Diary as Literature

Through the Lens of Multiculturalism in America

Edited by
Angela R. Hooks, PhD
Independent Scholar

Series in Literary Studies

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 Table of contents

Acknowledgements vii

Introduction: Diary as a Quasi-Literary Genre ix

Angela R. Hooks, PhD
Independent Scholar

Part I. Diaries of the American Civil War 1

Chapter 1 Using Personal Diaries as a Site for

Reconstructing African American History 3
Corey D. Greathouse
Austin Community College, Texas

Chapter 2 Writing Their Lives During the Civil War:

The Diaries of Irish-American Soldiers
in the Union Army 15
Daniel P. Kotzin
Medaille College, Buffalo, New York

Chapter 3 “Of him who has carried it on the tented

field”: William P. Woodlin’s Diary as
Representation of Shifting Racial Statuses
in Civil War Era America 29
Anthony David Franklin
Penn State University, Pennsylvania

Chapter 4 A Lifetime Sowing the Blues: The Diary

of Lucius Clark Smith, 1834-1915 41
Kelsey Paige Mason
The Ohio State University, Columbus

Chapter 5 “I Can't Pass Away from Her”: Adaptation and

the Diaristic Impulse of The Wind Done Gone 59
Suzy Woltmann
University of California, San Diego
 Part II. Diaries of Trips & Letters of the Diaspora 71

Chapter 6 Black Women’s Journals Reflect Mine, Yours,

and Ours: Through the Travel Writing of
Juanita Harrison 73
Chimene Jackson
Vagabroad Journals, Brooklyn, New York

Chapter 7 When the Clash of Cultures is Like the Clash

of Cymbals: Olive Dame Campbell’s
Appalachian Travels 89
Philip Krummrich and Alexa Potts
Morehead State University, Kentucky

Chapter 8 The Lost Girl of Havana: A Tale of Afro-Cuban

Diasporic Memory 103
Aisha Z. Cort
Howard University, Washington DC

Part III. Diaries of Family and Jail, & a Memoir 121

Chapter 9 The Praxis of Oral Diaries Maintained

by Bengali Women: Considering Personal
Autoethnography & Motherhood Narrative 123
Sumaira Ahammed
St. John’s University, Queens, New York

Chapter 10 Diaries of Me, Myself, and Grandma 137

Angela R. Hooks
Independent Scholar

Chapter 11 Mixed-Race Memoirs: Uncovering

Color-Blind Multiculturalism 145
Virginia Maresca
St. John’s University, Queens, New York
Chapter 12 “Worth Writing About”: Lil Wayne’s Jail
Journal Gone ‘Til November 157
Rachel Wagner
Seton Hall University, South Orange, New Jersey

Contributors 165

Bibliography 169

Index 179
 Acknowledgements

To all the contributors of this anthology, thank you for your time and your
talent. This collection would not be possible without your scholarship and
your passion to learn about people, places, and other things through the pri-
vate writings of diaries, notebooks, and journals.
 Introduction:
Diary as a Quasi-Literary Genre

Angela R. Hooks, PhD

Independent Scholar

The idea to curate this book derived from the roundtable session The Diary as
Literature Through the Lens of Multiculturalism in America for NeMLA 2019
conference. That roundtable discussion was the result of two courses I taught:
one at Ramapo the College of New Jersey for 2018 spring semester by the
same name, and the other at St. John’s University as Literature as a Global
Context. The concept to teach diary as literature sprouted from my passion for
diary writing and grew into a scholarship about the history, methods, and
rhetorical context of keeping a diary. Throughout three decades I progressed
from writing in a diary to teaching others to write in a diary, to bringing the
diary into the classroom to researching the lives of other diary keepers, and
reading other people’s diaries—published and unpublished— to writing my
dissertation about diary writing. My dissertation specifically focused on Black
women diary writers because their diaries had been “lost through sabotage”
and “rarely published.”1 However, through the lens of multiculturalism this
collection expands the historically marginalized voice, illustrating how diary-
keepers find their expressive language, explore their identity, and understand
themselves, their intimate relationships, and the world around them using the
diary. The mix of diary voices, side by side, document and demonstrate how
social pressures and literary practices affect people despite race, culture,
creed, or pedigree. For the readers of those diaries, there remains a hidden
meaning or intent behind the entries only the diarist can explain thus blurring
the lines between private thoughts and public information.2 As a result, the
reader becomes interested in the life of the diarist, sometimes beyond the
diary pages. Other times, the reader must simply accept what the diarist has
written without interpretation and let the diary characterize the writer. For
example, in the diary of William P. Woodlin, he does not record his personal
memories only the observation of the war. Therefore, the reader of his diary
will not learn about his family life before the war.
Just as the diary voices vary, the essays differ, as well. They are both academ-
ic and creative non-fiction essays to appeal to both a scholarly audience and
x Introduction

the mass public. While academic writing is intellectually driven and a logically
ordered process, creative non-fiction writing is holistic in which the writer
offers a sense of self and identity, their emotional orientation to their writing
and the creative process is similar to the diary writer—autobiographical. For
example, my essay “Diaries of Me, Myself and Grandma” gives a first-person
account of my desire to find and read my grandmother’s diaries as a sense of
self and conversation with my grandmother. The blend of academic and crea-
tive non-fiction writing illustrates how the diary can be cross-disciplinary in
the field of humanities. The writers in this collection are graduate students,
instructors, professors, historians, and artists studying, teaching, and writing
about literature and history from the post-colonial to the contemporary era.
We are, in terms of the blurred boundaries of literature, literary anthropologist
intrigued about people, signs, and text reading and analyzing other cultures
and the product of that culture through the lens of the diary.
To fill the void in the diary as literature genre this anthology offers a wide
range of formats and categories based on diaries from the Civil War to nation-
al and international travel and diaspora to family diaries and writing lyrics
while in prison. Since the diary is an autobiographical text, this collection
looks at diaries as ethnography, memoir, and letter writing, as well as the diary
in the novel consequently, diary as a quasi-literary genre. Although each essay
focuses on different types of diaries and formats, different time periods each
diary is connected. They reconstruct fragmented stories of diverse communi-
ties and cultures in America from the nineteenth century to the contemporary
moment exposing that no one has an easy life. Each diarist has a way of flee-
ing time hoping their “book will let each day live beyond its midnight, let it
continue somewhere outside its place in a finite row of falling dominoes.”3
Each diarist wrote with an audience in mind—first for themselves, and then
for someone else offering a narrative continuity. Thomas Mallon claims, “that
no one every kept a diary for himself. In fact, I don’t believe one can write to
oneself for many words more than get used in a note tacked to the refrigera-
tor, saying “Buy Bread.” Before another sentence is added becomes a psycho-
logical impossibility; the words have a start going someplace. Your “you” may
be even less palpable than mine, but someday,” even “a hundred years from
now, going through boxes in an attic…an audience will turn up.”4 For in-
stance, when Emilie F. Davis, a freeborn woman sat down to write in her
pocket diaries,1863-1865, she did not write for an audience. However, a hun-
dred years later, her diaries were discovered, read, edited, and published first
by Judith Giesberg, a professor of history and then by Karsonya Whitehead, a
professor of African American Studies. Both editions were published in 2014,
Emilie Davis’s Civil War: The Diaries of a Free Black Woman in Philadelphia,
and The Notes From a Colored: the Civil War Pocket Diaries of Emilie Frances
Davis, respectively. The publication of Davis’s pocket diaries supports White-
Introduction xi

