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 CONTENTS vii

PART III SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

5 Teacher-Centered Instructional Strategies 119

A CONTINUUM OF INSTRUCTIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES FOR DIRECT

APPROACHES 120 INSTRUCTION 130
Teacher-Centered to Student-Centered Presentations 130
Approaches 120 Demonstrations 132
Direct and Indirect Instructional Approaches 121 Questioning 133
The Gradual Release of Responsibility Model 122 Recitations 136
Deductive and Inductive Strategies 124 Practice and Drills 137
Reviews 137
THE DIRECT INSTRUCTION MODEL 125
Guided Practice and Homework 138
Characteristics of Direct Instruction 125
Components of Direct and Explicit Instruction ADDITIONAL APPROACHES 140
Lessons 126 Flipped Classrooms 140
Blended Learning 141

6 Student-Centered Instructional Strategies 143

SELECTING STUDENT-CENTERED STRATEGIES 144 Cooperative Learning 160

Panels and Debates 164
INQUIRY APPROACHES 146 Role Playing, Simulations, and Games 165
Concept Attainment Approaches 146
INDEPENDENT APPROACHES 166
Inquiry and Discovery Learning 151
Problem-Based Strategies 155 Learning Centers or Stations 167
Projects, Reports, and Problems 157 Independent Work and Learning Contracts 167

SOCIAL APPROACHES 157

Discussions 157

7 Strategies That Promote Understanding, Thinking, and Engagement 171

STRATEGIES THAT PROMOTE STUDENT HELPING STUDENTS BECOME BETTER THINKERS 185
UNDERSTANDING 172 Guidance from Teaching Standards 187
Identifying Similarities and Differences 172 Enhancing Critical Thinking 187
Summarizing and Note Taking 173
ENGAGING STUDENTS IN THE LEARNING
Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition 175
PROCESS 189
Homework and Practice 177
Nonlinguistic Representations 179 MOTIVATING STUDENTS TO LEARN 191
Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback 180
Generating and Testing Hypotheses 183 APPLYING THE SIOP MODEL TO STRATEGIES 193
Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers 184 Strategies 193
Practice/Application 194

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 viii CONTENTS

PART IV MANAGING INSTRUCTION AND THE CLASSROOM

8 Managing Lesson Delivery 197

ISSUES AFFECTING LESSON DELIVERY 198 MANAGING WHOLE-GROUP INSTRUCTION 216

Degree of Structure in Lessons 198 Guiding Behavior 216
Grouping Students for Instruction 198 Managing Movement Through the Lesson 217
Holding Students Academically Accountable 201 Maintaining a Group Focus 217
Maintaining Student Attention and
MANAGING PARTS OF THE LESSON 203
Involvement 218
Beginning of a Lesson 203
Middle of a Lesson 207 APPLYING THE SIOP MODEL TO LESSON
Ending of a Lesson 211 DELIVERY 220
Comprehensible Input 220
MANAGING STUDENT WORK 212
Interaction 220
Effectively Managing Seatwork 212 Lesson Delivery 222
Collecting Assignments and Monitoring Their Review and Assessment of Lesson Objectives 222
Completion 213
Maintaining Records of Student Work 214
Managing Paperwork 215
Giving Students Feedback 215

9 Classroom Management 225

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 226 SELECTING AND TEACHING RULES AND

Areas of Responsibility 226 PROCEDURES 241
Principles for Working with Students and Preventing Rules 242
Misbehavior 228 Procedures 244

PREPARING FOR THE SCHOOL YEAR 230 MAINTAINING APPROPRIATE STUDENT

Making Management Preparations 230 BEHAVIOR 247
Making Instructional Preparations 233 Having a Mental Set for Management 247
Managing Assessments, Record Keeping, and Building Positive Teacher-Student
Reporting 235 Relationships 248
Establishing a Plan to Deal with Misbehavior 236 Reinforcing Desired Behaviors 252
Planning for the First Day 237 Supporting Self-Regulation 253
Making Adjustments for Student Diversity 254
ORGANIZING YOUR CLASSROOM 238
Floor Space 239
Storage Space 240
Bulletin Boards and Wall Space 241

10 Classroom Discipline 259

MISBEHAVIOR 260 THREE-STEP RESPONSE PLAN 263

Misbehavior in Context 260 Situational Assistance 264
Types of Misbehavior 260 Mild Responses 267
Causes of Misbehavior 261 Moderate Responses 271

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 CONTENTS ix

CAUTIONS AND GUIDELINES 273 BULLYING 280

Some Practices to Avoid 273 Characteristics of Bullying 280
Guidelines for Punishment 275 Effects of Bullying 281
Types of Bullying 281
DEALING WITH CHRONIC MISBEHAVIORS 276 Confronting Bullying 282

PART V ASSESSING AND REPORTING STUDENT PERFORMANCE

11 Assessing Student Performance 285

CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT 286 PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT 295

What is classroom assessment? 286 Product Assessments 296
Data-Driven Decision Making 287 Performance Assessments 297
Types of Assessments for Decision Making 288 Ways to Rate Student Products or
Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Performances 298
Evaluation 289
TEACHER-MADE TESTS 300
Characteristics of Good Assessment
Instruments 290 Planning the Classroom Test 300
Assessment Technologies 291 Selecting and Preparing Test Questions 302
Adapting Assessments for English Language Assembling the Test 308
Learners 292 Administering the Test 309
Adapting Assessments for Students with Special Scoring the Test 309
Needs 293 ACHIEVEMENT TESTS 310
Differentiating Instruction with Assessments 294
Types of Achievement Test Scores 311
ESTABLISHING A FRAMEWORK FOR The Teacher’s Role in Standardized Testing 312
ASSESSMENT 294

12 Grading Systems, Marking, and Reporting 317

PURPOSES OF GRADING 318 NONACHIEVEMENT OUTCOMES 328

Functions of Grades 318 Rating Scales 329
Confounding the Achievement Grade 320 Checklists 329
Special Reports 330
GRADING SYSTEMS 321
Percentage Grades 321 USING A GRADE BOOK 330
Letter Grades 322 Electronic Grade Books 330
Descriptive Assessments 322 Record Keeping 330
Pass–Fail Grading 322 Sections in a Grade Book 331
Checklists of Objectives 323
REPORTING GRADES 332
ASSIGNING LETTER GRADES 323 Report Cards 332
Determining What to Include in a Grade 323 Cumulative Record Files 333
Creating A Composite Score 323
GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN GRADING AND
Selecting a Frame of Reference for Grading 324
REPORTING 334
Determining the Distribution of Grades 326
Calculating Semester and Annual Grades 328

A01_BURD5747_08_SE_FM.indd 9 3/26/18 1:00 PM

 x CONTENTS

PART VI WORKING WITH OTHERS

13 Collaborating with Colleagues and Families 337

WORKING WITH COLLEAGUES 338 Why Some Families Resist Involvement 346
What is collaboration? 338 Working Through Cultural and Language
Why collaborate? 338 Differences 347
Collaborate with Whom? 339 CONTACTING AND COMMUNICATING WITH
Collaboration Skills and Dispositions 342 FAMILIES 348
WORKING WITH FAMILIES 344 Ways to Communicate with Families 349
Reasons for Working with Families 345 Parent-Teacher Conferences 358

REFERENCES 365
NAME INDEX 379
SUBJECT INDEX 383

A01_BURD5747_08_SE_FM.indd 10 3/26/18 1:00 PM

 PREFACE
The eighth edition of Methods for Effective Teaching provides research-based coverage
of general teaching methods while emphasizing contemporary topics such as culturally
responsive teaching, differentiated instruction, and data-driven decision making. The
numerous features, tables, and lists of recommendations ensure that the text is reader
friendly and practically oriented. Its unique content includes strategies to promote stu-
dent understanding, differentiate instruction, manage lesson delivery, apply motivational
techniques for instruction and assessment, and work with colleagues and parents. In ad-
dition, thorough coverage of classroom management and discipline is provided, along
with ways to create a positive learning environment.

Intended Audience
This book is designed primarily as the core textbook for courses in K–12 general teaching
methods, secondary/middle teaching methods, or elementary school teaching methods.
The content is applicable for teachers at all levels—elementary, middle level, and high
school. Additionally, it may be used as a supplementary book for other teaching methods
courses. This book is also appropriate for courses and staff development programs for in-
service teachers and as a handbook for teacher reference due to its comprehensive cover-
age of current classroom issues and practical teaching applications.

