systems with touch- the management of multiple processes, allocation
based interfaces are Android and iOS. Windows of required resources, and exchange of information
8.1 and 10 also support touch-based interfaces on among processes.
touchscreen devices. (B) Memory Management
(D) Voice-based Interface Primary or main memory of a computer system is
Modern computers have been designed to address the usually limited. The main task of memory management
needs of all types of users including people with special is to give (allocate) and take (free) memory from running
needs and people who want to interact with computers processes. Since there are multiple processes running
or smartphones while doing some other task. For users at a time, there arises a need to dynamically (on-the-go)
who cannot use the input devices like the mouse, allocate and free memory to the processes. Operating
keyboard, and touchscreens, modern operating systems system should do it without affecting other processes
provide other means of human-computer interaction. that are already residing in the memory and once the
Users today can use voice-based commands to make process is finished, it is again the responsibility of the
a computer work in the desired way. Some operating operating system to take the memory space back for re-

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 Computer SyStem 23 24 Computer SCienCe – ClaSS xi

utilisation. Hence, memory management concerns with noteS noteS • System bus is used to transfer data, addresses
management of main memory so that maximum memory and control signals between components of the
is occupied or utilised by large number of processes computer system.
while keeping track of each and every location within • A microprocessor is a small-sized electronic
the memory as free or occupied. component inside a computer that performs basic
(C) File Management arithmetic and logical operations on data.
Data and programs are stored as files in the secondary • Microcontroller is a small computing device which
storage of a computer system. File management involves has a CPU, a fixed amount of RAM, ROM and other
peripherals embedded on a single chip.
the creation, updation, deletion and protection of these
files in the secondary memory. Protection is a crucial • Software is a set of instructions written to achieve
function of an operating system, as multiple users can the desired tasks and are mainly categorised
as system software, programming tools and
access and use a computer system. There must be a
application software.
mechanism in place that will stop users from accessing
• Hardware of a computer cannot function on its own.
files that belong to some other user and have not been
It needs software to be operational or functional.
shared with them. File management system manages
• Operating system is an interface between the user
secondary memory, while memory management system
and the computer and supervises the working of
handles the main memory of a computer system.
computer system, i.e., it monitors and controls the
(D) Device Management hardware and software of the computer system.
A computer system has many I/O devices and hardware
connected to it. Operating system manages these
heterogeneous devices that are interdependent. The exercISe
operating system interacts with the device driver and the 1. Name the software required to make a computer
related software for a particular device. The operating functional. Write down its two primary services.
system must also provide the options for configuring
a particular device, so that it may be used by an end 2. How does the computer understand a program
user or some other device. Just like files, devices also written in high level language?
need security measures and their access to different 3. Why is the execution time of the machine code less
devices must be restricted by the operating system to than that of source code?
the authorised users, software and other hardware only.
4. What is the need of RAM? How does it differ from
ROM?
Summary
5. What is the need for secondary memory?
• A computing device, also referred as computer,
6. How do different components of the computer
processes the input data as per given instructions
communicate with each other?
to generate desired output.
• Computer system has four physical components 7. Draw the block diagram of a computer system. Briefly
viz. (i) CPU, (ii) Primary Memory, (iii) Input Device write about the functionality of each component.
and (iv) Output Devices. They are referred to as 8. What is the primary role of system bus? Why is
hardware of computer. data bus is bidirectional while address bus is
• Computer system has two types of primary unidirectional?
memories viz. (i) RAM, the volatile memory and
9. Differentiate between proprietary software and
(ii) ROM, the non-volatile memory.
freeware software. Name two software for each type.

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 Computer SyStem 25 26 Computer SCienCe – ClaSS xi

10. Write the main difference between microcontroller noteS noteS 6. Check the size of RAM and HDD of a computer in
and microprocessor. Why do smart home appliances your school. Make a table and write their size in
have a microcontroller instead of microprocessor Bytes, Kilobytes, Megabytes and Gigabytes.
embedded in them? 7. List all secondary storage devices available at your
11. Mention the different types of data that you deal school or home.
with while browsing the Internet. 8. Which operating system is installed on your
12. Categorise the following data as structured, semi- computer at home or school?
structured and unstructured:
• Newspaper
• Cricket Match Score
• HTML Page
• Patient records in a hospital
13. Name the input or output device used to do the
following:
a) To output audio
b) To enter textual data
c) To make hard copy of a text file
d) To display the data or information
e) To enter audio-based command
f) To build 3D models
g) To assist a visually-impaired individual in
entering data
14. Identify the category (system, application,
programming tool) of the following software:
a) Compiler
b) Assembler
c) Ubuntu
d) Text editor

explore yourSelf
1. Ask your teacher to help you locate any two device
drivers installed on your computer.
2. Write any two system software and two application
software installed on your computer.
3. Which microprocessor does your personal computer
have? Which generation does it belong to?
4. What is the clock speed of your microprocessor?
5. Name any two devices in your school or home that
have a microcontroller.

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 138 InformatIcs PractIces

Chapter A computer
network (Figure 5.2)
is an interconnection

5 Internet and Web among two

more computers or
computing
or

devices.
Such interconnection
allows computers
to share data and
resources among
each other. A basic
network may connect
a few computers
placed in a room.
Figure 5.1: Interconnection forming a social network The network size
“The internet could be a very
may vary from small
positive step towards education, to large depending on the number of computers it
organisation and participation in a connects. A computer network can include different
meaningful society.” types of hosts (also called nodes) like server, desktop,
— Noam Chomsky laptop, cellular phones.
Activity 5.1 A computer network (Figure 5.2) is an interconnection
Identify some among two or more computers or computing devices.
other networks in Such interconnection allows computers to share data
the real world.
and resources among each other. A basic network may
In this chapter connect a few computers placed in a room.
The network size may vary from small to large
5.1 IntroductIon to computer » Introduction to
Computer Networks depending on the number of computers it connects.
networks A computer network can include different types of
» Types of Networks
We are living in a connected world. hosts (also called nodes) like server, desktop, laptop,
Information is being produced, exchanged, » Network Devices
cellular phones.
and traced across the globe in real time. It's » Networking Topologies
possible as almost everyone and everything » The Internet
in the digital world is interconnected through » Applications of Internet
one way or the other.
A group of two or more similar things » Website
or people interconnected with each other » Web Page
is called network (Figure 5.1). Some of the » Web Server
examples of network in our everyday life » Hosting of a website
include: Figure 5.2: A computer network
» Browser
• Social network Apart from computers, networks include networking
• Mobile network devices like switch, router, modem, etc. Networking
• Network of computers devices are used to connect multiple computers in
• Airlines, railway, banks, hospitals different settings. For communication, data in a network
networks. is divided into smaller chunks called packets. These

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 Internet and Web 139 140 InformatIcs PractIces

packets are then carried over a network. Devices in a

network can be connected either through wired media
like cables or wireless media like air.
In a communication network, each device that is a
part of a network and that can receive, create, store or
send data to different network routes is called a node.
In the context of data communication, a node can be a
device such as a modem, hub, bridge, switch, router,
digital telephone handset, a printer, a computer or
a server.
Interconnectivity of computing devices in a network Activity 5.2
allows us to exchange information simultaneously with Create a hotspot using
many parties through email, websites, audio/video a smartphone and
connect other devices
calls, etc. Network allows sharing of resources. For
to it.
example, a printer can be made available to multiple
computers through a network; a networked storage
can be accessed by multiple computers. People often
connect their devices through hotspot, thus forming a
small personal network.

5.2 types of networks

Figure 5.3: A Local Area Network
There are various types of computer networks ranging
from network of handheld devices (like mobile phones LAN is comparatively secure as only authentic
or tablets) connected through Wi-Fi or Bluetooth within users in the network can access other computers or
a single room to the millions of computers spread across shared resources. Users can print documents using
the globe. Some are connected wireless while others are a connected printer, upload or download documents
connected through wires. and software to and from the local server. Such LANs
Based on the geographical area covered and provide the short range communication with the high
data transfer rate, computer networks are broadly speed data transfer rates. These types of networks can
categorised as: be extended up to 1 km. Data transfer in LAN is quite
• LAN (Local Area Network) high, and usually varies from 10 Mbps (called Ethernet)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) to 1000 Mbps (called Gigabit Ethernet), where Mbps
stands for Megabits per second. Ethernet is a set of rules
• WAN (Wide Area Network)
that decides how computers and other devices connect
Think and Reflect
5.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN) with each other through cables in a local area network
Explore and find out or LAN.
It is a network that connects computers, mobile phones, the minimum internet
tablet, mouse, printer, etc., placed at a limited distance. speed required to make 5.2.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
The geographical area covered by a LAN can range from a video call. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended form
a single room, a floor, an office having one or more of LAN which covers a larger geographical area like a
buildings in the same premise, laboratory, a school, city or a town. Data transfer rate in MAN also ranges in
college, or university campus. The connectivity is done Mbps, but it is considerably less as compared to LAN.
by means of wires, Ethernet cables, fibre optics, or Cable TV network or cable based broadband internet
Wi-Fi. A Local Area Network (LAN) is shown in services are examples of MAN. This kind of network
Figure 5.3.