head’s claim: “The moment you record something on paper; that record has
the potential to find its way into the hands of others—even if it takes years to
get there.”5 Although Davis’s pocket diaries were private and personal, before
the mid-nineteenth century, men and women’s diaries were semi-public doc-
uments. Mothers left their diaries where the family could read them, sisters
co-wrote diaries, fathers wrote notes in their daughters’ diaries and female
friends exchanged diaries while men published theirs.6
When teaching this course Diary as Literature Through the Lens of Multicul-
turalism in America, it required a definition for multiculturalism. Therefore,
multiculturalism was presented as the sociocultural experiences of un-
derrepresented groups who fall outside the mainstream of race, ethnicity,
religion, gender, sexual orientation, disability, and language. Multiculturalism
reflects different cultures and racial groups with equal rights and opportuni-
ties, equal attention and representation without assimilation. In America, the
multicultural society includes various cultural and ethnic groups that do not
necessarily have engaging interaction with each other whereas intercultural is
a community of cultures who learn from each other, and have respect and
understand different cultures. For this reason, Diary as Literature offers the
same intercultural community with different types of diaries and purposes.
In Bulletproof Diva, Tales of Race, Sex, and Hair, the author, Lisa Jones, de-
scribes how she invented multiculturalism and intersected cultures as a black
child born in New York City to a Jewish woman and a Black man. Jones sport-
ed an afro, braids, accidental dreadlocks, and the Farrah Fawcett flip in the
name of culture and identity. She ate potato kugel and boiled chicken in her
Jewish aunt’s kitchen because Aunt Fannie was “the only Jewish relative who
didn’t disown my mother for marrying a black man.”7 She attended a high
school in Chinatown, lost her virginity to an Italian drug dealer, and dated his
black son. Jones illustrates how she crossed cultural boundaries with music
and food. She writes: “The kid introduced me to Jimi Hendrix and sushi. I gave
him Chaka Khan and Caporel’s Spanish-style fried chicken.” She read: “Wole
Soyinka, William Carlos Williams, and Gloria Anzaldua”8 to acquaint herself
with the political activism of a Nigerian memoirist, the poems of a multicul-
tural doctor and writer, and the isolation and anger of marginalized Chicana
poet. She learned that cultural pluralism was an “everyday life led by thou-
sands of Americans, black, yellow, brown, red and yes, even white.” Similar to
Jones’s intersecting cultures the essays in Diary as Literature connect and
explore multiculturalism and intercultural relations of African-Americans and
Irish-Americans soldiers during the American Civil War experienced, the Afro-
Cuban diaspora, and the travel adventures of Black woman from American, as
well as the sorrows of a teacher in rural Ohio and the traditions of a Bengali
immigrant in New York City, along with the narratives of mixed-race barriers
xii Introduction

of a biracial men and a rapper’s musing while in jail. As Virginia Marecsca’s

quotes in her essay, “Mixed-Race Memoirs: Uncovering Color Blind Multicul-
turalism,” “The United States can work to shatter social constructs by sharing
personal experiences that speak to our common humanity, exposing, and
eschewing an American multiculturalism that is rooted in white supremacy to
celebrate a multiculturalism that embodies respect for all races.”
Literary genre boundaries blur therefore Diary as Literature focuses on di-
ary writing as a quasi-literary genre that includes published and un-
published diaries, oral diaries, diaries as memoir writing, diaries in the nov-
el, letters, and travel literature. Thus, the book is divided into three sections:
Diaries of the American Civil War, Diaries of Trips and Letters of Diaspora,
and Diaries of Family, Prison Lyrics, and a Memoir — a marginalized voice
that has not been homogenized.

On Diary-Keeping

The essays in Diary as Literature Through a Multicultural Lens in America

focus on personal writings from the nineteenth century to contemporary
era. The personal writings are considered diaries within the quasi-literary
diary genre, which includes letters, memoirs, autobiography and the novel.
Because these diaries reflect race, ethnicity, gender, and class, I want to offer
some theoretical context about diaries to create a thread that weaves the
diaries in this collection together despite their differences: form, content,
function, and time period.
This is not a complete history of the diary genre but a brief overview of its ori-
gins because over four centuries the diary in America has shifted and evolved
from spiritual matters of clergy to introspection of the ordinary person. Mallon
explains the diary began with the late sixteenth century reformed clergyman in
East Anglican as a means of magnifying godliness, examining their conscience,
and preparing for an encounter with God in prayer and communion.9 Evidence
points to East Anglicans exchanging diaries with Puritan for the edification of
each other, a Christian principal throughout the Holy Writ. The exchange of
diaries for edification shifted to a Protestant art form during the mid-
seventeenth century. The Non-Conformist charted their spiritual progress in the
diary as a space for self-discipline, self-judgement, and self-watching purposes.
Therefore, when the practice came to America the habit of diary keeping was no
longer confined to the clergy but practiced by lay people, settlers, free, and en-
slaved Black Americans — people who wanted to discover who they really were,
their inner lives. The diary evolved into what journal guru Ira Progoff described
as a space to gain awareness about diverse areas of your life, connect to the real
self, making possible our subjective experiences.
Introduction xiii

