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PercentileClasses
Grammar Errors
Noun
A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, quality, condition and action. There are five kinds of Noun –
(a) Proper Noun
(b) Common Noun
(c) Collective Noun
(d) Abstract Noun
(e) Material Noun.

Number Singular A boy

Plural Boys
Masculine Boy
Gender Feminine Girl
Noun Common Baby
Neuter Non-Living things
Nominative Ram helps Sita.
Case Objective Ram helps Sita.
Possesive Ram’s wife

Subject verb agreement in Number

Words Form Usage
Deer Same form both in singular & plural Singular/plural depending upon
context
Hundred Three hundred people/Hundreds of people Plural
Politics Looks plural Singular
Spectacles Plural Plural
Cattle Looks Singular Plural
Furniture Singular Singular
NOTE to manage questions on number of noun, try to make out sense of sentence whether singular or plural which noun form is
to be used.

➢ Important rule Some nouns have the same form both in singular as well as in plural.

For example
a) A deer was caught
b) Deer were caught.

Here, the singular and plural form of the noun Deer is same. Like Deer there are other nouns that have the same form in
Singular as well as plural form.

For example
sheep, apparatus, species, series, hundred, dozen, hair etc

➢ Important rule Nouns denoting large numbers are used both in singular and plural form

For example
a) Three hundred people attended the function.
b) Hundreds of people attended the party.
In sentence a), ‘hundred’ is preceded by number ‘three’. So ‘hundred’ will take no plural form. Word ‘three hundred’ indicates
plurality.

But in sentence b), ‘hundred’ is not preceded by any number. So to indicate plurality, we will write ‘hundreds’.

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So, rule is that when words like hundred, dozen, thousand, pair, score are not preceded by any word denoting number then they
take the plural form, otherwise not.
a) Cola paid lakhs of rupees to Aamir Khan for promoting their product.
b) I brought two dozen bananas.

➢ Important rule Tell which sentence is correct

a) Since long no news has been heard.
b) Since long no news have been heard.

Sentence a is correct. Some nouns are always used as singular though they look like plural nouns.
Other similar words are politics, mathematics, physics, gallows, means, billiards, ethics, summons, innings

For example
a) Politics is not my cup of tea.
b) I received summons.
c) Sachin once again played a superb innings

➢ Important rule Tell which sentence is correct

a) The spectacles that you are wearing are really nice.
b) The spectacles that you are wearing is really nice.
Sentence a) is correct.

The reason being that some noun words are always used in the plural form.

For example
trousers, arms, drawers, assets, scales, alms, thanks, cards; ashes, riches, premises, scissors, credentials, proceeds.
➢ Important rule Tell which sentence is correct
a) The cattle was grazing in the field.
b) The cattle were grazing in the field
Sentence b) is correct .The reason being that some nouns are always used as plurals though they look like singular. Other nouns
like this are public; people, folk, mankind, poultry, sheep, police, gentry, peasantry, bulk, majority, etc.

For example
a) The majority are with the leader.
b) Police, though late, have come.
c) Public wants results.

➢ Important rule Tell which sentence is correct.

a) This project will lead to lots of expenditures
b) This project will lead to lots of expenditure.
Sentence b) is correct. The reason is that some nouns are always used as singular. Preceding adjectives or the verb form
indicates the singularity or plurality.

Other nouns are expenditure, furniture, information, machinery, issue, offspring, alphabet, scenery, poetry.

For example
a) All the furniture was bought last year.
b) All the Information was given to him.

➢ Important rule Meaning of some nouns in plural form is very different from the meaning of nouns in singular
form. Hence, that form should be used which will convey the right meaning.

For example
a) I opened the letter and read its contents.
b) Her mouth was fixed in a smile of pure content.
c) The conflict between good and evil is ages old.
d) We must produce goods at competitive prices.
e) Delhites breathe the most polluted air in the world.
f) She was just putting on airs when she came to visit us/me.
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g) We should renounce the use of force to settle our dispute.
h) Families of people who died as a result of services in the forces should not be ignored.
i) I was very excited on my return to my home village.
j) Early returns in the ballot indicate majority for opposition.

Following are rules regarding apostrophe

Rules regarding apostrophe S (’s)
a) Singular noun’s is added after the word.
b) Singular noun Only an apostrophe is added when there are too many hissing sounds.

For example
Moses’ laws, for goodness’ sake, For justice’ sake.
c) Plural nouns ending in s like boys, cows only’ is added after the word
d) Plural nouns not ending in s like men, children ’s is added after the word.
e) ’S is added primarily after the living things and personified objects.