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 Internet and Web 141 142 InformatIcs PractIces

can be extended up to 30–40 km. Sometimes, many Network User Network User
Network User Network User
LANs are connected together to form MAN, as shown in
Figure 5.4.

Network Switch Network Switch

Network User Network User

Internet

LAN 1 Network User Network User Network User Network User

LAN 1 - India LAN 1 - France

Figure 5.5: A Wide Area Network

Networking LAN 3 5.3 network devIces

Device
To communicate data through different transmission
media and to configure networks with different
LAN 2 functionality, we require different devices like Modem,
Hub, Switch, Repeater, Router, Gateway, etc. Let us
explore them in detail.
Think and Reflect 5.3.1 Modem
It is possible to access Modem stands for ‘MOdulator DEMolulator’. It refers to
your bank account a device used for conversion between analog signals and
from any part of the digital bits. We know computers store and process data
world. Find if the in terms of 0s and 1s. However, to transmit data from
bank’s network is a
LAN, MAN, WAN or any
a sender to a receiver, or while browsing the internet,
other type. digital data are converted to an analog signal and the
medium (be it free-space or a physical media) carries
the signal to the receiver. There are modems connected
Figure 5.4: A Metropolitan Area Network to both the source and destination nodes. The modem
at the sender’s end acts as a modulator that converts
the digital data into analog signals. The modem at the
5.2.3 Wide Area Network (WAN) receiver’s end acts as a demodulator that converts the
Wide Area Network (WAN) connects computers and analog signals into digital data for the destination node
others LANs and MANs, which are spread across to understand. Figure 5.6 shows connectivity using
different geographical locations of a country or in a modem.
different countries or continents. A WAN could be Modulation
Analog Signal
Modulation
formed by connecting a LAN to other LANs (Figure 5.5) Digital Signal
Demodulation Demodulation
Digital Signal

via wired or wireless media. Large business, educational

and government organisations connect their different
branches in different locations across the world through
WAN. The Internet is the largest WAN that connects Telephone Line
Modem Modem
billions of computers, smartphones and millions of
LANs from different continents.
Figure 5.6: Use of modem

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 Internet and Web 143 144 InformatIcs PractIces

5.3.2 Ethernet Card notes 5.3.5 Switch

Ethernet card, also known as A switch is a networking device (Figure 5.9) that plays a
Network Interface Card (NIC central role in a Local Area Network (LAN). Like a hub, a
card in short) is a network network switch is used to connect multiple computers or
adaptor used to set up a communicating devices. When data arrives, the switch
wired network. It acts as an extracts the destination address from the data packet
interface between computer and looks it up in a table to see where to send the packet.
and the network. It is a Thus it sends signals to only selected devices instead of
circuit board mounted on the sending to all. It can forward multiple packets at the
motherboard of a computer same time. A switch does not forward the signals which
as shown in Figure 5.7. The are noisy or corrupted. It drops such signals and asks
Ethernet cable connects the the sender to resend it.
computer to the network
through NIC. Ethernet cards
can support data transfer
between 10 Mbps and 1 Gbps
(1000 Mbps). Each NIC has
a MAC address, which helps
Figure 5.7: A Network Interface Card
in uniquely identifying the
computer on the network.
5.3.3 Repeater
Data are carried in the form of signals over the cable.
These signals can travel a specified distance (usually
about 100 m). Signals lose their strength beyond this
limit and become weak. In such conditions, original
signals need to be regenerated.
Figure 5.9: Cables connected to a network switch
A repeater is an analog device that works with signals
on the cables to which it is connected. The weakened Ethernet switches are common in homes and offices
signal appearing on the cable is regenerated and put to connect multiple devices, thus creating LANs or to
back on the cable by a repeater. access the Internet.

5.3.4 Hub 5.3.6 Router

An Ethernet hub (Figure 5.8) is a network device used A router (Figure 5.10) is a network device that can receive
to connect different devices through wires. Data arriving the data, analyse it and transmit it to other networks.
on any of the lines A router connects a local area network to the internet.
are sent out on all Compared to a hub or a switch, a router has advanced
the others. The capabilities as it can analyse the data being carried over
limitation of hub 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 a network, decide or alter how it is packaged, and send
is that if data from it to another network of a different type. For example,
two devices come data has been divided into packets of a certain size.
Suppose, these packets are to be carried over a different
at the same time,
Figure 5.8: A network hub with 8 ports type of network which cannot handle bigger packets,
they will collide.
in such a case, the data is to be repackaged as smaller
packets and then sent over the network by a router.

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 Internet and Web 145 146 InformatIcs PractIces

network gateway is placed at the edge of a network and

the firewall is usually integrated with it.

10.0.0.0/8 Server GATEWAY Server 20.0.0.0/8

IP ADDRESS IP ADDRESS

Figure 5.10: A Router An Internet service

provider (ISP) is any
A router can be wired or wireless. A wireless router organisation that
provides services for
can provide Wi-Fi access to smartphones and other accessing the Internet.
devices. Usually, such routers also contain some ports PC 4 PC 5 PC 4 PC 5
to provide wired Internet access. These days, home
Wi-Fi routers perform the dual task of a router and a
modem or switch. These routers connect to incoming
broadband lines, from ISP (Internet Service Provider), PC 1 PC 2 PC 3 PC 1 PC 2 PC 3
and convert them to digital data for computing devices
to process. Figure 5.11: A network gateway
5.3.7 Gateway
5.4 networkIng topologIes
As the term “Gateway” suggests, it is a key access point
that acts as a “gate” between an organisation's network We have already discussed that a number of computing
and the outside world of the Internet (Figure 5.11). devices are connected together to form a Local Area
Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a network, Network (LAN), and interconnections among millions of
as all data coming in or going out of a network must LANs forms the Internet. The arrangement of computers
first pass through the gateway in order to use routing and other peripherals in a network is called its topology.
paths. Besides routing data packets, gateways also Common network topologies are mesh, ring, bus, star
maintain information about the host network's internal and tree.
connection paths and the identified paths of other 5.4.1 Mesh Topology
remote networks. If a node from one network wants to
In this networking topology, each communicating device
communicate with a node of a foreign network, it will
is connected with every other device in the network as
pass the data packet to the gateway, which then routes
shown in Figure 5.12. Such a network can handle large
it to the destination using the best possible route.
amounts of traffic since multiple nodes can transmit
For simple Internet connectivity at homes, the data simultaneously. Also, such networks are more
gateway is usually the Internet Service Provider that Activity 5.3
reliable in the sense that even if a node gets down, it
provides access to the entire Internet. Generally, a router Find and list a few does not cause any break in the transmission of data
is configured to work as a gateway device in computer ISPs in your region.
between other nodes. This topology is also more secure
networks. A gateway can be implemented as software, as compared to other topologies because each cable
hardware, or a combination of both. This is because a between two nodes carries different data. However,