New to this Edition

There are a number of significant changes in this eighth edition:

■■ Major restructuring and updating of Chapter 1 on Teaching Students in Today’s

World
■■ Major restructuring and the addition of significant new content in Chapter 2 on
Knowing and Connecting with Your Students
■■ New sections in several chapters:
• The changing teaching environment (in Chapter 1)
• Opportunity/achievement gaps (Chapter 2)
• Struggling learners (Chapter 2)
• Students in poverty (Chapter 2)
• Seriously disengaged students (Chapter 2)
• Students challenged with other adverse conditions (Chapter 2)
• Planning to integrate technology into instruction (in Chapter 3)
• Planning for assessments (in Chapter 3)
• Planning for motivation (in Chapter 3)
• Additional instructional approaches (in Chapter 5)
• Flipped classrooms (in Chapter 5)
• Blended learning (in Chapter 5)
• Engaging students in the learning process (in Chapter 7)

xi

A01_BURD5747_08_SE_FM.indd 11 3/26/18 1:00 PM

 xii PREFACE

• Motivating students to learn (in Chapter 7)

• Guiding behavior (in Chapter 8)
• Making adjustments for student diversity (in Chapter 9)
• Assessment technologies (in Chapter 11)
• Differentiating instruction with assessments (in Chapter 11)
• Electronic gradebooks (in Chapter 12)
■■ New and expanded content in existing chapter sections:
• Getting to know your students (in Chapter 1)
• Every Student Succeeds Act (in Chapter 1)
• The linear-rational approach to planning (in Chapter 3)
• Planning units (in Chapter 4)
• Demonstrations (in Chapter 5)
■■ Updating of over 60 references to new editions
■■ Addition of over 90 new references to update content

Special Features
To maintain the reader’s interest and to accommodate different learning styles and instruc-
tional settings, Methods for Effective Teaching contains a variety of pedagogical features.

■■ Standards Tables. Two tables of professional standards can be found on pages xvi–xvii.
These tables feature references to the chapters in this book that address each part of the
standards.
■■ Objectives. Each chapter begins with a list of objectives that identify expected reader
outcomes.
■■ Chapter Outline. Each chapter begins with a graphic organizer displaying chapter
headings and subheadings to provide an advance organizer for the reader.
■■ Voices from the Classroom. These features are included in each chapter to provide
descriptions of ways that actual elementary, middle school, and high school teach-
ers deal with particular topics addressed in the chapter. These teachers come from all
parts of the country and different community sizes. There are over 50 Voices from the
Classroom features, evenly balanced among elementary and middle/high school levels,
including many from urban districts.
■■ Sample Standards. Each chapter has a Sample Standards feature that lists representa-
tive performances, essential knowledge, and critical dispositions from InTASC standards
that relate to the chapter in an effort to direct the reader’s attention to important con-
tent and characteristics.
■■ Classroom Case Studies. Each chapter includes a case study describing a situation
that a teacher may need to confront. Two or three questions following each case study
require the reader to reflect on and apply chapter concepts.
■■ What Would You Decide? Several features are placed in each chapter to help readers
consider the application of the content. Each feature includes several sentences describ-
ing a classroom situation related to an issue in the chapter followed by a few questions
asking the reader to make decisions about the application of the concepts.
■■ Key Terms. A list of key terms at the end of each chapter draws the reader’s attention to
significant terms. Each term is also highlighted in the text.
■■ Major Concepts. At the end of each chapter, a list of major concepts serves as a sum-
mary of the significant chapter ideas.

A01_BURD5747_08_SE_FM.indd 12 3/26/18 1:00 PM

 PREFACE xiii

■■ Discussion/Reflective Questions. Questions at the end of each chapter promote

discussion and reflection in a classroom or seminar in which a number of people are
considering the chapter’s content.
■■ Suggested Activities. These activities are listed at the end of each chapter both
for clinical (on-campus) settings and for field (school-based) settings to enable the
reader to investigate and apply issues addressed.
■■ Further Reading. An annotated list of recommended readings at the end of each
chapter suggests readings for further enrichment.
■■ References. The references cited in the chapters to document the research base of
the content are all listed at the end of the book.

Relating This Book to Standards

A variety of professional standards are listed, correlated to the book, and referenced
throughout. Standards are used to guide the development of new teachers, help in-
service teachers improve their performance, and assess both teacher preparation and
teacher performance. Many teacher education programs are designed around the Inter-
state New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) standards. Many states
­require a passing score on the Principles of Learning and Teaching test (a Praxis Subjects
­Assessment test) before granting a teaching license. The Praxis Classroom Performance
Assessments (which are consistent with Danielson’s Framework for Teaching domains) are
used to assess and improve the teaching of in-service teachers. A brief description of these
standards is provided here, and tables of these standards can be found on pages xvi–xvii.

INTASC STANDARDS
The Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) was formed
as a consortium of state education agencies and national educational organizations dedi-
cated to the reform of the preparation, licensing, and ongoing professional development
of teachers. Created in 1987, INTASC’s primary constituency is state education agencies
responsible for teacher licensing, program approval, and professional development. Its
work is guided by one basic premise: An effective teacher must be able to integrate content
knowledge with the specific strengths and needs of students to ensure that all students learn
and perform at high levels. With the 2011 updating of the standards, it removed the word
new from its title and made a lowercase n in the acronym (now it is InTASC). More infor-
mation can be found on the Council of Chief State School Officers, CCSSO, website.

PRAXIS TESTS
The Praxis tests have been developed and disseminated by the Educational Testing Ser-
vice (ETS) for assessing skills and knowledge at each stage of a beginning teacher’s career,
from entry into teacher education to actual classroom performance. More information
about the Praxis tests can be found at the Educational Testing Service, ETS, website.
There are several types of Praxis tests:

■■ Praxis Core Academic Skills for Educators (CORE). These academic skills tests
are designed to be taken early in a student’s college career to measure reading, writ-
ing, and mathematics skills.
■■ Praxis Subject Assessments. There are several Praxis Subject Assessments, and
they measure a teacher candidate’s knowledge of the subjects he or she will teach, as
well as general and subject-specific pedagogical skills and knowledge. One of these
assessments is the Principles of Learning and Teaching (PLT) test, which many states
require teachers to pass for their licensure.

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 xiv PREFACE

■■ Praxis Classroom Performance Assessments. These assessments are conducted for

beginning teachers in classroom settings. Assessment of teaching practice is through
direct observation of classroom practice, a review of documentation prepared by the
teacher, and semistructured interviews. The framework for knowledge and skills for
these assessments consists of 19 assessment criteria organized within four categories:
planning and preparation, the classroom environment, instruction, and professional
responsibilities. Charlotte Danielson’s (2007) Enhancing Professional Practice: A Frame-
work for Teaching is based on the categories of the Praxis Classroom Performance
Assessments.

Methods for Effective Teaching is not intended to address the preprofessional skills of
reading, writing, and mathematics in Praxis CORE. However, it is designed to address the
Praxis Subject Assessments test on Principles of Learning and Teaching and the Praxis class-
room performance criteria areas, based on Danielson’s Framework for Teaching.

Supplements
INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUAL WITH TEST BANK AND
POWERPOINT SLIDES
An instructor’s resource manual with test bank to accompany this textbook has been devel-
oped by the authors to guide teacher educators as they use this book for their courses. This
manual includes multiple-choice, true–false, short-answer, and essay/discussion questions for
each chapter. It also includes a sample course syllabus that is aligned to this book and teach-
ing suggestions to introduce content for each major section of each chapter. Additionally,
about 20 PowerPoint slides are provided for each chapter.
The instructor’s resource manual with test bank may be downloaded in PDF from the
Instructor Resource Center at the Pearson Higher Education website (http://www.pearson-
highered.com). Your local Pearson sales representative can help you set up a password for
the Instructor Resource Center.

INVIGORATE LEARNING WITH THE ENHANCED PEARSON ETEXT

The Enhanced Pearson eText provides a rich, interactive learning environment designed to
improve student mastery of content. This enhanced eText includes video clips selected by the
author that illustrate key concepts and help bridge the gap between theory and practice.
Students can experience the advantages of the Enhanced Pearson eText along with all
the benefits of print for 40% to 50% less than a print bound book! Instructors, visit pearson-
highered.com/etextbooks to register for your digital examination copy.
(Please note: enhancements are only available in the Pearson eText, and not third-party
eTexts such as CourseSmart or Kindle).