Despite its beginnings or its continent or time period, diaries remain a

means of expressing oneself in writing, and its creation is based on the culture
or the community at that historical moment. The diary has become a dialogue
with history and that history has been reconstructed within the pages of the
journal written in first person with chronological entries and dated pages. The
dated page helps the diarist pinpoint a moment in their life and what is going
on in the world around them, such as civil wars, travel journeys, family mat-
ters, and literary achievements. Writing down memories gives the diary-
keeper both an emotional and actual experience of what has happened as
they remember it. Within these pages, the diarist decides purpose and lan-
guage, technique and frequency.
Theoretically, I suggest that the act of keeping a diary began with the
commonplace book, as a means of “excerpting and note-taking.”10 A book to
write down all the knowledge a person has acquired from books, mentors,
life experience, nature, and the world around them—spiritual and physical,
emotional and social.
The commonplace book commenced in the seventeenth and eighteenth
century in an attempt to categorize beliefs such as religion, politics, and love.
The act of writing down useful quotes from well-known authors and arranging
them by topic, heading or place become known as “commonplacing.”11 For
schoolboys commonplacing was purely academic. For example, the writer
selected an important word, preferably Latin, as the heading, (i.e. Confessio)
penned it on the left side of the first empty double page along with the ex-
cerpt, notes or question, and respective source. On the next page, the writer
repeated the process with a different heading (i.e. Itineranur). Each time that
particular topic reappeared, the writer returned to that page to record im-
portant notes. Within these pages existed bits of humor, a quote, poem, piece
of prose, song lyrics and newspaper clippings. Within the framework of the
diary, Daniel Kotzin describes these pages as the “literary identity” in his essay
“Writing Irish Lives During the Civil War.” Kotzin points to the four stanzas of
“The Star-Spangled Banner” transcribed on the first page of Corporal Timothy
Regan’s diary, along with poems and songs and short stories.
For schoolgirls, the repetitiveness of copying poetry and quotes in their
commonplace books were lessons in handwriting and socially appropriate
femininity. For women, throughout the late sixteenth and seventeenth centu-
ry, the diary served as family books to document everyday domestic experi-
ences and as a private record for supporting and maintaining their husband’s
activities. For the social elite, diary-keeping was a literary practice to keep a
daily record, monitor behavior, correct moral lapses, and use time wisely.
William Cole explains that the compiler of the commonplace book “reacts to
the passages he has chosen or tells what the passages have led him to think
xiv Introduction

about. A piece of prose, a poem, an aphorism can trigger the mind to consider
a parallel, to dredge something from the memory, or perhaps to speculate
with further range and depth on the same theme.”12 Once the mind has been
triggered to speculate or dredge up a memory, and introspection occurs caus-
ing the writer to reflect on life experiences and personal matters, the com-
monplace books develop into an autobiography. W.H. Auden referred to his
forthcoming commonplace book, A Certain World, as “a sort of autobiog-
raphy.” The book contained quotations and commentary which revealed
secret parts of his inner life. Like a diary, the commonplace book chronicles
observations, reflections, and pieces of wisdom that the writer had read or
experienced in a lifelong self-education plan.13
As the industrialization era begins and labor increases, leisurely time for
keeping a diary decreases, for many Americans. Therefore, the early eight-
eenth and nineteenth-century diarists recorded matter of fact comments
about the weather, daily chores, and the well-being of friends and family ra-
ther than personal feelings that require more time for introspection and re-
flecting on the events of one’s life. The cultural meaning of work pointed to
one’s accomplishments rather than one’s musings about their personal feel-
ings.14 Additionally, there was a rise in the middle class, expansion of print,
the market revolution and the growth of education.15 The Protestant principle
of self-regulation became secularized into a mode of self-improvement, in
which diarists kept track of time and accumulated an account of self with
minute details of their lives. This shift occurred during 1877-1930 because the
popularity of the diary signaled a change in the way early Americans recorded
and imagined themselves. Molly McCarthy argues the diary appealed to mid-
nineteenth century diarists because “it reflected and reinforced the change
around them in the way it presented the market and shifting conceptions of
time, while simultaneously allowing them to exercise tendency toward intro-
spection in little to no time.”16 Paige Mason’s analysis of Lucius Clark Smith’s
diaries illustrates how a rural farmer uses the diary to comment on his work
life without reflecting on his personal feelings of continuous failure in the
essay “ A Lifetime of Sowing the Blues: Lucius Clark Smith, 1834-1915.”
In the late twentieth century, psychological insights and therapeutic and
creative benefits ushered in a re-creation of the diary as a place to discover
new solutions to problems, appreciate the process of one’s life. According to
Tristine Rainer, “modern psychology’s recognition of the subconscious, the
free experimentation of contemporary art and writing and the popularization
of psychological insights and concepts of personal responsibility”17 attributed
to the widespread use of the diary.
Introduction xv

Is it a diary, journal or notebook? What’s the difference?

The writers and scholars in this anthology do not purposefully make a distinc-
tion between the diary and the journal. Only two essayists refer to the diary as
a journal, Wagner and Jackson; however, those terms are not used for gender-
ing the journal or the diary. Diary is the dominant word in this collection be-
cause throughout my research, I, like many other diary scholars, have deter-
mined both the diary and journal are muddled terms used synonymously.
Both terms indicate dailiness. The French termed journal intime based on
introspection, the mark of temporality, the day-to-day commentaries on itself
and insignificant events. Thomas Mallon claims the journal is a link to news-
paper trade and diary exist based on the intimate term dear. In making a dis-
tinction, Mallon refers to Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of the English Lan-
guage, published in 1755, which defines the diary as “an account of the trans-
actions, accidents an observation of every day; a journal.”18 The Oxford Eng-
lish Dictionary describes a diary as “a daily record of events or transactions,
specifically, a daily record of matters affecting the writer personally.” Whereas
the journal is described as “a daily record of events or occurrences kept by
anyone for his own use.” Sheila Bender renamed the diary and the journal,
“journairy.” A journairy is a blank book, loose-leaf papers or computer where
the diarists make sure “that by thinking in writing, you allow yourself to take
leaps in the dark. In such places, you can write every day or week in a quest to
keep describing your world from a state in which you are present at the mo-
ment but not knowing what is next. If you write from this state, you will find
writing offers you epiphanies, meaningful evocations of places and people
and things past and present, as well as knowledge essential to your well-being
that you would not have been able to gain any other way.”19
D. Gordon Rohman and Albert O. Wlecke distinguish the journal from the
diary by defining the journal as a record of the mind and the diary a record of
what one does.20 They separate the two when it comes to using the journal as
a prewriting tool for students.
Whether diarists scribe their thoughts in a diary or a journal the result re-
mains the same: the invention of self, language, and symbols that stems from
internal dialogue with self to create a “world and world view in words.”21