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 Internet and Web 147 148 InformatIcs PractIces

wiring is complex and cabling cost is high in creating 5.4.4 Star Topology
Think and Reflect
such networks, and there are many redundant or In star topology, each communicating device is connected
unutilised connections. How will a bus and to a central node, which is a networking device like a
ring topology behave in
hub or a switch, as shown in Figure 5.15.
case a node is down?
Star topology is considered very effective, efficient
and fast as each device is directly connected with the
central device. Although disturbance in one device
will not affect the rest of the network, any failure in
the central networking device may lead to the failure of
Figure 5.12: A mesh topology complete network.
5.4.2 Ring Topology To build a fully-
In ring topology, each node is connected to two other connected mesh
devices, one each on either side, as shown in Figure topology of n nodes,
5.13. The nodes connected with each other thus form a it requires n(n-1)/2
ring. The link in a ring topology is unidirectional. Thus, wires.
data can be transmitted in one direction only (clockwise Figure 5.15: A star topology
or counterclockwise). The central node can be either a broadcasting device
means data will be transmitted to all the nodes in the
network, or a unicast device means the node can identify
the destination and forward data to that node only.
5.4.5 Tree or Hybrid Topology
It is a hierarchical topology, in which there are multiple
Figure 5.13: A ring topology branches and each branch can have one or more basic
topologies like star, ring and bus. Such topologies are
5.4.3 Bus Topology usually realised in WANs where
In bus topology (Figure 5.14), each communicating multiple LANs are connected.
device connects to a transmission medium, known as Those LANs may be in the form
bus. Data sent from a node are passed on to the bus of ring, bus or star. In Figure
and hence are transmitted to the length of the bus in 5.16, a hybrid topology is shown
both directions. That means data can be received by connecting 4 star topologies
any of the nodes connected to the bus. in bus.
In this type of network, data
transmitted from source first
reaches the centralised device and
Bus
from there the data passes through
Figure 5.16: A hybrid topology every branch where each branch
can have link for more nodes.
Figure 5.14: A bus topology 5.5 the Internet
In this topology, a single backbone wire called bus The Internet is the global network of computing devices
is shared among the nodes, which makes it cheaper including desktop, laptop, servers, tablets, mobile
and easy to maintain. Both ring and bus topologies are phones, other handheld devices as well as peripheral
considered to be less secure and less reliable. devices such as printers, scanners, etc. In addition, it

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 Internet and Web 149 150 InformatIcs PractIces

also consists of networking devices such as routers, notes • HTML — HyperText Markup Language or HTML is a
switches, gateways, etc. Today, smart electronic language which is used to design standardised Web
appliances like TV, AC, refrigerator, fan, light, etc., Pages so that the Web contents can be read and
can also communicate through the Internet. The list of understood from any computer across the globe. It
such smart devices are always increasing e.g., drones, uses tags to define the way page content should be
vehicles, door lock, security camera, etc. displayed by the web browser. Basic structure of
The Internet is evolving everyday. Computers every webpage is designed using HTML.
are either connected to a modem through a cable or • URI — Uniform Resource Identifier or URI is a unique
wirelessly (Wi-Fi). A modem, be it wired or wireless, identifier to identify a resource located on the web.
is connected to a local Internet Service Provider (ISP) URI identifies a resource (hardware or software) either
who then connects to a national network. Many such by its location or by its name or by both.
ISPs connect together forming a regional network and
URL is Uniform Resource Locator and provides
regional networks connect together forming a national
the location and mechanism (protocol) to access
network, and such country-wise networks form the
the resource. Examples of URI identifying resources
Internet backbone.
The Internet today is a widespread network, and its using location (i.e., URL) are: https://www.mhrd.gov.
influence is no longer limited to the technical fields of in, http://www.ncert.nic.in, http://www.airindia.
computer communications. It is being used by everyone in, etc. URL is sometimes also called a web address.
in the society as is evident from the increasing use of However, it is not only the domain name, but contains
online tools for education, creativity, entertainment, other information that completes a web address, as
socialisation and e-commerce. depicted below:
Domain Name
5.6 ApplIcAtIons of Internet
http://www.ncert.nic.in/textbook/textbook.htm
Following are some of the broad areas or services
provided through Internet: URL
• The World Wide Web (WWW)
• Electronic mail (Email) In the above URL, http is the protocol name, it can
• Chat be https, http, FTP, Telnet, etc. www is a subdomain.
ncert.nic.in is the domain name.
• Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP) Search Engine(s)
Note: These days it is not mandatory to mention protocol
like google.
5.6.1 The World Wide Web (WWW) and subdomain while entering a URL. The browser
co.in, bing.com,
automatically prefixes it.
The World Wide Web (WWW) or web in short, is an duckduckgo.com,
ocean of information, stored in the form of trillions • HTTP — The HyperText Transfer Protocol is a set
in.yahoo.com, etc.,
of interlinked web pages and web resources. The of rules which is used to retrieve linked web pages
can be used to
resources on the web can be shared or accessed through across the web. It’s more secure and advanced version
search and retrieve
the Internet. is HTTPS.
information when
Earlier, to access files residing in different computers, the address of the Many people confuse the web with the Internet.
one had to login individually to each computer through web page is not The Internet as we know is the huge global network
the Internet. Besides, files in different computers were known. of interconnected computers, which may or may not
sometimes in different formats, and it was difficult to have any file or webpage to share with the world.
understand each other’s files and documents. Sir Tim The web on the other hand is the interlinking of a
Berners-Lee — a British computer scientist invented the collection of WebPages on these computers which are
revolutionary World Wide Web in 1990 by defining three accessible over the Internet. WWW today gives users
fundamental technologies that lead to creation of web: access to a vast collection of information created and

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 Internet and Web 151 152 InformatIcs PractIces

shared by people across the world. It is today the notes notes forum where multiple people connect to each other,
most popular information retrieval system. to discuss their common interests. Two individuals
can also send messages instantly. The sender types
5.6.2 Electronic Mail (Email)
a message and sends it; the receiver immediately
Email is the short form of electronic mail. It is one of receives the message and can read and revert through
the ways of sending and receiving message(s) using the text message. All this happens in real time, as if the
Internet. An email can be sent anytime to any number sender and receiver were sitting in the same place. For
of recipients at anywhere. The message can be either a successful chat session, the communicating parties
text entered directly onto the email application or an should be online simultaneously, and use the same
attached file (text, image audio, video, etc.) stored on chat application.
a secondary storage. An existing file can be sent as an With ever increasing internet speed, it is now possible
attachment with the email, so no need to type it again. to send image, document, audio, video as well through
To use email service, one needs to register with an instant messengers. It means, the communicating
email service provider by creating a mail account. These parties can talk to each other through an audio call or
services may be free or paid. Some of the popular email through a video call. Moreover, it is also possible to chat
service providers are Google (gmail), Yahoo (yahoo mail), through text, audio and video in a group. Thus, we can
Microsoft (outlook), etc. However, many organisations have group chat or group calls.
nowadays get customised business email addresses for Applications such as WhatsApp, Slack, Skype, Yahoo
their staff using their own domain name. For example, Messenger, Google Talk, Facebook Messenger, Google
[email protected]. Hangout, etc., are examples of instant messengers.
Following are some of the common facilities available Some of these applications support instant messaging
for an email user: through all the modes — text, audio and video.
1. Creating an email, attaching files with an email,
5.6.4 VoIP
saving an email as draft for mailing later. Creating
email is also termed as composing. Voice over Internet Protocol or VoIP, allows us to have
2. Sending and receiving mail. Same email can be sent voice call (telephone service) over the Internet, i.e., the
to multiple email addresses, simultaneously. voice transmission over a computer network rather
3. Sending the copy of mail, as carbon copy (cc) or than through the regular telephone network. It is also
known as Internet Telephony or Broadband Telephony.
blind carbon copy (bcc).
But to avail the phone service over the Internet, we
4. Forwarding a received email to other user(s)
need to have an Internet connection with reasonably
5. Filtering spam emails
good speed.
6. Organising email in folders and sub folders
VoIP works on the simple principle of converting the
7. Creating and managing email ids of the people you analogue voice signals into digital and then transmitting
know. them over the broadband line. There are two major
8. Setting signature/footer to be inserted automatically advantages of a VoIP—
at the end of each email • These services are either free or very economical,
9. Printing emails using a printer or saving as files. so people use them to save on cost. That is why
10. Searching emails using email address or email these days even international calls are being made
subject text using VoIP.
5.6.3 Chat • VoIP call(s) can be received and made using IP phones
from any place having Internet access. Hence, VoIP
Chatting or Instant Messaging (IM) over the Internet has increased the portability and functionality of the
means communicating to people at different geographic voice calling system. Incoming phone calls can be
locations in real time through text message(s). It is a