A01_BURD5747_08_SE_FM.indd 14 3/26/18 1:00 PM

 PREFACE xv

Acknowledgments
Many people provided support and guidance as we prepared this book. A very special
acknowledgment goes to our spouses: Jennie Burden and Mary Byrd. Their support kept
our spirits up when deadlines were pressing, and their understanding during our ab-
sences while preparing the content enabled us to complete the project.
We also appreciate the help from the staff at Pearson who provided editorial guid-
ance, facilitated the preparation of the manuscript, and coordinated the production.
A number of classroom teachers provided descriptions of their professional practice,
which are included in the Voices from the Classroom features. Their experiences help il-
lustrate the issues and bring life to the content.
Finally, we would like to extend our gratitude to the following reviewers who ­provided
constructive feedback for this edition: Dr. Sonia K. Boone, Prairie View A&M University;
Joseph Cosgriff, Lincoln Memorial University; Bonnie J. Cummings, College of Education,
The University of Memphis; R. Stewart Mayers, Ed.D., Southeastern Oklahoma State
University; Kirk A. Swortzel, Mississippi State University.
Paul R. Burden
David M. Byrd

A01_BURD5747_08_SE_FM.indd 15 3/26/18 1:00 PM

 xvi STANDARDS

InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards

The following table indicates how the 2011 Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) model
core teaching standards are addressed in this book.

STANDARDS CHAPTER COVERAGE

THE LEARNER AND LEARNING

1. Learner Development 2–7

Understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of learning
and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic, social,
emotional, and physical areas, and designs and implements developmentally appro-
priate and challenging learning experiences.

2. Learning Differences 2–7

Uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and communities
to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet high
standards.

3. Learning Environments 7–10

Works with others to create environments that support individual and collaborative
learning, and that encourage positive social interaction, active engagement in
learning, and self-motivation.

CONTENT KNOWLEDGE

4. Content Knowledge 3
Understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline(s)
he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that make these aspects of the
discipline accessible and meaningful for learners to ensure mastery of the content.

5. Application of Content 4–7

Understands how to connect concepts and use differing perspectives to engage
learners in critical thinking, creativity, and collaborative problem solving related to
authentic local and global issues.

INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICE

6. Assessment 2, 11–12
Understands and uses multiple methods of assessment to engage learners in their
own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to guide the teacher’s and learner’s
decision making.

7. Planning for Instruction 3–7

Plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals by
drawing on knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and
pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context.

8. Instructional Strategies 5–7

Understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage learners to
develop deep understanding of content areas and their connections, and to build
skills to apply knowledge in meaningful ways.

A01_BURD5747_08_SE_FM.indd 16 3/26/18 1:00 PM

 STANDARDS xvii

STANDARDS CHAPTER COVERAGE

PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY

9. Professional Learning and Ethical Practice 1

Engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually evalu-
ate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others
(Learners, Families, Other Professionals, and the Community), and adapts practice
to meet the needs of each learner.

10. Leadership and Collaboration 13

Seeks appropriate leadership roles and opportunities to take responsibility for student
learning, to collaborate with learners, families, colleagues, other school professionals,
and community members to ensure learner growth, and to advance the profession.

From Council of Chief State School Officers. (2011, April). Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) Model Core
Teaching Standards: A Resource for State Dialogue. Washington, DC: Author.

A01_BURD5747_08_SE_FM.indd 17 3/26/18 1:00 PM

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 Teaching Students
in Today’s World
1
Track5/Getty Images
EFFECTIVE TEACHING
Decisions about Basic Teaching Functions

Essential Teacher Characteristics

Expectations for Effectiveness

STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS

InTASC Standards

Framework for Teaching

Principles of Learning and Teaching

THE TEACHER AS A
REFLECTIVE DECISION
MAKER
Reflection

Tools to Become More Reflective

Aspects of Instructional Decision Making

This Chapter Provides Information That
Will Help You To: THE CHANGING TEACHING
ENVIRONMENT

1.1 Describe the basic teaching functions and the MORE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
key characteristics of effective teachers. LEARNERS
1.2 Recognize the professional teaching standards Challenges of English Language Learners
and understand the purposes they serve. Teaching English Language Learners in All
1.3 Formulate a plan to use reflection to enhance Classrooms
teacher decision making. The SIOP Model

1.4 Identify ways the teaching environment is

­changing due to increased diversity in student
populations including students with special needs
and English language learners.
1.5 Describe ways that instruction of English language
learners can be enhanced in all classrooms.

M01_BURD5747_08_SE_C01.indd 1 3/14/18 4:58 PM

 2 PART I Foundations of Teaching Methods

Your journey to become a teacher continues. You want to be an effective teacher,

but what are the characteristics of effective teachers? What do they need to know
and do? To a large extent, effective teaching involves making good decisions to help
students learn.

Even before instruction takes place, teachers think about and make decisions concern-
ing content, instructional strategies, the use of instructional materials and technology,
delivery techniques, classroom management and discipline, assessment of student
learning, and a host of other related issues. During instruction, teachers must imple-
ment these decisions as they interact with students in a dynamic way.

Decision making involves giving consideration to a matter, identifying the desired end
result, determining the options to get to the end result, and then selecting the most
suitable option to achieve the desired purpose. Teacher decisions about the issues just
mentioned ultimately will influence student learning.

To examine teacher decision making and its relationship to teaching methods, the dis-
cussion in this chapter centers on several questions: What is effective teaching? What
are the standards used to guide the professional development of teachers? How can
a teacher be a reflective decision maker? What are the conditions that are changing
the teaching environment? How can instruction of English language learners (ELLs) be
enhanced in all classrooms?

Effective Teaching
What are teachers’ responsibilities, and what makes teachers effective in meeting these
responsibilities? To answer these questions, it is useful to examine the basic teaching func-
tions, essential teacher characteristics, and expectations for effectiveness.

DECISIONS ABOUT BASIC TEACHING FUNCTIONS

Teachers make countless decisions all day long in an effort to promote student learning.
When you break the decisions down, they fall into three categories: planning, implement-
ing, and assessing. Some decisions are made at the desk when preparing lesson or unit
plans, designing an instructional activity, or grading papers. Other decisions are made
on the spot during the dynamic interactions with students when delivering a lesson. Let’s
briefly examine these three basic teaching functions. Each will be considered in more detail
in later chapters.

Planning. Planning involves teacher decisions about student needs, the most appropri-
ate goals and objectives, the content to be taught, instructional strategies, lesson delivery
techniques, instructional media, classroom climate, and student assessment. These deci-
sions are made before actual instruction takes place. The goal of planning is to ensure
student learning. Planning occurs when teachers are alone and have time to reflect and
consider issues such as short-range and long-range plans, student progress, time available,
and instructional materials. Planning helps arrange the appropriate flow and sequence of
instructional content and events.Planning is considered in more detail in Chapters 3 and 4.

Implementing. Implementing involves the actual enactment of the instructional plans

concerning lesson delivery and assessment. Implementation occurs when interacting with
students. Teaching skills that support implementation include presenting and explaining,

M01_BURD5747_08_SE_C01.indd 2 3/14/18 4:58 PM

 CHAPTER 1 Teaching Students in Today’s World 3

questioning, listening, monitoring, giving feedback, and demonstrating. Additional skills

are needed to monitor student behavior, enforce rules and procedures, use instructional
technology, exhibit caring and respect, and create a positive learning environment.
As you can see, a multitude of skills are required for implementation of the instruc-
tional plans, and teachers make decisions constantly during the delivery of instruction to
enact those plans and to promote student learning. Several chapters in this book relate to
implementation, including topics such as differentiating instruction for diverse learners,
instructional strategies, motivating students, strategies to promote student understanding,
managing lesson delivery, and classroom management and discipline.

Assessing. Assessing involves determining the level of student learning. Actually, many
aspects of assessment are determined during the planning phase when instructional goals
and content are identified. The means to measure student learning include paper-and-
pencil tests, portfolios, work samples, projects, reports, journals, models, presentations,
demonstrations, and various other types of product and performance assessments. Once
assessment data has been gathered, the information is recorded and judgments are made.
Assessment is considered in more detail in Chapters 11 and 12.
Teacher decisions about planning, implementing, and assessing matter a great
deal. As attempts are made to improve schools and increase student achievement, one
constant has remained: Teachers are the most important factor in improving schools.
Attempts to reform or improve education depend on the knowledge, skills, and commit-
ment of teachers. This point is made emphatically in A Good Teacher in Every Classroom:
Preparing the Highly Qualified Teachers Our Children Deserve (Darling-Hammond and
Baratz-Snowden, 2007). Teachers need to know how to implement new practices con-
cerning the basic teaching functions, but they must also take ownership or the innova-
tion will not succeed.

ESSENTIAL TEACHER CHARACTERISTICS

When you reflect about the most effective teachers you have had, you may think about
their warmth and caring, their creative instructional strategies, their strong command of
the content, or their unique presentation skills. When examining effective teachers, the
essential teacher characteristics fall into three categories: knowledge, skills, and disposi-
tions. Let’s briefly examine each of these.