To Capitalize or Not to Capitalize that is the Question

The writers in this collection have chosen to capitalize or not capitalize the
terms Black and White when identifying race. Race is controversial. The dis-
cussion of race is tense. Many discussions are centered on both Black and
White being capitalized just as any other race is capitalized, such as Asian and
Hispanic. However, Asian and Hispanic are based on geographical region,
xvi Introduction

ethnic origin making them proper nouns. Merrill Perlman of Columbia Review
Journalism, claims “Just as people might describe themselves as “Japanese” or
“Chicano” rather than “Asian” or “Hispanic,” people who are “black” or
“white” are just as likely to describe themselves as “African American” or
“Irish.”22 But for the African American, there has been a long history attempt-
ing to find a term to describe themselves that everyone could agree on, which
began in 1831. However, “what is the appropriate term to call African people
who were involuntarily bought to America and have since become an integral
part of the fabric of this country.”23 Depending on political, social, and eco-
nomic conditions, today, the term is varied black, Black American or African
American. Therefore, capitalization plays an important role based on the
writer’s message.
Even style guides are flummoxed when it comes to the capital B versus the
lowercase w. Should it be a choice or a rule? Does the typography indicate
inequality between Black and white; black and White? Should both be capital-
ized to show respect and equity? This collection answers the question by re-
specting the writer’s choice whether to capitalize “black” and “white” or use
the term African American or Black American.
In order to understand how the diaries, connect and interconnect to each oth-
er, the following is an introduction to each section of The Dairy as Literature
Through the Lens of Multiculturalism in America based on the diaries purpose.

Diaries of the American Civil War

During the American Civil War, diaries were used to start a journey or document
a dramatic circumstance. For African American soldier in the Union Army, the
military service was means to develop rhetorical skills, one being diary writing
as well as write themselves into history. Corey Greathouse explores the emo-
tional rollercoaster penned in William B. Gould’s diary in “Using Personal Dia-
ries as a Site for Reconstructing African American History.” Greathouse notes
that Gould’s diary has a “range of emotion that makes his writing an essential
resource in reconstructing the lives of enslaved people.” Whereas Anthony Da-
vid Franklin writes about the “escalating tension between southern and north-
ern culture and the climax that lead to the diary of William P. Woodlin, a north-
ern, black Civil War soldier.” Franklin claims, “Woodlin’s chronology represents
the transition towards racial equality.” In the diaries of the Irish-American sol-
diers, Timothy Regan and Thomas Francis Galwey, they don’t miss the details of
the war. Daniel Kotzin observes that their private writing gives them a literary
identity. In “Writing Irish Lives During the Civil War” Kotzin states “diary writing
was a fundamental part of their experience in the Civil War, and these two sol-
diers used diary writing to work out their personal identity as they adjusted to
their new lives in the Union army.” One bringing literature into the diary and
Introduction xvii

the other military. Ironically, neither soldier writes about the disparity of race
relations or violence in their diary.
However, Lucius Clark Smith, a nineteenth-century teacher and farmer, his
diary entries reflect musings about the livelihood of soldiers with little interest
in being a soldier. Instead, his diaries chronicle his failures as a businessman
and farmer along with his father’s travels. Paige Mason looks at the historical
conversation about labor, the Midwest, and vocation in Smith’s diary in her
essay “A Lifetime of Sowing the Blues: Lucius Clark Smith: 1834-1915.”
Whether writing about the war or the home front, these diaries have an
overlapping literary element such as character, theme, intention, form, and
truth-telling. Diary writing engages in dialogue with an audience, self, real or
imagined. If a diary can have elements of a novel, then can a novel have ele-
ments of a diary: a first-person narrator, fragmented narrative, and an intend-
ed audience. Suzy Woltmann reviews Alice Randall’s 2001 novel The Wind
Done Gone in her essay “'I Can't Pass Away from Her': Adaptation and the
Diaristic Impulse of The Wind Done Gone.” Woltmann states that Randall
gives voice to characters who lacked agency in Gone with the Wind. She be-
lieves, “As reader, we are privy to Cynara’s darker thoughts, including wishing
evil on Scarlett and denying faith in God.” We as a reader also, “see how Cyna-
ra hides parts of herself and her thoughts from Rhett and other white people.”
Woltmann argues, “The Wind Done Gone’s diary form responds as romanti-
cized view of the Confederate South created in Mitchell’s immensely popular
epic, but also to recurring race and gender issues in the years since its publi-
cation.” Resembling the diary, The Wind Done Gone begins in medias res and
talks about diary writing. In the first diary entry, the protagonist, Cynara,
writes: “Today is the anniversary of my birth. I have twenty-eight years. This
diary and the pen I am writing with are the best gifts I got—except this cake.”
The experiences and observations for life during the Civil War connects
these diaries.