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 Internet and Web 153 154 InformatIcs PractIces

automatically routed to the VoIP phone as soon as it notes • Selling products and delivering services
is connected to the Internet. • Posting and finding information on the internet
The only disadvantage of VoIP is that its call quality is • Communicating with each other
dependent on Internet connection speed. Slow Internet • Entertainment purposes
connection will lead to poor quality voice calls.
• Disseminating contents and software
5.7 websIte
5.8 web pAge
Each one of us might have visited one or the other
A web page (also referred to as a page) is a document
website. A website in general contains information
on the WWW that is viewed in a web browser. Basic
organised in multiple pages about an organisation. A
structure of a web page is created using HTML (HyperText
website can also be created for a particular purpose,
Markup Language) and CSS (Cascaded Style Sheet). A
theme or to provide a service.
web page is usually a part of a website and may contain
A website (usually referred to as a site in short) is a
information in different forms, such as:
collection of web pages related through hyperlinks, and
saved on a web server. A visitor navigates from one page
Activity 5.4 ● text in the form of paragraphs, lists, tables, etc.
to another by clicking on hyperlinks. Also, all the pages Visit NCERT, SWAYAM ● images
of a website are integrated under one domain name
or any other website ● audio
and have a common theme and template. For example,
and note down URLs ● video
of some of the specific
the website of NCERT will have all the pages related ● software application
pages of that website.
to NCERT, viz., textbooks, syllabus, events, resource ● other interactive contents
materials, etc., under one domain name and having a Additionally, various styling and formatting are
common design theme. To access a website, one has applied on a web page to make it attractive and organised.
to type the address of the website (URL) in the address Further, program codes called scripts are used to define
bar of a browser, and press enter. The home page of the the manner in which the page will behave on different
website will be displayed. actions. Scripts make a web page interactive. JavaScript
is the most popular and commonly used scripting
5.7.1 Purpose of a Website language. However, Python and PHP are also used to
We are living in an Internet era where the whole world apply scripting on a web page.
is connected. A website’s purpose is to make the The first page of the website is called a home page.
information available to people at large. For example, a It generally contains information and links to all the
company might like to advertise or sell its products, a related web pages. Each web page has a unique address
government organisation may like to publish circulars, that is visible on the address bar. Hence if we want to
float tenders, invite applications or get feedback from view a particular web page, its address has to be typed in
various stakeholders. A website is a means that helps the address bar of the browser. The web pages that are
to communicate with people in a specific, transparent linked to form a website share a unique domain name.
and user friendly manner. Therefore, while developing For example, https://swayam.gov.in/ is a website by
a website, the first question to ask is why the website is the Government of India to deliver online courses for
being created, and what should be its pages so that it School, College and University students and teachers. It
serves the required purpose. is a collection of multiple web pages that link to different
Basically, a website should be user friendly and courses related information.
provide information to users with minimum efforts. A 5.8.1 Static and Dynamic Web Pages
website should be designed keeping in mind different
categories of people that will be visiting the site. Some of A web page can be static or dynamic. A static webpage
the common purposes for which websites are designed is one whose content always remains static, i.e., does
are listed below: not change for person to person. When a web server

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 Internet and Web 155 156 InformatIcs PractIces

receives a request (from browser) for a static web page, STEP 2: Calls
it just locates the page on its storage media and sends an application
it to the browser of the client. No additional processing program in
is performed on the page. Hence, a static web page response to the
remains the same for all users until someone changes
HTTP request.
its code manually.
Static web pages are generally written in HTML,
STEP 1: HTTP Request
JavaScript and/or CSS and have the extension .htm Web Web
or .html. Browser Browser
STEP 4: HTTP Response
STEP 1: HTTP Request
Web Web
STEP 3: The
Browser Browser program
STEP 2: HTTP Response executes and
produces
HTML output.
Figure 5.17: Working of a static web page Figure 5.18: Working of a dynamic web page

5.9 web server

On the other hand, a dynamic web page is one in
which the content of the web page can be different for A web server is used to store and deliver the contents of
different users. The difference in content may be because a website to clients such as a browser that request it. A
of different choices made by the user. When a request for web server can be software or hardware.
a dynamic web page is made to the web server, it does When talking about a web server as computer
not simply retrieve the page and send. Before sending hardware, it stores web server software and a website's
the requested web page, the server may perform some contents (HTML pages, images, CSS stylesheets, and
additional processes like getting information from the JavaScript files). The server needs to be connected to
database, updating date and time, updating weather the Internet so that its contents can be made accessible
information, etc. The content of such pages changes to others.
frequently. They are more complex and thus take more When talking about a web server as a software, it
time to load than static web pages. is a specialised program that understands URLs or
Dynamic web pages can be created using various web addresses coming as requests from browsers, and
languages such as JavaScript, PHP, ASP.NET, Python, responds to those requests. The server is assigned a
Java, Ruby, etc. These are complex to construct and unique domain name so that it can be accessed from
design, as the code to perform the additional operations anywhere using the domain name. To develop and test
has to be added. Such server side code allows the server a website using a personal computer, we need to first
to change its content each time the page is loaded. install a web server on that computer.
Further, most dynamic pages are linked to databases The web browser from the client computer sends a
so that each time the page is uploaded, the required request (HTTP request) for a page containing the desired
information from the databases is retrieved to update data or service. The web server then accepts, interprets,
the web page. Few common examples of dynamic web searches and responds (HTTP response) to the request
pages are those web pages displaying the date, time, made by the web browser. The requested web page is
and weather report or having e-commerce applications. then displayed in the browser of the client. If the server
is not able to locate the page, it sends a page containing

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 Internet and Web 157 158 InformatIcs PractIces

the error message (Error 404 – page not found) to the • Upload the files in properly organised folders on the
client’s browser. allocated space.
• Get domain name mapped to the IP address of the
5.10 Hosting of a Website web server.
Web hosting is a service that allows us to put a website The domain name system (DNS) is a service that
or a web page onto the Internet, and make it a part of does the mapping between domain name and IP
the World Wide Web. Once a website is created using a address. When the address of a website is entered in a
hardware server, we need to connect it to the Internet browser, the DNS finds out the IP address of the server
so that users across the globe can access. On the other corresponding to the requested domain name and sends
hand, we can rent server resources (CPU, RAM, and the request to that server.
Activity 5.5
storage) from a cloud service provider and host our locally
created website there. This is done by uploading the Find out some of the 5.11 Browser
files constituting the website (HTML, CSS, JavaScript, Web hosting service
A browser is a software application that helps us to view
images, databases, etc.) from the local computer onto providers from both the web page(s). In other words, it helps us to view the
the space allocated on the server. For this, we have categories — free data or information that is retrieved from various web
to avail the services of a web hosting service provider. and paid. servers on the Internet. Some of the commonly used web
These services for using the server’s resources such as browsers are Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Mozilla
RAM, hard disk, bandwidth, etc., are usually paid and Firefox, Opera, etc. A web browser essentially displays
these resources can be increased or decreased as per the HTML documents which may include text, images,
the loads on the website. audio, video and hyperlinks that help to navigate from
A web server whether it is a local server or a cloud one web page to another.
server when connected to the Internet is assigned
a unique numeric address on the Internet called IP
address. This IP address needs to be mapped to a
textual name called domain name of the website. This
is because it is not convenient for users to remember a
numeric IP address. Thus, for accessing a website, the
user enters the domain through a browser (URL). The
Mozilla Microsoft Google
Firefox Internet Chrome
domain name has to be registered (purchased) with an rer
Explorer
authorised agency.
5.10.1 How to host a website?
To host a website, follow the steps given below:
• Select the web hosting service provider that will provide
the web server space as well as related technologies
and services such as database, bandwidth, data
backup, firewall support, email service, etc. This has Opera Apple
to be done keeping in mind the features and services Mosaic was the Safari
that we want to offer through our website. first web browser
Figure 5.19: Some commonly used browsers
developed by the
• Identify a domain name, which best suits our
National Centre for The initial web browsers like Mosaic used to support
requirement, and get it registered through domain
Supercomputing HTML documents containing plain text (static website)
name Registrar.
Application (NCSA). only, but nowadays with the advancement of technology,
• Once we get web space, create logins with appropriate modern web browsers allow us to view interactive and
rights and note down IP address to manage web space.