Knowledge. Effective teachers must know the facts about the content they are teaching.
That is vital, but it is not sufficient. Teachers also must have at least three other types of
knowledge.
First, they must have professional knowledge related to teaching in general. This
includes information about the historical, economic, sociological, philosophical, and psy-
chological understanding of schooling and education. It also includes knowledge about
learning, diversity, technology, professional ethics, legal and policy issues, pedagogy, and
the roles and responsibilities of the profession of teaching.
Second, teachers must have pedagogical knowledge, which includes the general con-
cepts, theories, and research about effective teaching, regardless of the content area. Thus,
it involves general teaching methods.
Finally, teachers must have pedagogical content knowledge. This involves teaching
methods that are unique to a particular subject or the application of certain strategies in
a manner particular to a subject. For example, there may be some unique ways to teach
map reading skills in a social studies class. You must have a thorough understanding of
the content to teach it in multiple ways, drawing on the cultural backgrounds and prior
knowledge and experiences of the students.
Thus, teachers must possess rich knowledge about the content, foundational infor-
mation about teaching and learning, information about teaching methods in general, and
information about teaching techniques unique to particular subjects.

M01_BURD5747_08_SE_C01.indd 3 3/14/18 4:58 PM

 4 PART I Foundations of Teaching Methods

w h a t WOULD YOU DECIDE?

DEMONSTRATING YOUR EFFECTIVE TEACHING
Teachers need to have the necessary knowledge, skills, and dispositions to be
effective in the classroom. Throughout your teacher preparation program, you will
learn and acquire many of these characteristics. Imagine that you are teaching a
lesson in your first year of teaching.

1. How would it be evident in your lesson that you have the necessary knowledge,
skills, and dispositions to be an effective teacher? What would the students
observe in your teaching to identify these qualities?
2. What could you do during your teacher preparation program to acquire these
qualities?

Skills. Teachers also must possess the necessary skills to use their knowledge effectively
in the four areas just described to ensure that all students are learning. Teachers must be
able to apply these skills as they plan, implement, and assess in diverse teaching settings.
In listings of professional standards, the term performances is sometimes used instead of
the term skills.

Dispositions. Teachers also must have appropriate dispositions to promote learning for
all students. Dispositions include the necessary values, commitments, and professional
ethics that influence teacher behaviors. Dispositions are guided by beliefs and attitudes
related to values such as caring, fairness, honesty, responsibility, and social justice. Dis-
positions are affective, thus in the mind of teachers. But dispositions show up in teacher
behaviors. For example, a teacher might be willing to use a variety of instructional strate-
gies to promote learning for all students. This disposition could be evidenced by written
plans indicating the use of cooperative learning groups, demonstrations, and a role-playing
activity, and by the actual use of those approaches when instruction took place.
When making decisions, you must have the necessary knowledge, skills, and disposi-
tions to help promote learning for all students. Research has shown that teacher expertise
is one of the most important factors that influences student growth and achievement. There
is interest in the educational community to develop criteria for the knowledge, skills, and
dispositions that teachers need to promote student achievement.
As a prospective teacher, it is important that you identify these essential teacher char-
acteristics (knowledge, skills, dispositions) when you examine the main teaching func-
tions of planning, implementing, and assessing. As the teaching functions are discussed
in this book, several chapters have a boxed feature to indicate the knowledge, skills, and
dispositions related to the chapter topic using the descriptions in the InTASC standards.
For example, Chapter 3 on planning will include a box of information about representative
knowledge, skills, and dispositions related to planning.

EXPECTATIONS FOR EFFECTIVENESS

Over the years, there have been calls to improve the quality of teaching, the quality and
substance of the K–12 curriculum, and the performance of students on standardized tests.
School districts and teachers always feel some degree of pressure from the local school
district, state and federal governments, professional organizations, legislators, and the
public in general. Occasionally, there are major education reports with information about
student performance, and then there are new calls for improving teacher education and
the quality of teaching. Effective teaching is expected.

M01_BURD5747_08_SE_C01.indd 4 3/14/18 4:58 PM

 CHAPTER 1 Teaching Students in Today’s World 5

Measures of Effectiveness. Various approaches have been used to indicate the qual-
ity of teaching and its influence on student learning. One approach has been to examine
student achievement test scores over a three-year time period in a so-called value-added
comparison. This value-added concept compares the performance of a student against
that same student’s performance at an earlier time. The difference in the two assessments
is taken as a measure of student learning growth, which can also be conceptualized as the
value added by the instructional effectiveness of the teacher. Students’ average annual rates
of improvement are then used to estimate how much value a teacher has contributed to
student achievement.
A second approach to determining the quality of teaching has involved the study of
teacher test scores and their relationship to the achievement of students in their classes. A
series of studies correlated teachers’ basic skills tests and college entrance exams with the
scores of their students on standardized tests. These studies have found that high-scoring
teachers are more likely to elicit significant gains in student achievement than their lower-
scoring counterparts (Card & Rothstein, 2007).
A third approach to determining the quality of teaching has involved the review of
teachers’ content knowledge. A teacher’s deep understanding of the content he/she teaches
has a positive influence on student achievement. This appears to be especially true for sci-
ence and mathematics teachers. In a review of research, Michael Allen, program director
for the Education Commission of the States (ECS) Teaching Quality Policy Center, found
support for the necessity of teachers being knowledgeable in their subjects and on how
best to teach a particular subject (Allen, 2003).
In addition, teaching experience appears to have an influence on student achievement.
Teachers with less teaching experience typically produce smaller learning gains in their
students compared with more seasoned teachers (Murnane & Steele, 2007). However, most
of those studies have also discovered that the benefits of experience level off after the first
five or so years of teaching.

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). While education is often considered a local and
state matter, the federal government in the past two decades has increased its involvement
in how teachers are prepared and certified and how education is conducted in school dis-
tricts. This effort was undertaken through the “highly qualified” teacher provisions of the
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2002). A new Every Student Succeeds Act (2015) rolled
back many, but not all, of the provisions for accountability embedded in NCLB.
The Every Student Succeeds Act is a federal law that required states to develop plans
that address standards, assessments, school and district accountability, and special help
for struggling schools. ESSA replaced the No Child Left Behind Act and represents a shift
from broad federal oversight of primary and secondary education to greater flexibility and
decision making at the state and local levels.
With ESSA, states are still required to give substantial weight to accountability plans
and academic indicators. With ESSA, states will:

1. Have greater flexibility in selection of goals for testing, English-language learner pro-
ficiency measures, and graduation rates.
2. Be required to include a minimum of one indicator of school quality or student success.
Examples include measures of student engagement; educator engagement; access to
completion of advanced coursework; postsecondary readiness; and school climate/safety.
3. Have to identify and intervene in the bottom 5 percent of low-performing schools and
high schools with graduation rates at or below 67 percent.
4. Still have to test students in reading and mathematics in grades 3-8 and once at the
high school level and report data on subgroups of students (e.g., English learners,
students receiving special education services, racial minorities, and those in poverty).

In 2017, further changes to the federal accountability systems were passed by Congress. For
example, states will no longer be required to label all schools with a summative uniform

M01_BURD5747_08_SE_C01.indd 5 3/14/18 4:58 PM

 6 PART I Foundations of Teaching Methods

s a m p l e STANDARDS
DECISION MAKING AND R EFL ECTION

There are 10 InTASC standards (see pages xvi–xvii), and ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
each standard in the original document includes a list
■■ The teacher understands and knows how to use a vari-
of performances, essential knowledge, and critical dis-
ety of self-assessment and problem-solving strategies
positions to indicate more clearly what is intended in the
to analyze and reflect on his/her practice and to plan
standard.
for adaptations/adjustments.
Because this chapter deals with decision making and
reflection, some representative statements from InTASC ■■ The teacher knows how to build and implement a plan
Standard #9, Professional Learning and Ethical Practice, are for professional growth directly aligned with his/her
listed here concerning topics in this chapter. needs as a growing professional using feedback from
teacher evaluations and observations, data on learner
performance, and school and system-wide priorities.
PERFORMANCES
■■ The teacher engages in ongoing learning oppor-
tunities to develop knowledge and skills in order to CRITICAL DISPOSITIONS
provide all learners with engaging curriculum and ■■ The teacher sees him-/herself as a learner, continuously
learning experiences based on local and state seeking opportunities to draw upon current education
standards. policy and research as sources of analysis and reflec-
■■ The teacher engages in meaningful and appropriate tion to improve practice.
professional learning experiences aligned with his/her ■■ The teacher understands the expectations of the pro-
own needs and the needs of the learners, school, and fession, including codes of ethics, professional stan-
system. dards of practice, and relevant law and policy.