Diaries of Trips and Letters of Diaspora

The diarist who keeps a travel journal takes a piece of the foreign land back
home with them. Their diary entries are like a camera lens snapping different
scenes from a unique perspective, creating maps that document their lives as
more than an imagined journey or a fact book. Margo Culley explains that for
pioneer women travel diaries were a book of information for friends and rela-
tives thinking about making the journey. However, both Juanita Harrison and
Olive Dame Campbell turn the diary on its head as women diarist of the early
twentieth century.
xviii Introduction

The world is viewed with excitement through the vivid details of Juanita
Harrison travel journal from 1927-1935, published as My Great, Wide Beautiful
World. At 36 she embarks on a venture, rarely made by African American
women, snapping literary portraits of people and places in Europe, Middle
East, India and Japan and China. Her journal reflects how people reacted to
her as an African-American woman traveling alone. Chimene Jackson narrates
the course of Harrison’ travels and the importance of black and brown women
keeping a diary in her essay, “Black Women’s Journals Reflect Mine, Yours, and
Ours Through the Travel Writing of Juanita Harrison.”
It was the immersion into the Appalachian culture that enthused Olive
Dame Campbell, a New Englander, to create her 1908-1909 diary. Campbell
began her journey only as an assistant to her husband to help him record facts
about the Appalachian. Her first assignment as a diary keeper reflected that of
the seventeenth-century female diary keeper, to help her husband. However,
Campbell’s diary illustrates constructing an intercultural community when
she discovers the beauty of nature and the humanness of the people. Philp
Krummrich and Alexa Potts claim that “as a New Englander, she inevitably
tended to regard the denizens of Appalachia as members of fundamentally
different cultures” in their essay, “When the Clash of Cultures Is Like the Clash
of Cymbals: Olive Dame Campbell’s Appalachian Travels.”
Through letters, Aisha Z. Cort, pieces together “the fragments of her mother’s
past with archival research and family interviews” in her personal narrative,
“The Lost Girl of Havana: A Tale of Afro-Cuban Diasporic Memory.” Like the
diary, the letter serves as an act of writing, and in that act, the letter writer like
the diarist wishes “to rewrite themselves.” Letter-writing is comparable to an
extended diary with an intended audience, particularly when the diarist has
changing ideas of self or influence of romanticism. When a woman is suffering
from physical or emotional restrictions, the letter-writing process can be used
to investigate and to confirm her responses to others and to herself, as well as to
encourage certain responses from others. Accordingly, Cort examines her
mother and her grandmother’s letters “during a three-year separation at the
beginning of the Cuban Revolution.” The letter writer maintains a power of
agency enabling the protagonists, the self, to hold onto their desire and subjec-
tivity. Thus, female agency connects these diaries and letters together.

Diaries of Family and Prison Lyrics, and Memoir

Like the diary, autobiographical writing is the story of a life that includes facts
and emotions connected to family, education, relationship, sexuality, travels,
and inner struggles but limited by dates. bell hooks claims, “autobiographical
writing was a way for her to evoke the particular experience of growing up
southern and black in segregated communities. It was a way to recapture the
Introduction xix

richness of southern black culture. The need to remember and hold to the
legacy of that experience …” A legacy Sumaira Ahammed discusses in her
autoethnography “The Praxis of Oral Diaries Maintained by Bengali Immi-
grant Women.” Ahammed explains the oral traditions of keeping a diary in
Bengali and how those traditions affected their life as immigrants in America.
Oral compositions require relatives to pass on their experiences and observa-
tions to each generation. In the eighteen and nineteen centuries “women
shared portions of their private entries with sisters and friends by reading
them aloud or passing them around” frequently one person served as a tran-
scriber of family records. Ahammed desires to be that transcriber.
In my autobiographical essay, “Diaries of Me, Myself, and Grandma” I want to
understand I’m on a quest to understand my identity as a diary-keeper who has
maintained diaries for three decades. On my journey, I discover my grandmoth-
er was a diary-keeper but her diaries were destroyed. Autobiographical writing
like the diary includes retrospection and reflection, a conversational voice that
may “explain, summarize, interpret or provide a larger sociological or historical
context for the material, insights in their protagonist’s quest for self-
knowledge.” The protagonist is the writer, the self, chronicling the story based
on their voice that they hear in their head. Diarists write of uncertainties and
talk to themselves whereas the autobiographer “speak softly to themselves.” In
this essay, I am both protagonist, diarist and autobiographer.
Like the diary, memoir writing is fragmented pieces of a life puzzled togeth-
er, focused on one aspect of that life, with a select theme. Judith Barrington
contends that the memoir is a story from life and does not replicate a whole
life. Virginia Maresca explores the memoirs of Trevor Noah and former presi-
dent Barack Obama in “Mixed-Race Memoirs: Breaking Institutional Binaries”
to illustrate racial barriers as a false social construct to create multicultural
identities. Both memoirs focus on life as a mixed-race citizen. The OED defini-
tion for “memoir” also blurs the genre, defining memoir “as a person’s written
account of incidents in his own life, of the persons whom he has known and
the transactions or movements in which he has been concerned; an autobio-
graphical record.”
It is the published journal of Lil Wayne, Gone ‘Til November: A Journal of
Rikers Island (2016) that sheds light on the widespread use of the diary and
how it shifted, evolved and recreated itself over time. His journal entries are a
place of creation, a forum of play, a testing ground for work elsewhere as well
as a journal of self-reflection. He keeps a journal while in prison to breath and
have a sense of freedom. As Tristine Rainer notes, diary writing is one form of
writing that allows freedom of expression.24 Rachel Wagner’s essay, “Worth
Writing About Lil Wayne’s Jail Journal Gone Til November,” examines how “the
xx Introduction

journal reads like a series of interconnected poems, which redefine what’s

considered productive in prison through routines and rhetoric.”
Diary writing is creating “real” fictions of one’s self. For the diarist, the diary
becomes a transnational space in which an intersection of cultures, lan-
guages, and peoples help the diarist understand self and the world they live
in. James Olney states that an autobiography is “intentionally or not, a mon-
ument of the self as it is becoming, a metaphor of the self at the summary
moment of composition.”25 This metaphor of self, connects these diaries of
family, prison lyrics, and memoir.
Diary as novel requires an authentic voice of the real self that represents its
culture, its gender, its community. The self in the diary reflects authenticity
with narrative incidents, vignettes of personal relationships, character sketch-
es, account travels, dialogues, and copies of letters sent or received. Diary
writing as a quasi-literary genre conforms to Philipe Lejeune’s “autobiograph-
ical contract” theory about genre classification in regards to the diary, autobi-
ography, memoir, that it’s an “a matter of proportion; there are natural transi-
tions to the other genres of literature intime (memoirs, diary, essay) and a
certain latitude is left to the classifier in the examination of particular cases.

Endnotes
1 Patricia Bell-Scott, ed. Life Notes; Personal Writings by Contemporary Black Women,

(W.W. Norton & Company, 1995), 18.