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 Internet and Web 159 160 InformatIcs PractIces

dynamic websites. In addition to this, most modern

browsers allow a wide range of visual effects, use
encryption for advanced security and also have cookies
that can store the browser settings and data.
5.11.1 Browser Settings
Every web browser has got certain settings that define
the manner in which the browser will behave. These Mozilla Firefox is
an open source
settings may be with respect to privacy, search engine
web browser which
preferences, download options, auto signature, autofill
is available free of
and autocomplete feature, theme and much more. Each cost and can be
browser application allows us to change or customise easily downloaded
its settings in a user friendly manner. Let’s learn how from the Internet.
to change the browser settings using the open source
browser, Mozilla Firefox.
Open Mozilla Firefox, and on the top right corner of the
Figure 5.21: Preference and options page
browser window, click the Menu button.
On the left side, there are multiple Panels to choose
from: General, Home, Search, Privacy and Security and
Sync.
General Panel: Some of the options that the panel
contains are as follows:
• setting the default browser
• language and appearance of text
• downloading files and applications
• firefox update settings
• browsing and network settings
Home Panel: This panel contains options to set the
home page of the browser, browser window and tab
settings.
Search Panel: This panel contains options to edit the
settings of the search engine used by Firefox.
Privacy and Security Panel: This panel contains
options to secure the browser and data. It includes the
following:
• enhanced tracking protection
• forms and passwords
Figure 5.20: Mozilla Firefox Menu button • history and address bar
From the drop down button, select Options. The • cookies and site data
preferences and Options window will be displayed in • permission to view pop ups windows and install add-
the browser. ons

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 Internet and Web 161 162 InformatIcs PractIces

Sync Panel: This panel contains options to set up and To add an extension, click the Options button on
manage a Firefox account which is needed to access all the top right corner of the browser and select the Add-
services given by Mozilla. ons option. Click the Extensions Panel option on the
Make the desired settings and close the browser left. On the right, options to Manage your Extensions
settings window. The changes made in the browser will appear. There will be a list of enabled, disabled and
settings will be applied. Think and Reflect recommended extensions. Make the desired selections
Can we compare Add- and close the add-ons window.
5.11.2 Add-Ons and Plug-ins
ons and Plug-ins with Similarly, to add plug-ins, click Plug-ins options on
Add-ons and plug-ins are the tools that help to extend utility software? the left side of the browser window. Make the desired
and modify the functionality of the browser. Both the selections to enable or disable the required plug-ins.
tools boost the performance of the browser, but are
different from each other. 5.11.3 Cookies
A plug-in is a complete program or may be a A cookie is a text file, containing a string of information,
third-party software. For example, Flash and Java are which is transferred by the website to the browser when
plug-ins. A Flash player is required to play a video in we browse it. This string of information gets stored in the
the browser. A plug-in is a software that is installed on First cookie form of a text file in the browser. The information stored
the host computer and can be used by the browser for software was is retransmitted to the server to recognise the user, by
multiple functionalities and can even be used by other created in 1994 identifying pages that were visited, choices that were
applications as well. at Netscape, made while browsing various menu(s) on a particular
for determining
On the other hand, an add-on is not a complete program whether the person
website. It helps in customising the information that
and so is used to add only a particular functionality to is a first time visitor will be displayed, for example the choice of language for
the browser. An add-on is also referred to as extension in or a re-visitor of browsing, allowing the user to auto login, remembering
some browsers. Adding the functionality of a sound and their site. the shopping preference, displaying advertisements of
graphics card is an example of an add-on. one’s interest, etc.
Cookies are usually harmless and they can’t access
information from the hard disk of a user or transmit
virus or malware. It is the browser on our computer
which stores and manages the cookies. However,
viruses can also be tricked as cookies and cause harm
to a computer. One can disable cookies by changing the
Privacy and Security settings of our browser.

S ummary
• A group of two or more similar things or people
interconnected with each other is called network
• A computer network is an interconnection
among two or more computers to share data and
resources.
• Devices in a network can be connected either
Figure 5.22: Add-ons and plug-ins
through wired or wireless media.

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 Internet and Web 163 164 InformatIcs PractIces

notes notes
• Based on the geographical area covered and data • In tree topology, multiple star and bus topologies
transfer rate, computer networks are broadly are connected to a central cable, also called the
categorised as LAN, MAN and WAN. backbone of the network.
• The protocol or the set of rules that decide • In mesh topology, each communicating device is
functioning of a LAN is called Ethernet. connected with every other device in the network.
• Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that • The Internet is the largest WAN that connects
connects digital devices placed at a limited millions of computers across the globe.
distance of upto 1 km. • Some of the services provided through the Internet
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended are information sharing, communication, data
form of LAN which covers a larger geographical transfer, social networking, e-commerce, etc.
area like a city or a town. • A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a standard
• Wide Area Network (WAN) connects computers and naming convention used for accessing resources
other LANs and MANs, which are spread across over the Internet.
different geographical locations of a country or in • Electronic mail is a means of sending and receiving
different countries or continents. message(s) through the Internet.
• A repeater is an electronic device that receives a • Chatting is communicating in real time using text
weak signal and regenerates it. message(s).
• Modem (MOdulator DEMolulator) refers to any • Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) allows you to
such device used for conversion between analog have voice calls over digital networks.
signals and digital bits. • A website is a collection of related web pages.
• A hub is a network device used to connect • A web page is a document that is viewed in a web
multiple devices to form a network or to connect browser such as Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox,
segment(s) of LAN. Opera, Internet Explorer, etc. It can be static or
• A switch is a networking device that filters network dynamic.
traffic while connecting multiple computers or • A static web page is one whose content does not
communicating devices. change for requests made by different people.
• A router is a network device that can receive the • A dynamic web page is one in which the content
data, analyse it and transmit to other networks. of the web page displayed is different for different
• A gateway is a device that connects the users.
organisation’s network with the outside world of • A web server is a program or a computer that
the Internet. provides services to other programs or computers
• The physical organisation of computers, cables called clients.
and other peripherals in a network is called its • Web hosting is a service that allows you to post
topology. Common network topologies are Bus, the website created locally so that it is available
Star, Tree, Mesh, etc. for all internet users across the globe.
• In bus topology, each communicating device • Every browser has got certain settings that define
connects to a common central transmission the manner in which the browser will behave.
medium, known as bus. These settings may be with respect to privacy,
• In star topology, each communicating device is search engine preferences, download options,
connected to a central node, which is a networking auto signature, autofill and autocomplete feature
device like a hub or a switch, through separate and much more.
cables.

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 Internet and Web 165 166 InformatIcs PractIces

notes notes d) Bus and Star topology

• Add-ons and plug-ins are the tools that help
to extend and modify the functionality of the e) Static and Dynamic web pages
browser. 5. Define a network. What is the need of forming a
• A cookie is a text file containing a string of network?
information which stores browsing information 6. Give any two examples of networks.
on the hard disk of your computer. 7. Give any three applications on the Internet.
8. Name any two mail service providers.
9. Explain VoIP.
Exercise 10. What is DNS?
11. Identify the type of topology from the following:
1. Fill in the blanks:
a) Each node is connected with the help of a single
a) To transmit data for sharing on a network, it cable.
has to be divided into smaller chunks called
______________________. b) Each node is connected with central switching
through independent cables.
b) The set of rules that decide the functioning of a
network is called _______________. 12. Sahil, a Class X student, has just started
understanding the basics of Internet and web
c) A LAN can be extended up to a distance of technologies. He is a bit confused in between the
__________ km. terms “World Wide Web” and “Internet”. Help him
d) The ___________________ connects a local area in understanding both the terms with the help of
network to the internet. suitable examples of each.
e) The _____________ topology is of hierarchical 13. Murugan wants to send a report on his trip to the
nature. North East to his mentor. The report contains images
f) ____________________ is a standard naming and videos. How can he accomplish his task through
convention used for accessing resources over the the Internet?
Internet. 14. Mampi is planning to open a company that deals
g) ______________ is a collection of related web pages. with rural handicrafts. She wants to advertise about
handicrafts on a social platform. Which Internet
h) A _____________ is a computer that provides service she should use and why?
services to other programs or computers.
15. Ruhani wants to edit some privacy settings of her
2. Expand the following: browser. How can she accomplish her task?
a) ARPANET 16. Shubham wants to play a video in his browser but
b) ISP he is not able to do so. A message on the screen
c) URL instructs him to install the Adobe Flash Player plug-
in. Help him to add it in his browser.
3. Name the device for the following:
17. When Joe typed a URL in the address bar of his
a) It stands for Modulator Demodulator browser, Error 404 was displayed? Why did this
b) It regenerates the signals. happen? What can be done to avoid it?
4. Differentiate between:
a) MAN and WAN
b) Website and web page
c) Router and Gateway

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 noTes 12.2 Malware
apter Malware is a short term used for MALicious softWARE.
Ch It is any software developed with an intention to damage
hardware devices, steal data, or cause any other trouble