Council of Chief State School Officers. (2011, April). Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) Model Core Teach-
ing Standards: A Resource for State Dialogue. Washington, DC: Author.

rating system (high to low performing). In addition, the U.S. Department of Education
updated the application that states submit as part of gaining federal approval for state
accountability plans. The major changes focused on fewer requirements, including the
elimination of the requirement that states must reach out to groups of educators and advo-
cates in the development of an accountability plan. These changes are consistent with the
recent accountability shift away from the federal government and to the states.

Standards for Teachers

Each state identifies the licensure requirements for teachers. The states do not arbitrarily
select criteria—they often rely on standards proposed by professional educational agencies.
The following standards are among those commonly used by states: (a) InTASC standards,
(b) a Framework for Teaching, and (c) Principles of Learning and Teaching (PLT).
A state may use one set of standards, such as the InTASC standards, and then adapt them
somewhat to serve as the basis for the teacher licensure requirements. Once a state establishes
its teacher licensure requirements, these become the standards that colleges use to design their
teacher education programs. Consequently, you may see that your teacher education program
includes many of the topics listed in the standards. Let’s examine these three sets of standards.

M01_BURD5747_08_SE_C01.indd 6 3/14/18 4:58 PM

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When they were ready for the race back, Tcûskai said: “Go on! You
needn’t wait for me.” He ran under the ground. He came to the goal
first and won the race. The second man to come was Blaiwas, the
third was Wus. When Kûlta overtook Tusasás, he said: “Little brother,
stop and pull this sliver out of my foot with your teeth.” Tusasás
stopped, but he couldn’t get the sliver out; men had to come and
carry Kûlta home.

Blaiwas said: “Now we will hunt deer.” They drove the deer to the
mountain and left Tcûskai alone there. He sent one arrow and killed
all the deer on the mountain.

The next morning Máidikdak’s daughter had a little boy; he grew fast
and soon was running around.

After a time Tcûskai wanted to see his brother. When he got to

Tskel’s house he found that Tskel had a boy larger than his own. The
two little boys were like brothers. Tskel asked Tcûskai to go to the
lake and get him reeds for arrows. “Get the kind of reeds that have
tear-drops on them,” said he. “Those are the best to make arrows.”

Tcûskai went, and looked in every place; when he couldn’t find reeds
with tear-drops on them, he put his fingers in his eyes and made
tears come; then he dropped them on the reeds. He shed so many
tears that his eyelids got swollen; he could hardly see.

When Tcûskai went to the lake, he went along the south side, for old
Sukas, a man-eater, who drew people in with his breath and
swallowed them, lived on the west side. Going home he made a
mistake; he thought the west was the south side,—he couldn’t see
well. Soon he met old Sukas.

Sukas said: “Come and wrestle with me, then you can go home.”
Tcûskai had to wrestle. About the middle of the afternoon he threw
the old man, but as he went down Tcûskai slipped and fell on him.
Sukas’ stomach was so big and flabby that [309]it covered Tcûskai up;
he couldn’t get out and he could scarcely breathe. He didn’t know
what to do. Then he heard Skóla say: “Somebody must scratch and
kick hard; that will kill the old man.”

Tcûskai began to kick and scratch, and in a little while he broke the
skin; the old man’s stomach shrank up. Tcûskai got up and ran
home.

Tskel asked: “Where are the reeds? Why were you gone so long?”

Tcûskai said: “I met old Sukas and wrestled with him.”

“I told you not to go that way,” said Tskel. He was cross and scolded.
That made Tcûskai mad.

The next morning Tcûskai made arrows for his boy and told him to
shoot Tskel’s boy while they were playing. He did, and Tskel’s boy
was two days getting well. Then Tcûskai put poison in an arrow and
told his son to shoot Tskel’s boy again. Tskel knew what his brother
was doing; he put poison in his son’s arrow and told him even if he
were dying, to kill Tcûskai’s boy.

The next day both boys were dead. Tcûskai and Tskel felt lonesome.
Tskel said: “I will go to Lamsewe and swim.”—When people lose
their friends and feel badly about it, they go and swim till they feel
better.—He told Tcûskai to go to another mountain, but he didn’t go;
he followed his brother.

When Tskel saw him, he was mad and he said: “You will be a person
no longer. You will look funny to people and they will laugh at you
when you run in and out of holes. They will think there are five or
six of you, but there will be only one.”

Tcûskai said: “You will no longer be a person, you will have no

power. In winter, when the water freezes, people will hunt for you in
the tula grass and will kill you.”

All this took place. Those two great powers turned into common little
minks and weasels, such as live now and are killed by hunters.

Tcûskai was always full of tricks. He taught his son to kill his cousin;
and that is why people of kin sometimes kill one another now. [310]
[Contents]
 GÄK KILLS PAKOL

CHARACTERS

Gäk Crow Ndukis Hawk

Kiúks An Indian Doctor Pakol Deer
Kumal Pelican Wíle A Fawn
Moi Squirrel Wus Fox

Gäk was an old man and he was a doctor; his wife was young.

Off in the mountains there was a platform of rocks. Gäk lay on the
platform; he was sick. His medicines were the earth and the wind,
and he sang to them all the time, trying to get well.

One morning Gäk told his wife (Wíle) that he was going to die, and
asked her to call to her mother and father and aunts and uncles and
cousins, and tell them to come and see him for the last time.

Wíle stood on the rocks and called: “My mother, my father, my aunts
and uncles and cousins, come and see Gäk; he is going to die.”

Her father was away on the mountain, but he heard her and said:
“That sounds like my child’s voice.”

Right off Wíle saw hundreds of her people gathering and she called
to Gäk: “They are coming! They are coming!”

Gäk got up, turned around, and lay down so there was just room
enough for one person to sit on the edge of the rock. Then he said
to Wíle: “When they get here, have the fattest one, the one with the
black spot on his forehead, sit here by me. I am going to leave him
everything I have.”

When they were all standing around Gäk, he said to the one with
the spot on his forehead: “I want you to be the last man to bid me
good-by.” Then he covered up his head and [311]made a sound like
groaning. The Pakols waited a long time to see him die. At last they
began to say good-by. There was such a crowd that it was sundown
when they were through. Then Gäk told the fat Pakol, the one with
the spot on his forehead, to say good-by.

Just as Pakol was getting up to go, Gäk kicked him off the rock; he
fell over the precipice and was killed. Wíle and all the Pakols were so
scared that they ran away. Gäk went down among the rocks and
began to eat Pakol’s body.

The Pakols said: “The greatest one of us has been killed,” and they
mourned for him. (The Gäk people can never get enough to eat;
they feed themselves with both hands.)

Wus was no longer a person, but he could still talk. He came to the
ledge of rocks, looking for something to eat. He saw Gäk eating and
called out to him: “My brother, how did you get so much meat? How
did you get down there among the rocks?”

“I shut my eyes and jumped. Come down and eat with me.”

“I am afraid.”

“Go back a little way, shut your eyes, run to the edge, and jump.”

Wus said, “Eg! Eg!” and ran, but just as he got to the edge of the
rocks he opened his eyes and stopped. He did that three times.
Gäk scolded, and said: “You must do as I tell you. If you open your
eyes when you jump, you will get killed.”

Wus tried again, then he said: “Oh, my brother, throw me a piece of

meat.”

Gäk said: “If you want to eat, you must come down here.”

“Well, this time I will come!”

Wus jumped, but he caught on the bushes, and climbed back.

Gäk said: “It is getting dark. If you don’t come, you will have
nothing to eat.”

“I will come this time.”

Wus went over the rock like a feather, but when he was half-way
down, he opened his eyes; then he fell and was torn [312]to pieces.
His head, alive and with open eyes, was far away from the body.

Gäk felt badly; he and Wus had always been good friends. He said to
the head: “Wus, I thought you were the strongest person in the
world; now you are torn to pieces. You didn’t do as I told you to;
you opened your eyes.”

Gäk talked to his medicines, the earth and the wind, then he got his
red medicine basket, 1 picked up the pieces of Wus, joined them
together and stepped over the body three times. He covered the
body with the basket and told Wus to lie still, that the basket would
cure him, but he mustn’t get up till he came and took it off. Gäk
went back to eating.

At sundown Wus began to kick and to call: “I am well; come and

take the basket off!” He called many times. Each time Gäk said: “Lie
still a while longer; you needn’t be afraid. There is plenty of meat;
we can’t eat it in all night.” At last Gäk took the basket off.