2 Karsonya Wise Whitehead. Notes from a Colored Girl: The Civil War Pocket Diary of

Emilie Frances Davies, (South Carolina: University South Carolina Press, 2014), 210.
3 Thomas Mallon, A Book of Ones’ Own People and Their Diaries, (New York: Ticknor &

Fields, 1984), xv.

4 Ibid., xvii.
5 Whitehead, Ibid., 242.
6 Kathyrn Carter, “The Cultural Work of Diaries In Mid-Century Victorian Brit-

ain.” Victorian Review 23, no. 2 (1997): 251-67. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27794873.

7 Lisa Jones, Bulletproof Diva Tales of Race, Sex and Hair, (New York: Anchor Books,

1995), Kindle, 8-9.

8 Ibid., 9.

9 Mallon, Ibid., 105.

10 Michael Stolberg, “John Locke’s “New Method of Making Common-Place-Books”:

Tradition, Innovations and Epistemic Effects, Early Science and Medicine, Brill, 448-470.
11 Ibid., 449.
12 William Cole, “Speaking of Commonplace Books” nytimes.com/1970/05/03/archives,

May 3, 1970.
13 Gannet, Ibid., 3.
14 Myra Young Armstead, Freedom’s Gardeners, (New York: New York University Press,

2013), 4.
Introduction xxi

15 Molly McCarthy, The Accidental Diarist, A History of the Daily Planner in America
(Illinois: Chicago University Press, 2013), 3.
16 The Accidental Diarist, Ibid., 3.
17 Tristine Rainer, The New Diary: How to Use a Journal for Self-Guidance and Expanded

Creativity (New York: Penguin Group, 1979), 3.

18 Mallon, Ibid., 1.
19 Shelia Bender, A Year in the Life: Journaling for Self-Discovery (Cincinnati, Ohio: Walk-

ing Stick Press, 2000), 3.

20 Cinthia Gannett, Gender and the Journal: Diaries and Academic Discourse, 22.
21 Ibid., 4.

22 Merrill Perlman, “Black and white: why capitalization matters” Columbia Journalism

Review, June 23, 2015.

23 Whitehead, Ibid., 133.
24 Ibid., 3.
25 James Olney, Metaphors of Self: The Meaning of Autobiography, (New Jersey: Prince-

ton University, 1981), 35.

 PAGES MISSING

FROM THIS FREE SAMPLE

 Contributors

Sumaira Ahammed is a second-year graduate student at St. John's University

who has interests in postcolonial and vernacular literature that analyzes critical
theories through the lens of ethnic, racial, and gender identity. Being a first-
generation American daughter of Bengali immigrant parents, she is attuned to
the South Asian diaspora in the U.S. and their narratives of struggle and oppres-
sion which traverses the political climate in both the East and the West.

Aisha Z. Cort, PhD, is currently a lecturer at Howard University in Washing-

ton, DC. Aisha earned her bachelor of arts in Spanish from Yale University,
and her master’s and doctorate in Spanish Literature from Emory University.
Her work focuses on Afro-Latinx and Latinx film, literature, and cultural pro-
duction, with a specialization in Afro-Cuban cultural production. She is the
guest editor of the Fall 2019 edition of Black Camera’s Close-Up Contempo-
rary Cuban Cinema.

Anthony David Franklin received his Bachelor’s in English from Hiram Col-
lege and his Master’s in Literature from the University of Toledo in 2016. Post-
graduation, his academic pursuits have included American Literature, Com-
position and Rhetoric, Comic Studies, and American popular culture. Within
these fields, Franklin often pursue topics of ethnic representation, analyses of
cultural trends and norms, and implementation of pedagogical and literary
practices. He teaches at Penn State University in Penn in Pennsylvania.

Corey D. Greathouse is an Associate Professor of English at Austin Communi-

ty College. He is currently completing his doctoral studies at the University of
Texas at San Antonio. Greathouse’s research interests are in nineteenth-
century African American autobiography, first-year college composition stud-
ies, and African American linguistics. Prior to beginning his studies at UTSA,
he received his M.A. in literature from Texas State University.

Angela R. Hooks earned her PhD in English Literature from St. John’s Univer-
sity and her MFA in Creative Writing from Manhattanville College. Her work—
poetry and prose, scholarly and creative—have appeared online and in print.
Her essay “Poetry and Student Learning” appeared in Poetry across the Curric-
ulum New Methods of Writing Intensive Pedagogy for U.S. Community College
166 Contributors

and Undergraduate Education (Brill 2018) and “Bringing the Diary into the
Classroom; ongoing diary, journals, and notebooks” is forthcoming in Cur-
rents Journal: Teaching and Learning. She blogs at Off The Hooks about sharp-
ening your saw; the saw is a metaphor for self. She has taught first-year writ-
ing and literature since 2006, at institutions such as Ramapo College of New
Jersey, St. John’s University, Culinary Institute of America, and Dutchess
Community College.

Chimene Jackson is a stationery designer and self-titled “dialogue artist,”

whose stationery has dialogues with women of color on soulful journeys,
encouraging them to reclaim their narratives by documenting themselves
through journaling. She has a BS in International Business from Messiah Col-
lege and an MS in Strategic Design and Management from Parsons The New
School for Design's School of Design Strategies. She started her brand,
Vagabroad Journals on accident but on purpose, divinely inspired to create
new and provoking journals and other surfaces that encourage “teastained
women” to put themselves in writing, placing the Black female visage and
body on the covers with convicting titles meant to speak to different seasons
of the journey. She lives in BedStuy, Brooklyn. Her work can be found
at journeysoulfully.com.

Daniel P. Kotzin is an Associate Professor of History in the Interdisciplinary

Studies Department at Medaille College in Buffalo, NY. Dr. Kotzin’s biography,
Judah L. Magnes: An American Jewish Nonconformist, was published by Syra-
cuse University Press in 2010. His current research is focused on Irish soldiers
in the Union Army during the Civil War.

Philip Krummrich is Professor of Comparative Literature and Director of the

Academic Honors Program at Morehead State University in Kentucky. His re-
search interests are wide-ranging, but in recent years he has concentrated on
translation and travel writing. He is the author of four volumes of translations
and a number of articles on various aspects of the literature of travel and explo-
ration. This study is part of a larger project on travel writing featuring Kentucky,
in collaboration with an Undergraduate Research Fellow, Alexa Potts.