12 Security Aspects
to the user. Various types of malware have been created
from time-to-time, and large-scale damages have been
inflicted. Many of these malware programs have been
identified and counter measures have been initiated.
However, different types of malware keep on coming on a
regular basis that compromise the security of computer
systems and cause intangible damages. Besides, each
year, malware incur financial damages worth billions
of dollars worldwide. Viruses, Worms, Ransomware,
Trojans, and Spyware are some of the kinds of malware.
“Treat your password like your
12.2.1 Virus
toothbrush. Don't let anybody else use it,
and get a new one every six months.” The term computer virus was coined by Fred Cohen in
1985 and has been borrowed from biological science
with almost similar meaning and behavior, the only
— Clifford Stoll difference is that the victim is a computer system and
the virus is a malicious software. A virus is a piece of
software code created to perform malicious activities
In this Chapter and hamper resources of a computer system like CPU
time, memory, personal files, or sensitive information.
» Threats and Prevention Mimicking the behaviour of a biological virus, the
» Malware computer virus spreads on contact with another system,
» Antivirus i.e. a computer virus infects other computer systems
12.1 ThreaTs and PrevenTion that it comes into contact with by copying or inserting
» Spam
its code into the computer programs or software
» HTTP vs HTTPS Being alone is the most ideal situation for an (executable files). A virus remains dormant on a system
» Firewall individual in terms of security. It applies to and is activated as soon as the infected file is opened
» Cookies computers as well. A computer with no link to (executed) by a user.
an external device or computer is free from the Viruses behave differently, depending upon the
» Hackers and Crackers
security threats arising otherwise. However, reason or motivation behind their creation. Some of
» Network Security Threats it is not an ideal solution for a human being the most common intentions or motives behind viruses
or a computer to stay aloof in order to mitigate include stealing passwords or data, corrupting files,
any security threats, as the world at present spamming the user’s email contacts, and even taking
is on its way to become fully connected. This control of the user’s machine. Some well-known viruses
connectedness of various devices and computers include CryptoLocker, ILOVEYOU, MyDoom, Sasser
has brought into our focus the various network and Netsky, Slammer, Stuxnet, etc.
threats and its prevention.
Network security is concerned with protection 12.2.2 Worms
of our device as well as data from illegitimate access The Worm is also a malware that incurs unexpected or
or misuse. Threats include all the ways in which damaging behaviour on an infected computer system.
one can exploit any vulnerability or weakness in The major difference between a worm and a virus is that
a network or communication system in order to
cause harm or damage one’s reputation.
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unlike a virus, a worm does not need a host program or noTes noTes the concept, a Trojan is a malware, that looks like a
software to insert its code into. Worms are standalone legitimate software and once it tricks a user into installing
programs that are capable of working on its own. Also, it, it acts pretty much like a virus or worm. However,
a virus needs human triggering for replication (i.e. when a Trojan does not self-replicate or infect other files, it
a user opens/executes the infected file), while a worm spreads through user interaction such as opening an
replicates on its own and can spread to other computers email attachment or downloading and executing a file
through the network. Some prominent examples of from the Internet. Some Trojans create backdoors to
worms include Storm Worm, Sobig, MSBlast, Code Red, give malicious users access to the system.
Nimda, Morris Worm, etc.
12.2.3 Ransomware
It is a type of malware that targets user data. It
either blocks the user from accessing their own data
or threatens to publish the personal data online and
demands ransom payment against the same. Some
ransomware simply block the access to the data while
others encrypt data making it very difficult to access.
In May 2017, a ransomware WannaCry infected almost
200,000 computers across 150 countries. It worked by
encrypting data and demanding ransom payments in
the Bitcoin cryptocurrency. It literally made its victims
“cry” and hence the name.

Figure 12.2: A trojan horse

12.2.5 Spyware
It is a type of malware that spies on a person or an
organisation by gathering information about them,
without the knowledge of the user. It records and sends
the collected information to an external entity without
consent or knowledge of the user.
Spyware usually tracks internet usage data and sells
them to advertisers. They can also be used to track and
capture credit card or bank account information, login
and password information or user’s personal identity.
12.2.6 Adware
An Adware is a malware that is created to generate
Figure 12.1: A ransomware revenue for its developer. An adware displays
online advertisements using pop-ups, web pages, or
12.2.4 Trojan installation screens. Once an adware has infected a
Since the ancient Greeks could not infiltrate the city substantial number of computer systems, it generates
of Troy using traditional warfare methods, they gifted revenue either by displaying advertisements or using
the king of Troy with a big wooden horse with hidden “pay per click” mechanism to charge its clients against
soldiers inside and eventually defeated them. Borrowing the number of clicks on their displayed ads. Adware

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is usually annoying, but harmless. However, it often noTes
paves way for other malware by displaying unsafe links
as advertisements. To implement a
keylogger in hardware,
12.2.7 Keyloggers a thin transparent
keyboard is placed
A keylogger can either be malware or hardware. The atop the actual
main purpose of this malware is to record the keys keyboard or input
pressed by a user on the keyboard. A keylogger makes pad of the intended
logs of daily keyboard usage and may send it to an machine, which then
records the keystrokes
external entity as well. In this way, very sensitive and
pressed by the user.
personal information like passwords, emails, private
conversations, etc. can be revealed to an external
entity without the knowledge of the user. One strategy
to avoid the threat of password leaks by keyloggers is
to use a virtual keyboard while signing into your online
accounts from an unknown computer.
Figure 12.4: Online virtual keyboard

(A) Online Virtual Keyboard Vs On-Screen Keyboard 12.2.8 Modes of Malware distribution
The names “on-screen” and “virtual” keyboard refer to A malware once designed, can take many routes to
any software-based keyboard and are sometimes used reach your computer. Some of the common distribution
interchangeably. But, there exists a notable difference channels for malware are:
between “on-screen” and “online virtual” keyboards. • Downloaded from the Internet: Most of the time,
Both types of keyboards may look the same, but the malware is unintentionally downloaded into the
difference is in terms of the layout or ordering of the hard drive of a computer by the user. Of course, the
keys. The on-screen keyboard of an operating system malware designers are smart enough to disguise
uses a fixed QWERTY key layout (Figure 12.3), which their malware, but we should be very careful while
can be exploited by sophisticated keylogger software. downloading files from the Internet (especially those
However, an online virtual keyboard randomises the highlighted as free stuff).
key layout every time it is used (Figure 12.4), thereby
• Spam Email: We often receive an unsolicited email
making it very difficult for a keylogger software to know
with embedded hyperlinks or attachment files. These
or record the key(s) pressed by the user.
links or attached files can be malware.
• Removable Storage Devices: Often, the replicating
malware targets the removable storage media
like pen drives, SSD cards, music players, mobile
phones, etc. and infect them with malware that
gets transferred to other systems that they are
plugged into.
• Network Propagation: Some malware like Worms
have the ability to propagate from one computer to
another through a network connection.

12.2.9 Combating Malware

Figure 12.3: A QWERTY keyboard layout Common signs of some malware infection include the
following:

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• frequent pop-up windows prompting you to visit noTes 9 Do not install an anti-spyware or antivirus program
some website and/or download some software; presented to you in a pop-up or ad.
• changes to the default homepage of your web browser; 9 Use the pop-up window’s ‘X’ icon located on the
• mass emails being sent from your email account; top-right of the popup to close the ad instead of
• unusually slow computer with frequent crashes; clicking on the ‘close’ button in the pop-up. If you
• unknown programs startup as you turn on your notice an installation has been started, cancel
computer; immediately to avoid further damage.
• programs opening and closing automatically;
12.3 anTivirus
• sudden lack of storage space, random messages,
sounds, or music start to appear; Antivirus is a software, also known as anti-malware.
• programs or files appear or disappear without your Initially, antivirus software was developed to detect
knowledge. and remove viruses only and hence the name anti-
Malware exists and continues to evolve, and so is the virus. However, with time it has evolved and now comes
mechanism to combat them. As the saying goes that bundled with the prevention, detection, and removal of
prevention is better than cure, we list some preventive a wide range of malware.
measures against the malware discussed earlier. 12.3.1 Methods of Malware Identification used by
9 Using antivirus, anti-malware, and other related Antivirus
software and updating them on a regular basis.
(A) Signature-based detection
9 Configure your browser security settings In this method, an antivirus works with the help of
9 Always check for a lock button in the address bar a signature database known as “Virus Definition File
while making payments. (VDF)”. This file consists of virus signatures and is
9 Never use pirated on unlicensed software. Instead updated continuously on a real-time basis. This makes
go for Free and Open Source Software (FOSS). the regular update of the antivirus software a must. If
there is an antivirus software with an outdated VDF, it
9 Applying software updates and patches released by
is as good as having no antivirus software installed, as
its manufacturers. Virus Signature the new malware will infect the system without getting
9 Taking a regular backup of important data. A virus signature detected. This method also fails to detect malware that
is a consecutive
9 Enforcing firewall protection in the network. sequence of bytes that
has an ability to change its signature (polymorphic) and
9 Avoid entering sensitive (passwords, pins) or is commonly found the malware that has some portion of its code encrypted.
personal information on unknown or public in a certain malware
sample. That means (B) Sandbox detection
computers. it’s contained within In this method, a new application or file is executed
9 Avoid entering sensitive data on an unknown the malware or the in a virtual environment (sandbox) and its behavioural
network (like Wi-Fi in a public place) using your infected file and not in fingerprint is observed for a possible malware. Depending
own computer also. unaffected files.
on its behaviour, the antivirus engine determines if it
9 Avoid clicking on links or downloading attachments is a potential threat or not and proceeds accordingly.
from unsolicited emails. Although this method is a little slow, it is very safe as
the new unknown application is not given access to
9 Scan any removable storage device with an antivirus
actual resources of the system.
software before transferring data to and from it.
9 Never share your online account or banking (C) Data mining techniques
password/pins with anyone. This method employs various data mining and machine
9 Remove all the programs that you don’t recognise learning techniques to classify the behaviour of a file as
from your system. either benign or malicious.

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(D) Heuristics it vulnerable to attacks from hackers. Hence, HTTP is
Often, a malware infection follows a certain pattern. sufficient for websites with public information sharing
Here, the source code of a suspected program is like news portals, blogs, etc. However, when it comes to
compared to viruses that are already known and are dealing with personal information, banking credentials
in the heuristic database. If the majority of the source and passwords, we need to communicate data more
code matches with any code in the heuristic database, securely over the network using HTTPS. HTTPS encrypts
the code is flagged as a possible threat. the data before transmission. At the receiver end, it
decrypts to recover the original data. The HTTPS based
(E) Real-time protection Activity 12.1 websites require SSL Digital Certificate.
Some malware remains dormant or gets activated after Ask your teacher
some time. Such malware needs to be checked on a to show you how to 12.6 Firewall
real-time basis. In this technique, the anti-malware enable and disable
software keeps running in the background and observes firewall on your Computer firewall is a network security system designed
computer.
the behavior of an application or file for any suspicious to protect a trusted private network from unauthorised
activity while it is being executed i.e. when it resides in access or traffic originating from an untrusted outside
the active (main) memory of the computer system. network (e.g., the Internet or different sections of the
same network) to which it is connected (Figure 12.5).
12.4 sPaM Firewall can be implemented in software, hardware or
both. As discussed earlier, a malware like worm has the
Spam is a broad term and applies to various digital capability to move across the networks and infect other
platforms like messaging, forums, chatting, emailing, computers. The firewall acts as the first barrier against
advertisement, etc. However, the widely recognised malware.
form is email spam. Depending on their requirements,
organisations or individuals buy or create a mailing
list (list of email addresses) and repeatedly send
advertisement links and invitation emails to a large
number of users. This creates unnecessary junk in the
inbox of the receiver’s email and often tricks a user into
buying something or downloading a paid software or
malware.
Nowadays, email services like Gmail, Hotmail, etc. LAN
have an automatic spam detection algorithm that filters
emails and makes things easier for the end users. A
user can also mark an undetected unsolicited email as
“spam”, thereby ensuring that such type of email is not
delivered into the inbox as normal email in future.
WAN
12.5 hTTP vs hTTPs Always look for
the “https://” at Firewall
Both the HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) and its the beginning of
variant HTTPS (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure) the address (URL) Figure 12.5: A firewall between two networks
are a set of rules (protocol) that govern how data can be of the websites
transmitted over the WWW (World Wide Web). In other
while entering your A firewall acts as a network filter and based on the
words, they provide rules for the client web browser and
banking, personal, predefined security rules, it continuously monitors
or other sensitive
servers to communicate. information.
and controls the incoming and outgoing traffic. As an
HTTP sends information over the network as it is. It example, a rule can be set in the firewall of a school
does not scramble the data to be transmitted, leaving LAN, that a student cannot access data from the finance

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server, while the school accountant can access the 12.7.1 Threats due to Cookies
finance server. Usually, cookies are used for enhancing the user’s
12.6.1 Types of Firewall browsing experience and do not infect your computer
with malware. However, some malware might disguise
• Network Firewall: If the firewall is placed between as cookies e.g. “supercookies”. There is another type of
two or more networks and monitors the network cookie known as “Zombie cookie” that gets recreated
traffic between different networks, it is termed as after being deleted. Some third-party cookies might
Network Firewall. share user data without the consent of the user for
• Host-based Firewall: If the firewall is placed on a advertising or tracking purposes. As a common example,
computer and monitors the network traffic to and if you search for a particular item using your search
from that computer, it is called a host-based firewall. engine, a third-party cookie will display advertisements
showing similar items on other websites that you
12.7 Cookies Assume students in visit later. So, one should be careful while granting
a class are to finish permission to any websites to create and store cookies
The term "cookie" was derived from the term "magic their project. For on the user computer.
cookie" used by Unix programmers to indicate a packet this, the access to
of data that a program receives and sends it back the Internet has also
12.8 haCkers and CraCkers
unchanged. A computer cookie is a small file or data been given. To ensure
maximum output i.e
packet, which is stored by a website on the client’s Hackers and crackers are people having a thorough
timely completion, can
computer. A cookie is edited only by the website that you utilise Firewall knowledge of the computer systems, system software
created it, the client’s computer acts as a host to store to prevent distraction (operating system), computer networks, and
the cookie. Cookies are used by the websites to store while surfing the net? programming. They use this knowledge to find loopholes
browsing information of the user. For example, while and vulnerabilities in computer systems or computer
going through an e-commerce website, when a user adds networks and gain access to unauthorised information.
items to cart, the website usually uses cookies to record In simple terms, a hacker is a person that is skilled
the items in the cart. A cookie can also be used to store enough to hack or take control of a computer system.
other user-centric information like login credentials, Depending on the intent, there are different types
language preference, search queries, recently viewed of hackers.
web pages, music choice, favorite cuisine, etc., that
12.8.1 White Hats: Ethical Hacker
helps in enhancing the user experience and making A hacktivist is a
browsing time more productive. hacker with an aim to If a hacker uses its knowledge to find and help in fixing
bring about political the security flaws in the system, its termed as White
Depending upon their task, there are different types
and social change. Hat hacker. These are the hackers with good intentions.
of cookies. Session cookies keep track of the current
They are actually security experts. Organisations hire
session and even terminate the session when there is a
ethical or white hat hackers to check and fix their
time-out (banking website). So, if you accidentally left
systems for potential security threats and loopholes.
your e-banking page open, it will automatically close
Technically, white hats work against black hats.
after the time-out. Similarly, authentication cookies
are used by a website to check if the user is previously 12.8.2 Black Hats: Crackers
logged in (authenticated) or not. This way, you don’t Activity 12.2
If hackers use their knowledge unethically to break
need to login again and again while visiting different Open your internet the law and disrupt security by exploiting the flaws
web pages or links of the same website. You might have browser and check the
and loopholes in a system, then they are called black
also noticed that certain information like your Name, settings for cookies.
hat hackers.
Address, Contact, D.O.B, etc. automatically fills up Also, try to locate some
cookie files on
while filling an online form. This auto-fill feature is also 12.8.3 Grey Hats
your computer
implemented by websites using cookies. system. The distinction between different hackers is not always
clear. There exists a grey area in between, which