After that Wus and Gäk lived together. The Pakols wanted to kill Gäk,
because he had killed their best man. All kinds of people hated him,
and wanted to kill him, but when any one got near him he wasn’t
Gäk; he turned into something and got away. One morning two
small men started to hunt for him; when he knew they were coming,
he turned himself into a bird and flew away.

Gäk had a blanket of bright rock (obsidian); he put the blanket

around him, turned into a man just like Ndukis, and sat down on a
high rock in sight of his enemies. He painted his face white, to make
them believe he was Ndukis. His enemies came and looked at him,—
a long line of people. All the people that walk, or crawl, or fly in the
world were there, and all had good eyes. Each man gave his opinion,
and each thought it was Ndukis.

Blaiwas said: “Nobody in the world can see plainer than I can; that is
Ndukis.” Old man Moi knew the man was Gäk, but he didn’t want to
say so. When they asked him what he [313]thought, he said: “You
have a wise old man here” (he meant Kumal); “if he doesn’t tell you
who that man is, I will.”

Gäk sat perfectly still on the rock. He knew that Kumal was wise,
and that he had a blanket made of five kinds of stone. Gäk’s blanket
was made of four kinds of stone.

When Kumal came up, the people gave him a place where he could
stand and look at the man on the rock. He looked a long time, then
said: “How could you be fooled? That is Gäk, the man who killed
Pakol. He has painted his face white and made himself look like
Ndukis, but don’t you see his large mouth?”
Gäk came down from the rock, took his own form, and began to
fight with the crowd. He killed every one who fought with him; some
wouldn’t fight, they ran away.

Gäk struck at Kumal’s throat, cut through the old man’s stone
blanket, and killed him; he tore his body to pieces, threw the pieces
in the water, and said: “You will no longer be a person. You will be a
fisher, and live in the water.” The other bodies Gäk turned to rocks,
then he went off to the mountains. Wus had been eating the bodies
of the men Gäk killed. When the bodies turned to stone, he followed
Gäk to the mountains. [314]

1 A medicine basket is made of tckula, a kind of willow, and is painted red. When
the basket is not a medicine, it is used as a sieve. The old Indian woman who
related this Gäk myth said: “The basket is a good medicine. If a man is wounded,
and the basket is put over him, he gets well.” ↑
[Contents]
 THE STONE PEOPLE

CHARACTERS

Heûwûs The stone that Nkok Bird (English

pounders are made name unknown)
of
Wûspahlákls Hairless Fox (Lakl is Lŭ′luphlainik Name of a hill
hair) (Lulup is eye)

A great many of the Heûwûs people lived near Tula Lake. They were
smooth, round people. They had no faces, but they could talk to one
another. Every morning and evening a young woman passed their
place on her way to the lake to catch fish. They knew when she was
coming, for she sang as she traveled. They could hear her far off.
Her song said: “I am a great hunter of fish and of seeds.”

The young men of the Heûwûs people listened for the girl’s song and
were glad when they heard it; they thought she was nice-looking,
and they wanted to marry her. Some said: “We can’t talk to her;”
others said: “Maybe she isn’t good; she might break us up.” “Why
should we be afraid?” asked others. “If she broke us to pieces, we
wouldn’t die; we shall never die.” The chief said: “Let that girl alone.
I like her; every morning her song wakes me up.” One man said: “I
don’t want her to pass so often; the next time she goes by here I
will say something to her.”

That evening when the girl passed, nobody spoke to her; some of
the men wanted to, but others wouldn’t let them.
Early the next morning the Heûwûs people heard the girl’s song and
said to one another: “She is coming!” “She doesn’t hurt us,” said one
young man. “Don’t bother her.” “Why does she come here so often?”
asked another. “Maybe she belongs to this place.” One big Heûwûs
said: “I am stronger than any of you. I will have this good-looking
girl for a wife.” “Maybe she will break you to pieces,” said one [315]of
the young men. “I am not afraid; she can’t kill me. If she hurts my
body, I will hurt her in some way.”

The girl listened to the Heûwûs people: when she was a long way
off, she could hear them talking.

Some of the young men sent their spirits to the lake to turn to fish
and jump up in the water and paddle around where the girl was.

“Why do you come here?” asked the girl. “You can’t fool me. You
may turn to anything you like, but I will know you. I have heard you
talking about me; I don’t like you. You needn’t be jealous because I
go around here. This is my place. Maybe I shall live here as long as
you do.”

The young men were ashamed; their spirits went back to their
bodies, became Heûwûs again.

That evening, when the girl went home, there was a nice-looking
bow lying on the path she always traveled. She said: “I wonder what
man is trying to fool me now?”

When she got near the creek, she met a number of the Nkok people.
They asked: “Did you see a bow?”

“It is back there on the trail,” said the girl. “What are you doing
around here? Why do you bother me? What kind do you think I am?
I belong to this earth. I was made when this earth was made. The
place around here is mine. I know when anybody is trying to fool
me. What could I use you for? Don’t you see that I travel as wind
and air travel? I have no use for you. You will no longer be living
persons; you will be hunters of fish in lakes and creeks.” Right away
the men turned to birds and flew off over the water.

The next morning, when the Heûwûs people heard the girl’s song,
the chief said to the young men who had sent their spirits to be fish
and bother her: “You have made trouble for us all. You shouldn’t
have meddled with that girl. She is powerful; she will be mad now
and will do us harm.”

When the girl came along the trail, she saw Wûspahlákls sitting in
front of her. He looked sleepy.

She said: “Who are you? No living person looks as ugly as you do.
Go away!” [316]

Wûspahlákls lay down on the trail; he didn’t listen to her. She went
around him on the north side.

When she came to the Heûwûs’ place, she sat down and looked at
them. She said: “Why, you nice little Heûwûs, you are as smooth as
you can be.”

She picked up one and struck the ground with him; he didn’t break.
She said: “Oh it is not easy to break you, is it?”

The Heûwûs screamed: “Oh! Oh! you hurt me! You think that I am
not a living being, but I am.”

“You are talking to me; I am glad,” said the girl. “That is what I
want. You haven’t spoken to me before, but I have heard you talk
about me. I don’t hate you. You belong here, and so do I. I thought
we should be here always and be friends, but you don’t want it that
way.” She put the Heûwûs down and went on. Soon she saw
Wûspahlákls again; he sat on the trail in front of her. She called to
him: “Get out of my way!” When he didn’t move, she took off a bone
scratcher she wore around her neck, went up to him, scratched off
all of his flesh, and pounded him to death. Then she went on.

The next morning Wûspahlákls crossed the trail in front of her and
went into the bushes. The girl stopped; she was scared. She went
home, painted her body and her hair red, and started of in another
direction; she traveled around everywhere and asked every one she
met: “Who owns you?” She asked the rocks, the trees, the leaves. At
last she asked a little hill: “Who are you?”

“I am Lŭl′uphlainik,” said the hill.

“Whose eye are you?” asked the girl.

“I am this earth’s eye.”

The girl camped by the hill, and said to it: “I want you to tell me
about yourself.”

The hill said: “All these things around here belong to the earth; they
were made at the same time. This is not a good place for you. Over
on the lake, where two little air boys live, is a nice place for you.”

The girl was short and thin, and after she was painted she was red
all over. She started for the lake. As she was passing [317]a
mountain, a voice spoke out of it, and asked: “Where are you
going?” Right away she was gone; she sank into the earth; only one
eye looked out of the ground.

“Where have you gone now?” asked the voice.

“I am looking at you,” said the girl. “You are bad. I want you to be
something else.”

She came out of the ground, rubbed black paint on her hands, and
on her face, from her chin to the top of her forehead. Then she
asked: “Who are you who talk so much and make such a noise? I
want you to go far off on the mountain, where you can’t bother
people who are traveling around. Go where you won’t be seen
often.”

He couldn’t go unless he looked at her. She knew this, so she said:

“Look at me; I want to be friends with you.”

He had to look at her; he couldn’t help it.

That moment he became as red as she was. She said: “I am a spirit

and hereafter you will be a spirit. Sometimes we will help each
other.” As soon as he looked at her, he went off to the mountain.
Each spirit went its way and both will live always. [318]
[Contents]
 PITOÍOIS

CHARACTERS

Kāhkaas Stork Tskel Mink

Kûlta Otter Wûlkûtska Marten
Pitoíois

Pitoíois and her two brothers lived together; their father and mother
were dead.

Pitoíois was beautiful; she had a long neck, and her hair was black
and so long that it touched the ground. She was the fastest worker
in the world. She was always digging roots. With one dig she could
bring up a whole basketful. In a day she dug over a large plain as
though it had been ploughed. She piled up the roots, thought “I
want them in my basket,” and they were there.