Virginia Maresca is completing her PhD at St. John’s University in New York
City. She focuses on eighteenth and nineteenth-century transatlantic litera-
ture, with a particular emphasis on racial epistemology. Her research interests
also include the influences of modernism on ideologies of ignorance
Contributors 167

Kelsey Paige Mason is a PhD student at The Ohio State University. Her inter-
ests lie primarily in nineteenth-century transatlantic literature, where she
studies the intersection of utopian and dystopian studies as philosophical
concepts and literary genres. She analyzes primary texts from ideological and
repressive spaces (such as prisons, plantations, churches, educational facili-
ties, etc.) as well as from utopian communities in the nineteenth-century and
draws correlations between these primary texts and utopian/dystopian fic-
tion. Her most recent publication is “Writing Revolution: Orwell’s Not-So-
Plain Style in Animal Farm.”

Alexa Potts is an Undergraduate Research Fellow, majoring in History and

Legal Studies with a minor in Spanish at Morehead State University in Ken-
tucky. She has spent over a year researching Kentucky travel writing, and she
presented her research last year at several conferences including the Kentucky
Philological Association, the Celebration of Student Scholarship at Morehead
State University, and the Phi Alpha Theta Regional History Conference. When
she is not engaged in her academic studies, Alexa enjoys spending her time on
the rifle range; she is a member of Morehead State University’s NCAA Division
One rifle team, and her goal is to represent the United States at the Olympics.
This study is part of a larger project on travel writing featuring Kentucky, in
collaboration with Dr. Philip Krummrich.

Rachel Wagner is a writer from New Jersey, currently living in Newark with her
son. She is a first-year writing instructor at Seton Hall University and an art
and culture columnist for Brick City Live. Her stories, poems, and scholarship
revolve around topics like motherhood, higher education, the prison industri-
al complex, and dating. More of published writing can be found at Rachel-
Wagner.com.

Suzy Woltmann is a literature and writing instructor at the University of Cali-

fornia, San Diego. Her research interests include adaptations studies, gender
and sexuality, Americana, and mythology. Much of her work has been on ex-
ploring identity and marginality through the lens of literary adaptations. Her
dissertation focused specifically on radical rewritings, adaptations that drasti-
cally reframe their source texts to allow voice for the normatively silenced. She
recently wrote her first novel, The Brilliant Daisy Buchanan. Suzy lives in San
Diego with her two dogs.
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 Index

Civil War, x, xi, xii, xiii, xvi, xvii, xx,

A 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19,
20, 21, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31, 32, 38,
African American, x, xvi, xviii, 3, 5, 39, 41, 61, 166, 171, 172, 173,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 39, 69, 174, 176, 177, 178
120, 165, 171, 176, 178 commonplace, xiii, 18
Afro-Cuban, xi, xviii, 103, 104, 105, commonplace book, xiii, 18
107, 109, 113, 114, 117, 165 composition, xx, 53, 61, 84, 124,
Alabama, 137 127, 130, 136, 138, 143, 165, 169
alienation, 10, 146 contraband, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13,
America, ix, x, xi, xii, xvi, xix, 21, 32, 33, 172
15, 25, 26, 29, 53, 81, 103, 109, Culley, Margo, xvii, 79, 87
142, 146, 148, 149, 151, 153, 166, cultural, xi, xiv, 18, 60, 61, 64, 68,
169, 173, 177 69, 77, 81, 86, 90, 98, 107, 109,
Angelou, Maya, 81, 86, 137, 175 113, 114, 117, 123, 124, 126, 127,
Appalachian, xviii, 89, 170 129, 132, 133, 134, 136, 148, 151,
autobiographical, x, xviii, xix, xx, 152, 165
66, 84, 137 culture, ix, x, xi, xiii, xvi, xviii, xix,
xx, 16, 50, 56, 61, 63, 75, 79, 81,
B 84, 85, 91, 97, 98, 99, 100, 109,
114, 115, 117, 118, 128, 129, 133,
Beaufort, 9 145, 147, 148, 150, 151, 153, 154,
bell hooks, xviii 165, 167, 169
Bell-Scott, Patricia, xx, 74, 87, 144 Cynara, xvii, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64, 65,
Bengali, xi, xix, 123, 126, 127, 131, 66, 67, 68
132, 134, 135, 165, 169
bildungsroman, 43, 61
Black women, ix, 73, 74, 75, 76, 79,
D
84, 86, 138, 139, 140 Davis, Emilie Frances, x, 6, 13, 178
blues, 42, 43, 51, 52 definition, xi, xix, 32, 73, 74, 89,
127, 160
C destroy, 94, 119, 140, 141, 154
diarist, ix, x, xiii, xvii, xviii, xix, xx,
Campbell, Olive Dame, xvii, xviii, 8, 12, 30, 74, 75, 78, 84, 137, 138,
89 140, 141, 142
Christianity, 64, 75 diaspora, x, xi, 3, 105, 112, 114,
church, 4, 10, 11, 92, 94, 103, 167 117, 118, 165
dreaming, 75
180 Index

dreams, 81, 86, 137 73, 74, 75, 85, 103, 104, 109, 114,
124, 127, 129, 130, 141, 142, 146,
E 147, 148, 151

education, xiv, xviii, 4, 44, 52, 79,

I
84, 92, 94, 99, 100, 113, 134, 167
eighteenth century, xiii identity, ix, x, xi, xiii, xvi, xix, 5, 8,
ethnography, x, 123, 128, 129 9, 15, 16, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 32,
34, 37, 38, 41, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66,
F 67, 77, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107,
108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115,
family, ix, x, xiii, xiv, xviii, xx, 3, 4, 116, 117, 118, 119, 123, 124, 125,
21, 30, 41, 43, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 131, 134, 135, 145, 146, 150, 154,
71, 75, 92, 93, 103, 105, 106, 107, 165, 167
109, 111, 112, 114, 118, 123, 125, immigrants, xi, xix, 15, 24, 103,
130, 131, 134, 135, 138, 139, 140, 104, 112, 123, 124, 129, 130, 131,
141, 142, 151, 153 135, 165
farmer, xiv, xvii, 41, 46, 53, 55 institutional, 145, 147, 149, 151,
Foucault, Michel, 54, 158, 163 152, 153, 154
fragments, xviii, 103, 108 intergenerational, 133, 134, 152
Ireland, 17, 21
G Irish, xi, xiii, xvi, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21,
23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 166, 172, 173,
Galwey, Thomas Francis, xvi, 15, 177
21, 26, 175
Garcia, Cristina, 111, 115, 118
generations, 38, 47, 48, 86, 115,
J
118, 124, 127, 131, 134, 135 jail, xii, 78, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162,
Gould, William B. IV, xvi, 3, 4, 12 163, 170
Grimke, Charlotte Forten, 75, 76, journal, xii, xv, xvii, xviii, xix, 41,
82, 138 59, 66, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 82,
84, 85, 86, 125, 126, 135, 136,
H 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 173