For example
Governor’s bodyguard, horse’s head, Nature’s law, Fortune’s favourite.
f) ’S is not used with inanimate or non-living things.

For example
leg of the table, cover of the book.
g) But in nouns that denote time, distance or weight, ’s is used.

For example
a stone’s throw, in a year’s time, the earth’s surface.
h) Some other common phrases where ’s is used are to his heart’s content, at his wit’s end, out of harm’s way.
i) When a noun consists of several words, the possessive sign is attached only to the last word.

For example
a) The Queen’s of England reaction is important in the Diana episode. (Incorrect)
b) The Queen of England’s reaction is important in the Diana episode. (Correct) Do not be mistaken that since it is the
Queen’s reaction, the ’s should come after queen. You might think that putting it after England would make the reaction
England’s and not the Queen’s. This is shortsightedness. Do not see Queen and England in isolation, Queen of England is
one whole unit and the apostrophe should come at its end.
j) When two nouns are in apposition, the possessive sign is put to the latter only.

For example
a) I am going to Stephen Hawking’s the scientist’s country. (Incorrect) b) I am going to Stephen Hawking the scientist’s
country. (Correct)
k) When two or more nouns show joint possession, the possessive sign is put to the latter only.

For example
a) Amitabh and Ajitabh are Bachchanji’s sons. So Bachchanji is Amitabh’s and Ajitabh’s father. (Incoreect)
b) Amitabh and Ajitabh are Bachchanji’s sons. So Bachchanji is Amitabh and Ajitabh’s father. (Correct)
I) When two or more nouns show separate possession, the possessive sign is put with both.

For example
a) The audience listened to Javed and Vajpayee’s poems. (Incorrect) b) The audience listened to Javed’s and Vajpayee’s
poems. (Correct)

AGREEMENT OF THE SUBJECT WITH THE VERB

A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. Often due to “Error of Proximity” the verb is made to agree in number
with a noun near it instead of with its proper subject.

For example
a) The quality of the mangoes were not good. (Wrong since subject is quality, a singular and not mangoes.)
b) The quality of the mangoes was not good (Right).
c) His knowledge of Indian vernaculars are far beyond the common. (Wrong)
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d) His knowledge of Indian vernaculars is far beyond the common. (Right)

➢ Important Rule If two singular nouns express one idea, the verb is in the singular.

For example
a) Bread and Butter are essential for one’s life. (Incorrect)
b) Bread and Butter is essential for one’s life. (Correct)

➢ Important Rule Verb should be singular even when some words are joined to a singular subject by ‘with’, ‘as
well as’ etc,

For example
a) The chairman, with the directors, is to be present.
b) Silver, as well as cotton, has fallen in prices.

Important Rule
When a plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount considered as a whole, the verb is generally singular.

For example
a) Five hours are too short a time to judge one’s character. (Incorrect)
b) Five hours is too short a time to judge one’s character. (Correct)
This is so because five hours is considered as one chunk.

➢ Important Rule Two or more singular subjects connected by ‘or’, ‘nor’ require singular verb.

For example
a) No nook or corner was left unexplored.
b) Our happiness or our sorrow is largely due to our own actions.

➢ Important Rule When the subjects joined by ‘or’, ‘nor’ are of different numbers, the verb must be plural, and
the plural must be placed next to the verb.

For example
a) Neither Rekha nor her fiends was present at the party. (Incorrect)
b) Neither Rekha nor her friends were present at the party. (Correct)

➢ Important Rule Either, neither, each, everyone, many a must be followed by a singular verb.

For example
a) Neither of the two men was very strong.
b) Every one of the prisons is full.
c) Many a man has done so.
d) He asked whether either of the applicants was suitable.

➢ Important Rule Two nouns qualified by each or every, even though connected by ‘and’ require a singular
verb.

For example
Every boy and every girl was given a packet of sweets.

➢ Important Rule ‘None’ though singular commonly takes a plural verb.

For example
None are so deaf as those who will not hear

PRONOUN
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun

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Now consider the following cases Since a pronoun is used instead of a Noun, it must be of the same number, gender and person
as the noun for which it stands.

For example
Those beggars are idle. They refuse to work for their living.
Please consider the following two sentences.
a) After a few hearings the jury gave its verdict.
(Pronoun ‘its is used in place of noun 'jury').
b) The jury were divided in their opinions.
(Pronoun ‘their’ is used in place of noun ‘jury’

You must be wondering why different pronoun 'its' and ‘their’ is used in place of the same noun ‘jury’
The reason is when a pronoun stands for a collective noun it must be in the singular number and neutral gender. (Sentence a).
But when collective noun conveys the idea of separate individuals comprising the whole, the pronoun standing for it must be of
the plural number. In sentence b, it is clear that members of the jury are not behaving as whole.