Pitoíois’ brothers were great hunters; while she was digging roots,
they were hunting for deer, but they never got out of sight of their
sister, for they thought Wus might come and bother her.

Wus was always watching Pitoíois, but he didn’t go near her; he was
afraid of her brothers.

One day Pitoíois’ brothers asked: “Are you through digging roots in
the places we found for you?”

“Yes, I am ready for another place. Are there many places around
here?”
“There are a few more. Are you tired?” asked the elder brother.

“I am not tired, but I’m afraid; I always feel that somebody is

looking at me.”

“Who are you afraid of?” asked her brother.

“Of Wus. I know that he is watching me all the time.”

“Though we are off on the mountains we always see you,” [319]said

her brother. “Nobody has been near you. There are two more plains
to dig over; then we will go away from here. Sometimes I see a
smoke on a mountain, but it is far off.”

Pitoíois dug all the roots and pounded them up. Then the brothers
moved to a new place. They made a brush house and went to look
for a deer.

The next morning Pitoíois began to dig roots in a place where her
brothers could watch her. The elder brother had such powerful eyes
that he could count all the trees, all the brush, and all the plants; he
could count everything. He looked far off in the east and saw
somebody dodge behind a tree. It was Wus. When he saw him,
though the sun wasn’t in the middle of the sky, he went to his sister
and took her home.

“I don’t know why I am so afraid,” said Pitoíois. “I feel worse every

day, but I never see anybody.”

“To-day I saw somebody off on the mountain,” said her brother.

“That’s what I thought!” said Pitoíois. “Every day I feel that

somebody is looking at me; to-day I was frightened.”
Wus camped on the top of the mountain. He thought: “I wonder
why those men never leave their sister? I can do anything I like; I
am Wus. I will make them forget her.” He began singing, sang a
beautiful song. All day and all night he sang, to draw their minds out
of them, and make them forget Pitoíois.

The girl was uneasy; she wanted to finish her work. In two days all
the fields were dug up. She packed the roots without waiting to
clean them, and her brothers moved to a place not far from where
the five Wûlkûtska brothers lived. The father of those brothers was a
great eater; he could never get enough to satisfy him.

Wus followed Pitoíois. He said to himself: “This time they will forget
her.” The girl went to dig roots and her brothers started off to hunt.
The flat was square, but Wus made it long, and he multiplied the
roots. It took Pitoíois all day to dig them. Wus talked and sang; the
brothers couldn’t hear the song, but they felt it and forgot all about
their sister. [320]

“I am losing my mind,” said the elder brother. “I feel as I did when I

was a little child.”

“I feel that way, too,” said the younger brother.

When they got to the house, their sister was there; she had her
roots in the creek, washing off the mud. When they told her how
they felt, and that they almost forgot her, she said: “I am not afraid
now; I don’t feel as I did in those other places.”

The next day the brothers said to Pitoíois: “We are going to hunt;
you had better stay in the house and pound the roots. Don’t lie
down; if you do, you will go to sleep and harm will come to you.”
Pitoíois pounded her roots, worked with her beads, and then
straightened out her hair to see how long it had grown; it dragged
on the ground.

The brothers went in different directions to look for deer; when they
met, the younger brother said: “Off in the east from where I was I
heard a man singing a beautiful song.”

“Perhaps it was Wus,” said the elder brother; “he is always trying to
deceive people.”

When they were home and were through eating, the younger
brother said: “I wish I had something to amuse myself with.”

“What do you want?” asked his brother. He thought it was wisdom or

nice beads.

“I want a wife.” (Wus had put that thought into his mind.)

“There are no women near here,” said his brother.

“We can go far off and hunt for one.”

“I am willing to go,” said the elder brother.

The next morning they said to Pitoíois: “We are going away; you
must stay in the house and pound roots.”

“I shall get tired of staying here; I shall want to dig roots, but I will
stay near the house.”

The brothers went toward the north. The first house they came to
was Kāhkaas’. “What are you traveling around here for?” asked the
old man.
“We travel around to see people, but we have traveled a good many
days and we haven’t seen anyone.” [321]

“Are you looking for a young woman?” asked Kāhkaas.

“Yes, we want a wife. Do you know where there are any women?”

“I know the daughter of old man Kûlta.”

“We don’t want her; she dives under the water. We can’t dive. We
want some woman who goes on dry land as we do.”

“There is nobody around here,” said Kāhkaas. “As long as I have

lived I’ve seen no woman but Kûlta’s daughter. You had better go
toward the west; you may find people in that direction.”

The brothers started off. They were gone a long time.

Pitoíois got tired of staying in the house and she went to dig roots.

Going east, in lines from north to south, she left the land in furrows.
Wus had made the flat wide and full of roots. When she got to the
east end of the flat, she turned and started for home.

Wus changed himself into a nice-looking young man, with long black
hair. His clothes were covered with beads and he wore beautiful
moccasins. He overtook Pitoíois, pulled her down on the ground, and
put his head on her lap.

She cried and begged him to let go of her. Her cry sounded like sad
singing; she cried her own name: “Pitoíois, Pitoíois.”

The five Wûlkûtska brothers were hunting. The youngest brother

heard Pitoíois’ cry, but it sounded far off. At first he thought it was a
bird singing. He heard it again and stopped to listen; then he
thought: “That must be the sister of the two hunters.” He heard it
five times, and the fifth time the cry sounded so sad and pitiful that
he went toward it. He traveled till night: still the song was far away,
then he went home. He had no game. Each one of his brothers had
a large deer.

Those brothers had had many wives, but their father had killed and
eaten them. When the young man told his brothers what he had
heard, they said: “It must be the sister of the hunters,” and they
wondered why she cried. “Perhaps Wus has caught her,” said one of
them; “he is always tormenting women.” [322]

“Her brothers watch her; nobody can go near her,” said the youngest
brother.

“Perhaps they have gone far off,” said the eldest brother.

Pitoíois was sitting on the ground and crying. Her eyes were so
swollen they could scarcely be seen. Wus kept teasing her to go to
his house, but she wouldn’t go, no matter what he promised.

The next morning, when the five brothers went to hunt, they kept
near together. They killed a deer and built a fire and roasted some of
the meat. What they didn’t roast, they hung on a tree. All the bones
were left on the ground. While they were eating, the youngest
brother heard something and he listened. His brothers noticed that
he stopped eating.

“What is the matter?” asked the eldest brother.

“I’ve bitten my tongue.”

“No, it’s not that; you hear something.”

Then he told them that he heard the cry that he had heard before.
They didn’t hear it, but they said: “We will find out what it is.” As
they followed the youngest brother, they all heard the cry. When
they came to the top of the mountain, where Wus was when he was
singing, they looked down into the valley and saw a beautiful girl
sitting on the ground, crying. They knew who she was but they were
afraid to go to her; they were afraid of her brothers. Then they saw
that a man was lying with his head on her lap, and they knew it was
Wus.

“If we save her,” said one of the brothers, “which of us will have
her?”

“I don’t want a wife,” said the eldest brother; “our youngest brother
can have her.”

The youngest brother shot an arrow. It went under the ground and
came out near Wus. He jumped. The brothers went down the
mountain, the youngest in front. When he got to where the girl was
sitting, he snatched her away from Wus. Wus turned into a fox and
ran off. Then the young man took Pitoíois by the hand and sprang
with her over five mountains, a spring for each mountain.

His brothers said: “What shall we do to keep the old man [323]from
eating this girl? She is too nice to be eaten up. We must watch him
all the time and kill him if he tries to get her.”

Tskel was the servant of the old man and his five sons. He stayed at
home with the old man and watched for the sons to come. He was
on the top of the house looking for them when he saw them coming
with Pitoíois. He ran in and said to the old man: “They are coming
with a beautiful woman.”
“Where are they?” asked the old man. He was pounding people’s
bones.

“You needn’t think that you are going to eat her; she is too
beautiful,” said Tskel, and he snatched the old man’s mortar and
threw it away.

The old man went out and found the mortar. “Don’t you do that
again,” said he. “I can’t do without my cap” (he always called the
mortar his cap), and he put it under his arm.

When the brothers came, they told Tskel to watch their father and
not let him hurt Pitoíois. The old man didn’t look at the girl while his
sons were around, but as soon as they went to hunt he got up and
began to move around.

“Why do you get up?” asked Tskel. “You always move around when
you have a daughter-in-law; you want to eat her. Sit down!” When
he didn’t sit down, Tskel jumped on him and pushed him down.
Tskel liked the old man and didn’t want him to do wrong.