handwriting, xiii, 17, 18

Harrison, Juanita, xvii, xviii, 73, 76,
K
79, 82, 87, 171 Kentucky, 92, 93, 94, 97, 100, 166,
Havana, xviii, 103, 104, 105, 106, 167, 170
110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 117, 118,
170
L
healing, 74, 85
history, ix, x, xii, xiii, xvi, 4, 5, 6, 9, labor, xiv, xvii, 32, 33, 41, 43, 48,
12, 18, 29, 30, 38, 56, 59, 60, 67, 51, 80, 123, 130, 131, 132, 139
Index 181

language, ix, xi, xiii, xv, 6, 23, 60, nineteenth century, x, xii, xiv, xvii,
63, 64, 65, 69, 79, 82, 84, 87, 106, 3, 15, 16, 17, 19, 23, 26, 42, 44,
109, 114, 130, 147, 152, 153, 154, 45, 46, 48, 49, 52, 53, 165
157, 160, 162 Noah, Trevor, xix, 145, 151, 155
letters, xii, xvii, xviii, xx, 17, 24, 27, novel, x, xii, xvii, xx, 59, 60, 61, 62,
35, 54, 71, 84, 104, 105, 106, 107, 68, 111, 145, 167
110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 117, 118,
137, 144, 171, 172, 173, 175 O
letter-writing, xviii
liberation, 9, 75, 86 Obama, Barack, xix, 145, 155
Lucius Clark Smith, 52, 54, 55, 56, Oral Diaries, xix, 123
57
luxury, 64, 123, 124 P
paper, xi, 7, 18, 19, 43, 53, 67, 85,
M 123, 124, 127, 130, 135, 138, 143,
McCarthy, Molly, xiv, 21 147
Memoirs, xii, xix, 119, 145, 174 Perry, Imani, 163
Memory, xviii, 53, 103, 104, 107, prayer, xii, 159, 160
108, 115, 116, 118, 119, 124, 133, Prison, xii, xviii, 121, 169, 170, 173
136, 170, 171, 172, 175 published, ix, x, xii, xv, xviii, xix, 3,
middle class, xiv, 104, 107, 119, 130 18, 26, 62, 65, 68, 79, 90, 127,
Midwest, xvii, 41, 42, 44, 45, 48, 52, 138, 149, 157, 166, 167
53, 54, 55, 175, 176, 177
motherhood, 76, 131, 132, 143, 167 Q
multiculturalism, i, ix, xi, 145, 146,
147, 148, 149, 150, 154 Quasi-Literary, ix
My Great, Wide Beautiful World,
xviii, 76 R
racism, 60, 62, 63, 114, 137, 145,
N 147, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154
narrative, x, xvii, xviii, xx, 5, 7, 8, 9, Randall, Alice, xvii, 59, 69
21, 29, 38, 42, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, read, x, xi, xiv, 5, 11, 19, 20, 30, 35,
65, 66, 67, 85, 90, 91, 95, 96, 99, 47, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 74, 75,
104, 105, 108, 111, 113, 114, 115, 85, 95, 108, 117, 127, 131, 135,
117, 121, 123, 128, 129, 130, 131, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143,
134, 137, 141, 159, 160, 162 144, 159
nature, xiii, xviii, 5, 6, 8, 12, 20, 30, reform, 45, 52
32, 36, 37, 57, 62, 69, 85, 95, 96, Regan, Timothy, xiii, xvi, 15, 17, 23
97, 117, 145, 148, 159 remember, xiii, xix, 7, 19, 68, 75,
76, 78, 79, 86, 105, 107, 108, 110,
111, 116, 117, 119, 124, 137, 142
182 Index

S T
self, x, xii, xiv, xv, xvii, xviii, xix, xx, The Wind Done Gone, xvii, 59, 60,
6, 8, 10, 16, 17, 19, 21, 51, 57, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 172,
60, 61, 64, 67, 73, 74, 76, 79, 86, 176
109, 111, 114, 117, 124, 125, 126, Thomas Francis Galwey, 26
127, 133, 134, 138, 140, 141, 143, transformative, 60, 68
146, 152, 153, 154, 166 Travel Writing, xviii, 73
seventeenth century, xii, xiii, xviii
sixteenth century, xii W
slave narrative, 5, 12, 59, 62, 63, 64,
66, 67, 68, 69 Wayne, Lil, xix, 157, 169, 170, 171,
Smith, Lucius Clark, xiv, xvii, 41, 172, 174, 175, 176
177 Wells, Ida B., 74, 82, 86, 138, 178
soldier, xi, xvi, xvii, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, West Bengal, 131, 136, 173
15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, Whitehead, Karsonya, x
24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 38, Whiteness, 82
39, 41, 158, 166, 178 Woodlin, William P., ix, xvi, 29, 31
South Asian, 125, 126, 127, 128, Works Progress Administration, 6
129, 131, 165, 169 Writing, xiii, xvi, xix, 7, 8, 13, 15,
stories, x, xiii, 18, 19, 23, 52, 54, 76, 16, 21, 25, 26, 63, 87, 105, 116,
107, 108, 115, 123, 129, 130, 132, 117, 124, 125, 126, 136, 140, 157,
134, 135, 137, 138, 143, 144, 152, 165, 167, 169, 170, 171, 173, 174,
153, 154, 157, 167 175, 176
structure, 12, 43, 55, 107, 112, 133,
146, 148