For example
a) The committee is reconsidering its decision.
b) The committee decided the matter without leaving their seats.

Major categories - rules

1. Noun pronoun verb- Agreement in person number- gender throughout sentence
2. Type of pronoun - for persons/things
3. Order of preference
4. Position - nearness
5. Case - subjective/objective/possessive

Noun-pronoun agreement in person, number, gender

A pronoun must agree with its Antecedent in person, number and gender.

For example
a) All passengers must show their (not his) tickets.
b) I am not one of thosewho believe everything they (not I) hear
➢ Important Rule When two or more singular nouns are joined by ‘and’, the pronoun used for them must be
plural.
For example
Rama and Hari work hard. Their teachers praise them.
But when two Singular nouns joined by ‘and’ refer to the same person or thing, the pronoun should be singular.

For example
The Secretary and Treasurer is negligent of his duty. Here the same person is acting as Secretary and Treasurer. That’s why
singular pronoun is used.

➢ Important Rule When two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ are preceded by ‘each’ or ‘every’, then the pronoun must be
singular

For example
Every soldier and every sailor was in his place.

➢ Important Rule When two or more singular nouns are joined by ‘or’, ‘either...or’, ‘neither...nor’, the pronoun is generally
singular.

For example
a) Neither Abdul nor Rehman has done his lessons.
b) Either Rama or Hari must help his friend.

➢ Important Rule When a plural and a singular noun are joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’, the pronoun must be in the
plural

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For example
Either the manager or his assistants failed in their duty.

Rules regarding personal pronouns

Rule 123 order of preference = 1>2>3
When a pronoun refers to more than one noun or pronouns of different persons, it must be of the first person plural in
preference to the second and of the second person plural in preference to the third.

For example
You and I, husband and wife, have to look after your home. (Incorrect)
You and I, husband and wife, have to look after our home. (Correct)
Case - subjective/objective/possessive

➢ Important Rule The complement of the verb be, when it is expressed by a pronoun, should be in the nominative form.

For example
a) It was he (not him),
b) It is I (not me) that gave the prizes away.
c) It might have been he (not him).

Tell which sentence is correct

a) The presents are for you and me.
b) The presents are for you and I.

Sentence a is correct. Pronoun has to agree with the case. Here it is the objective case. So, ‘me’ should be used instead of ‘I’.

For example
My uncle asked my brother and me to dinner.
➢ Important Rule Tell which sentence is correct
a) He loves you more than I.
b) He loves you more than me.

Sentence a is correct ‘Than’ is a conjunction joining clauses. And the case of the pronoun to be used may be found by writing
the clauses in full. So, in sentence
a.) Two clauses joined by ‘than’ are ‘He loves you more’ and ‘I love you’. Being a subjective case, ‘I’ should be used.

For example
a) He is taller than I (am).
b) He loves you more than (he loves) me.

Rules regarding relative pronouns

On combining each of the above pairs into one sentence
a) This is the boy who works hard (Who in place of He)
b) This is the boy whose exercise is done well. (whose in place of His)
c) This is the boy whom all praise. (Whom in place of Him) The above sentences show when to use who, whose and whom.
Who is the subjective case, Whose the possessive case and Whom the objective case.

Who Persons
Whose Persons/things
Which Things w/o life

Who, Which, Whom, That, Whose should be placed as near to the antecedent as possible.

For example
I with my family reside in Delhi, which consists of my wife and parents.
This sentence is wrong as which relates to ‘my’ family’.
So ‘which’ should be placed as near to family’ as possible.
So, the correct sentence is b) I with my family which, consists of my wife and parents, reside in Delhi.
Who is used In the nominative cases and whom in the objective cases.
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For example
a) There is Mr. Dutt, who (not whom) they say is the best painter in the town.
b) The Student, whom (not who) you thought so highly of, has failed to win the first prize.

When the subject of a verb is a relative pronoun, the verb should agree in number and person with the antecedent of the relative.

For example
a) This is one of the most interesting novels that have (not has) appeared this year. (Here, antecedent of relative pronoun
that is novels and not one)
b) This is the only one of his poems that is (not are) worth reading.

When ‘one’ is used as pronoun, its possessive form ‘one’s’ should follow instead of his, her etc.

For example
One must put one’s best efforts if one wishes to succeed.
With let objective case of the pronoun is used.

For example
let you and me do it.
If a pronoun has two antecedents, it should agree with the nearer one.

For example
a) I hold in high esteem everything and everybody who reminds me of my failures.
b) I hold in high esteem everybody and everything, which reminds me of my failures.