When Tskel told the brothers how their father acted, they were
frightened. They said: “We had better take the girl back to her
brothers. In two days we will start.”

The next day Pitoíois wanted to dig roots. The eldest brother asked
his father if he would let her alone if she dug roots for him to eat.

“Yes,” said the old man. They told little Tskel to watch him; then they
went off to hunt for deer.

Pitoíois dug a great many roots. As fast as she dug them, the old
man pounded them in his mortar and ate them. He ate till midday,
then he was satisfied. He praised Pitoíois, called her daughter-in-law,
and told her he would never hurt her. [324]
“Don’t believe him,” said Tskel; “he always talks that way, but he
never tells the truth.”

Pitoíois dug roots till night, then took home a basketful and put them
around the house, a handful in a place. Each handful became a big
pile. At the end of two days she had a great many roots dug. When
the brothers got ready to go home with her, the old man pounded
dried meat for them to take; there were five large piles of it. As each
brother reached down to take his load, it became so light and small
that he felt that he had nothing to carry.

The old man began to move around again. “Keep still, old man,” said
Tskel. “As soon as they get away, you can pound your roots.” When
he wouldn’t keep still, Tskel snatched his mortar and threw it out.
The old man went quickly and brought it back.

Pitoíois and the brothers traveled till midday; then the youngest
brother put a small piece of dried meat in a basket. Right away the
basket was full of meat. He put the basket on Pitoíois’ back and told
her to go to her brothers’ house; they would be there by night.

When Pitoíois’ brothers came home and found the arrow sticking up
in the ground, and saw Wus’ tracks, they knew that he had been
tormenting their sister, and that the five brothers, the great arrow
men, had taken her away. They felt badly; they hung out the clothes
she used to wear and began to cry.

When Pitoíois was near home, she heard her brothers crying and it
made her feel sad. They were glad when they saw her. When they
asked where she had been, she said: “The five Wûlkûtska brothers
saved me from Wus; I am the wife of the youngest brother.”

“Where are they now?” asked her brothers.

“On the mountain near here.”

“You must get ready something for them to eat.”

Pitoíois pounded roots, and her elder brother made a place for the
men to sit. When they came in, he called the youngest man brother-
in-law.

The Wûlkûtska brothers felt badly; they were afraid that the old man
would kill Tskel and then follow them. [325]

Old Wûlkûtska made Tskel sleep; then he tracked his sons. Soon he
was on top of the last mountain. He was the fastest traveler in the
world. He peeped over the top of the mountain and looked around in
the valley.

When the Wûlkûtska brothers and Pitoíois were ready to start for
home, her brother said to the youngest Wûlkûtska: “She is all the
sister we have; you must be good to her. She will work and help you
feed your father.”

When the brothers looked toward the mountain, they saw their
father looking over the top of it. The eldest brother went around the
mountain, came up behind the old man, and snatched the mortar
from under his arm, just as he was taking it out to throw at Pitoíois.

“Why are you here?” asked the son. “We told you to stay with Tskel.
You are not safe when you are away from home.”

“I wanted to see the brothers of my daughter-in-law.”

“You can’t see them. Go home!” said the son, and he was so angry
that he threw his father’s mortar over four mountains. It came down
in front of their house.
Old Wûlkûtska could do nothing without his mortar; he hurried after
it.

When Tskel woke up and didn’t see the old man, he was terribly
scared. He went out to hunt for him just in time to see the mortar
coming and dodge it. When it fell, he picked it up, took it to the
creek, and buried it in mud; only the rim of the mortar could be
seen. Tskel had to hurry, for the old man was coming fast, like a
cloud.

When he got to the house, he called to Tskel: “Where is my cap?

Where is my cap?”

“I don’t know where your cap is.”

“Tell me quickly. I am almost dead.”

“I don’t know; you always take it with you. What have you done with
it?”

“I shall die. I want it now. Hurry and find it! I am sleepy.” That
minute he dropped on the ground, dead. The mortar was his
medicine, his life.

Tskel tried to make him get up. He pushed him, and said: [326]“Get
up, old man, your sons are coming. Don’t sleep so long.” When he
didn’t move, Tskel was frightened and sorry. He ran to the creek, got
the mortar and put it in the sun to dry. As soon as it was dry, he ran
to the old man, and said: “Get up, grandfather; I have found your
cap!” Tskel was crying.

Wûlkûtska didn’t move; he was cold and stiff. Tskel pushed him ever
so many times, but he didn’t stir. Then Tskel took his own medicine,
a stick that he carried behind his ear, and hit Wûlkûtska with it; he
moved a little. Tskel hit him again, kept hitting him, and saying: “Get
up, grandfather, get up, grandfather! Here is your cap.”

At last the old man came to life. Then Tskel said: “I hid your cap to
see how I could kill you. You must never tease your daughter-in-law,
for I know where your life is. If you kill her, I shall hide your cap and
not get it for you.”

The old man was frightened, but his mind wasn’t changed. When he
saw his sons coming, he went into the house and watched them
through the cracks. When they were near, Pitoíois put down her
basket. As soon as they were in the house, the old man went out to
see if they had brought roots; he hunted everywhere, but couldn’t
find the basket.

“Why don’t you stay in the house?” asked his son.

“I am hungry. I am hunting for what you brought. I haven’t eaten

anything for two days. The first day I ate all you left in the house.”

Pitoíois told him where the basket was. He was going to jump at it
and swallow all the roots at once, but she called to him: “Put down a
large skin and pour the roots on to it, then take up a pinch of them
with the ends of your fingers; that pinch will be so big that you can’t
eat all of it.”

“There isn’t a mouthful in the whole basket,” said the old man, and
he was going to swallow all of them. When his son ran toward him,
he snatched a handful of the roots and ate them. That moment he
was so full that roots ran out of his mouth, and on to the ground; he
fell down, rolled over, and choked to death.

Pitoíois gathered up the roots that were on the ground, made

[327]them small, put them in the basket, and covered the basket up.
The son’s were glad that their father was dead, but Pitoíois felt
badly; she liked her father-in-law, and didn’t want to kill him. She hit
the old man two blows on the back and two on the head. The roots
came out of him, only enough were left to satisfy his appetite, and
he was alive again.

Tskel said: “See what you got by doing what your daughter-in-law
told you not to do. Don’t do that way again. Next time no one will
save you; you will die and stay dead.”

The old man didn’t listen to Tskel’s words; his mind wasn’t changed.
The next morning, when the brothers were starting off to hunt deer,
they said to Tskel: “Watch the old man; don’t let him torment
Pitoíois. She has power and knows what she can do to him if he
makes her angry.”

Old Wûlkûtska slept till afternoon; when he woke up, Pitoíois had
gone for water. He looked through the cracks and watched for her to
come; he meant to kill her. When Pitoíois was near the house, he
raised his mortar ready to throw it.

Tskel was watching him; he crept up, snatched the mortar, and said:
“Old man, what are you doing? What did your sons tell you? They
will kill you if you harm your daughter-in-law. They didn’t care for
their other wives,—they were common women and could do
nothing; but this woman has power.”

The old man was helpless, for Tskel had his mortar. He promised not
to harm Pitoíois.

When the brothers came home, Tskel didn’t tell them what
Wûlkûtska had tried to do, but when Pitoíois wouldn’t eat they asked
her what the trouble was, and she said: “Your father came near
killing me.” The youngest son was so mad that he snatched his
father’s mortar and broke it into bits.

That minute the old man turned as red as fire and every little bit of
the mortar was as red as fire. He ran and gathered up the bits, held
them tight up to himself; and right away the mortar was there.

The brothers were scared; they thought: “He can’t be killed, but he
has the power to kill us.” Tskel said: “Don’t [328]feel badly, there is
one way to kill him. If you bury his mortar in the ground under
water, he will die. I tried it one day.”

Now the five brothers started off for a long hunt and Pitoíois went
with them. They said to Tskel: “If the old man gets hungry, you can
come for deer’s meat; we will leave some hanging on trees around
our camping places.”

The first day they killed a deer they hung the meat on trees and left
the bones on the ground.

In one day old Wûlkûtska ate all that had been left in the house;
then he made Tskel sleep and started to track his sons. He found the
bones and he pounded and ate them. That night, when the brothers
were making a camp in the bushes, they came upon a cave. In the
morning they told Pitoíois to stay in the cave while they were
hunting, and not to go out; that there were snakes around, and she
mustn’t go to sleep, for if she did they would bite her.

When Tskel woke up and found that the old man was not in the
house, he was frightened, and he ran out to find him. He followed
his tracks till he came to where he was pounding and eating bones.

“Why did you come here?” asked Tskel. “Didn’t your sons tell you to
stay at home?”
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