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represents the class of hackers that are neutral, they noTes 12.9.2 Intrusion Problems
hack systems by exploiting its vulnerabilities, but they Network Intrusion refers to any unauthorised activity
don’t do so for monetary or political gains. The grey on a computer network. These activities may involve
hats take system security as a challenge and just hack unauthorised use of network resources (DoS) or
systems for the fun of it. threatening the security of the network and the data.
Network intrusion is a very serious problem and the
12.9 neTwork seCuriTy ThreaTs network administrator needs to devise strategy and
implement various security measures to protect the
12.9.1 Denial of Service network. We have already discussed some of the
Denial of Service (DoS) is a scenario, wherein an attacker intrusion attacks such as DoS, Trojans, and Worms.
The remaining attacks are briefly discussed below.
(Hacker) limits or stops an authorised user to access
a service, device, or any such resource by overloading (A) Asymmetric Routing
that resource with illegitimate requests. The DoS attack The attacker tends to avoid detection by sending the
floods the victim resource with traffic, making the intrusion packets through multiple paths, thereby
resource appear busy. If attackers carry out a DoS attack bypassing the network intrusion sensors.
on a website, they will flood it with a very large number
of network packets by using different IP addresses. (B) Buffer Overflow Attacks
This way, the web server would be overloaded and will In this attack, the attacker overwrites certain memory
areas of the computers within the network with code
not be able to provide service to a legitimate user. The
(set of commands) that will be executed later when the
users will think that the website is not working, causing
buffer overflow (programming error) occurs. Once the
damage to the victim’s organisation. Same way, DoS
malicious code is executed, an attacker can initiate a
attacks can be done on resources like email servers,
DoS attack or gain access to the network.
network storage, disrupting connection between
two machines or disrupting the state of information (C) Traffic Flooding
(resetting of sessions). It is one of the most trivial methods of network intrusion.
If a DoS attack makes a server crash, the server or It involves flooding the network intrusion detection
resource can be restarted to recover from the attack. system with message packets. This huge load leaves the
However, a flooding attack is difficult to recover from, network detection system incapable of monitoring the
as there can be some genuine legitimate requests in it packets adequately. The hacker takes advantage of this
as well. congested and chaotic network environment to sneak
into the system undetected.
A variant of DoS, known as Distributed Denial of
Service (DDoS) is an attack, where the flooded requests 12.9.3 Snooping
come from compromised computer (Zombies) systems URL Snooping
Snooping means secretly listening to a conversation.
distributed across the globe or over a very large area. It is a software In the context of networking, it refers to the process of
package that
The attacker installs a malicious software known as Bot secret capture and analysis of network traffic. It is a
downloads and stores
on the Zombie machines, which gives it control over
a web stream as a file, computer program or utility that has a network traffic
these machines. Depending upon the requirement and that can be viewed monitoring capability. In this attack, the hacker taps or
availability, the attacker activates a network of these or used later. The listens to a channel of communication by picking all of
Zombie computers known as Bot-Net to carry out the common online video the traffic passing through it. Once the network packets
DDoS attack. While as a simple DoS attack may be downloaders use the are analysed by the snooping device or software, it
same techniques to
countered by blocking requests or network packets from reproduces the exact traffic packets and places them
download videos from
a single source, DDoS is very difficult to resolve, as the the Web. back in the channel, as if nothing has happened. So,
attack is carried from multiple distributed locations. if the data that is being sent over the network is not
encrypted, it is vulnerable to snooping and eventually

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may cause serious damage, depending upon the type of noTes noTes example, in eavesdropping, imagine someone listening
information leak. However, snooping is not always an to your private conversation with the help of a hidden
attack, at times it is also used by network administrators microphone in your room or by physically standing near
for troubleshooting various network issues. Snooping is the window of your room. However, in snooping, that
also known as Sniffing. person may make a copy of a letter that is addressed to
your friend and keep the copy with himself and send the
Various snooping software exist that act as network
original letter to the intended address.
traffic analyser. Besides, various network hubs and
switches have a SPAN (Sniffer Port Analyser) port
function for snooping.
suMMary
12.9.4 Eavesdropping
The term eavesdropping has been derived from the • Malware is a software developed with an intention
literal practice of secretly listening to the conversations to damage computer hardware, software, steal
of people by standing under the eaves of a house. Unlike data, or cause any other trouble to a user.
snooping, where the network traffic can be stored for later • A virus is a piece of software code created
analysis, eavesdropping is an unauthorised real-time to perform malicious activities and hamper
interception or monitoring of private communication resources of a computer system.
between two entities over a network. Also, the targets • The Worm is also a malware that incurs
001
1001000111
11
unexpected or damaging behaviour on an infected
11 11
computer system.
01
00
0

•
11

00

Worms are standalone programs that are capable

1000001111

000

of working on its own.

101010101

• Ransomware is a type of malware that targets

111

user data.
11
11

•
11
01

01
01
11
11
000 Ransomware either blocks the user from
10101
accessing their own data or threatens to publish
01

their personal data online and demands ransom

payment against the same.
• Trojan is a malware, that looks like a legitimate
software and once it tricks a user into installing
it, it acts pretty much like a virus or a worm.
• Spyware records and sends the collected
information to an external entity without the
consent or knowledge of a user.
• An adware displays unwanted online
Figure 12.6: Eavesdropping
advertisements using pop-ups, web pages, or
installation screens.
are usually the private communication channels like • A keylogger makes logs of daily keyboard usage
phone calls (VoIP), instant messages, video conference, and may send it to an external entity as well.
fax transmission, etc. In older days, eavesdropping
• The on-screen keyboard is an application software
was performed on the conventional telephone line and
that uses a fixed QWERTY key layout.
was known as wiretapping. Digital devices like laptops
and cell phones that have a built-in microphone or • Online virtual keyboard is a web-based or a
camera can be easily hacked and eavesdropped using standalone software with a randomised key
rootkit malware. layout every time it is used.
Eavesdropping is different from Snooping. While the • A malware can take many routes to reach your
former happens in real time, the latter does not. As an computer, which include: Downloaded from the

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 noTes noTes
Internet, Spam Email, using infected Removable compromised computer (Zombies) systems
Storage Devices, and network propagation. distributed across the globe or over a very
• An antivirus software is used to detect and remove large area.
viruses and hence the name anti-virus. • Network Intrusion refers to any unauthorised
• Antiviruses now come bundled with the prevention, activity on a computer network.
detection, and removal of a wide range of malware.
• Snooping is the process of secret capture and
• Some of the prominent methods of malware analysis of network traffic by malicious users.
identification used by an antivirus include:
Signature-based detection, Sandbox detection, • Eavesdropping is an unauthorised real-
Heuristics. time interception or monitoring of private
communication between two entities over
• Any unwanted data, information, email,
advertisement, etc. is called Spam. a network.
• HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) and HTTPS
(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure) are a set
of rules or protocol that govern how data can be
transmitted over the World Wide Web. exerCise
• Firewall is a network security system designed 1. Why is a computer considered to be safe if it is not
to protect a trusted private network from connected to a network or Internet?
unauthorised access or traffic originating from an
untrusted external network. 2. What is a computer virus? Name some computer viruses
• There are two basic types of firewalls — Network that were popular in recent years.
Firewall and Host-based Firewall. 3. How is a computer worm different from a virus?
• A computer cookie is a small file or data packet, 4. How is Ransomware used to extract money from users?
which is stored by a website on the client’s 5. How did a Trojan get its name?
computer.
6. How does an adware generate revenue for its creator?
• Cookies are used by the websites to store browsing
information of the user. 7. Briefly explain two threats that may arise due to a
• Hackers/Crackers find loopholes and keylogger installed on a computer.
vulnerabilities in computer systems or computer 8. How is a Virtual Keyboard safer than On Screen
networks and gain access to unauthorised Keyboard?
information. 9. List and briefly explain different modes of malware
• If a hacker uses its knowledge to find and help in distribution.
fixing the security flaws in the system, its termed
as White Hat hacker. 10. List some common signs of malware infection.
• If hackers use their knowledge unethically to 11. List some preventive measures against malware
break the law and disrupt security by exploiting infection.
the flaws and loopholes in a system, then they are 12. Write a short note on different methods of malware
called black hat hackers. identification used by antivirus software.
• The grey hats take system security as a challenge 13. What are the risks associated with HTTP? How can we
and just hack systems for the fun of it. resolve these risks by using HTTPS?
• The Denial of Service (DoS) attack floods the 14. List one advantage and disadvantage of using Cookies.
victim resource with traffic, making the resource
appear busy. 15. Write a short note on White, Black, and Grey Hat
Hackers.
• Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) is an
attack, where the flooded requests come from 16. Differentiate between DoS and DDoS attack.
17. How is Snooping different from Eavesdropping?

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