In referring to anybody, everybody, anyone, each etc., the pronoun of the masculine or the feminine gender is used according to
the context.

For example
a) I shall be glad to help everyone of my boys in his studies.
b) I shall be glad to help everyone of my girls in her studies.
c) I shall be glad to help everyone of my students in his studies.

But when gender is not determined, the pronoun of the masculine gender is used as in sentence c.
The pronoun one should be used throughout, if used at all.

For example
a) One must use one’s best efforts if one wishes to succeed.
b) One should be careful about what one says.
(B) Plural is commonly used with none.

For example
a) None of his poems are well known.
b) None of these words are now current.
Anyone should be used when more than two persons or things are spoken of.

For example
She was taller than anyone of her five sisters.

ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are the words that describe the qualities of a noun or pronoun in a given sentence.
Consider the following
Tell which sentence is correct
a) Flowers are plucked freshly.
b) Flowers are plucked fresh.

Sentence b is correct as; adjective is correctly used with a verb when some quality of the subject rather than verb is to be
expressed. Here, fresh describes the word Flowers (a noun) and not plucked (a verb).
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Types of adjectives
Types of adjectives Examples
Adjectives of quality Good, bad, red, black
Adjectives of quantity Some, any, little, few
Adjectives of number Cardinal- one, two, three Ordinal- first, second
Possessive adjectives My, our, your
Distributive adjectives Each, every, either
Demonstrative adjectives This, that, those
Interrogative adjectives What, which

From above table you can see that many words are behave as pronoun as well as Adjectives depending upon the context in
which these words are used in a sentence.

Rules regarding demonstrative adjective

Rules regarding distributive adjectives
Rule Each is used when reference is made to the individuals forming any group. Each is also used when the number of the
group is limited and definite.
For example
a) I was in Shimla for five days and it rained each day. Every is used when reference is made to total group or when the
number is indefinite.

For example
a) Every seat was taken.
b) I go for a movie every week.
c) Leap year falls in every fourth year.
Rule Each, either, neither and every are always followed by the singular noun.

For example
a) Each boy must take his turn.
b) Every word of it is false.
c) Neither accusation is true.
Rules regarding adjectives of quantity Some is used in affirmative sentences to express quantity or degree.

For example
I shall buy some bananas. Any is used in the negative or interrogative sentences to express quantity or degree.

For example
a) I shall not buy any bananas.
b) Have you bought any bananas? But some is an exception to the above rule. Some is used in interrogative sentences,
which are commands or requests.

For example
Will you please lend me some money?
Few is used for countable objects and little is used for noncountable objects.
Little means not much. So use of the word little has a negative meaning.

For example
a) There is little hope of his recovery.
b) He has little appreciation of hard work.
A little means some though not much. So, use of a little has a positive meaning.

For example
a) There is a little hope of his recovery.
b) He has a little appreciation of hard work. The little means not much but all there is.

For example
a) The little information he had was quite reliable.
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b) The little knowledge of management he possessed was not sufficient to stand him in good stead
Few mean not many. So use of the word few has a negative meaning.

For example
Few men are free from faults.
A few means some. So use of ‘a few’ has a positive meaning.

For example
A few men are free from faults.
The few means not many, but all there are

For example
The few remarks that he made were very good.
Only uncountable nouns follow much, little, some, enough, sufficient and whole.
For example
a) I ate some rice.
b) There are not enough spoons.

Rules regarding interrogative adjectives

What is used in the general sense and which is used in a selective sense.

For example
a) Which of you haven’t brought your book?
b) What manner of man is he?

Rules regarding degrees of comparison of adjectives

Rule
Comparative degree- When two objects are compared with each other, the latter term of comparison must exclude the former.

For example
a) Delhi is bigger than any other city in India.
Superlative degree
In a comparison by means of a superlative the latter term should include the former.

For example
a) Delhi is the biggest of all cities in India.
b) Of all men he is the strongest. Kindly note the difference in this and the previous rule.
Rule Later and latest refer to time.

For example
a) He came later than I expected.
b) This is the latest news.
Rule Latter and last refer to position.

For example
a) The last player could not bat as he was injured.
b) The latter chapters are very interesting. Latter is used when there are two only, last when there are
more than two.

For example
a) Of Manohar, Syam and Joshi, the latter is a driver. (Incorrect)
b) Of Manohor, Syam and Joshi, the last is a driver. (Correct)
Rule Elder and eldest are used only of persons (usually members of the same family).

For example
a) My elder sister is doing MBA from IIM Ahemdabad
b) My eldest brother is getting married today. Older and oldest are used of both persons and things.

For example
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a) This is the oldest building in the city.
b) Anthony is the oldest boy in the class.
Rule Further means more distant or advanced whereas farther is a variation of further and means at a distance – both the words
can be used to indicate physical distance.

For example
a) No one discussed the topic further.
b) Calcutta is farther from the equator than Colombo.
Rule The comparative degree is generally followed by ‘than’, but comparative adjectives ending in 'is' or 'are' are followed by
the preposition ‘to’.

For example
a) Akshay is inferior to Aamir in intelligence.
b) Aamir is superior to Akshay in intelligence.
c) He is junior to me.
d) Who was captain prior to Azhar?
Rule we can not compare perfection!

Adjectives such as square, round, perfect, eternal, universal, unique do not admit of different degrees. So they cannot be
compared. Thus strictly speaking we cannot say that a thing is more square more round or more perfect. But sometimes we do
make exceptions to this rule.

For example
This is the most perfect specimen I have seen.
Rule When 'than' or 'as' is followed by the third person pronoun, the verb is to be repeated.

For example
Ram is not as clever as his brother is.
Rule When 'than' or 'as' is followed by first or second person pronoun, the verb can be omitted.

For example
He is more intelligent than you.
Rule In comparing two things or classes of things the comparative should be used.

For example
a) Of two evils choose the lesser (not least).
b) Which is the better (not best) of the two?
Rule A very common form of error is exemplified in the following sentence.

a) The population of London is greater than any town in India.

b) The population of London is greater than that of any town in India. Sentence b is correct as the comparison is between the
population of London and the population of any town in India.
Rule Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided.

For example
a) Seldom had the little town seen a more costlier funeral. (Wrong)
b) Seldom had the little town seen a costlier funeral. (Right)
Rule Preferable has the force of comparative and is followed by to. Phrase ‘more preferable’ should not be used.

For example
a) Coffee is more preferable to tea. (Wrong)
b) Coffee is preferable to tea. (Right)
Rule Less refers to quantity whereas fewer refer to number.

For example
a) No fewer than fifty miners were killed in the explosion.
b) We do not sell less than ten kg of tea.

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Rule Certain adjectives do not really admit of comparison because their meaning is already superlative. Such words are unique,
ideal, perfect, complete, universal, entire, extreme, chief, full, square, round. Therefore phrases like most unique, more round,
fullest, chiefest etc. are wrong.
Rule If there is a gradual increase it is generally expressed with two comparatives and not with positives.

For example
a) It grew hot and hot. (Incorrect) b) It grew hotter and hotter. (Correct)

TENSES
1. Tense is the form taken by a verb to indicate time and continuance or completeness of action. The
continuance or completeness of action is denoted by four subcategories.
a) Simple Tense It is used for habitual or routine actions in the Present Tense, action which is over in the Past Tense &
action to happen in the Future Tense.
b) Continuous Tense The action is incomplete or continuous or going on.
c) Perfect Tense The action is complete, finished or perfect with respect to a certain point of time.
d) Perfect Continuous Tense The action is going on continuously over a long period of time and is yet to be finished.
2. The different tenses and the verb forms used in each tense are given below

Name of tenses Verb forms used

Present Simple VI +s/es
Present continuous Is/am/are + verb + ing
Present
Present perfect Has/have +VIII
Present perfect continuous Has/have + been + verb + ing
Past simple VII
Past continuous Was/were + verb + ing
Past
Past perfect Had + VIII
Past perfect continuous Had + been + verb + ing
Future simple Shall/will + verb
Future continuous Shall/will + be + verb + ing
Future
Future perfect Shall/will + have + VIII
Future perfect continuous Shall/will + have been + verb + ing
More rules for verbs and Tenses

SIMPLE PRESENT
1. To express a habitual action.
For example
I get up every day at five o’clock.

2. To express general truths.

For example
Fortune favours the brave.

➢ Important Rule If the subject is of the thirdperson, singular number (He, She, It) add 'S' or 'es / ies' to the first
form of the verb to make it singular number.
She plays the violin every day.
He loves his parents
The dog barks at the people.
The bird flies in the Sky.
He does his duty.

Present continuous
For an action going on at the time of speaking.
For example
The boys are playing cricket in the ground.

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Present perfect
To indicate the completed activities in the immediate past.
For example
He has just gone out.
The present perfect is never used with adverbs of the past time. In such cases the past simple should be used.

For example
I have seen a film last night☓
I saw a film last night. √
He has left for Hyderabad last week.☓
He left for Hyderabad last week. √
India has won the match last week

➢ Important Rule The present perfect tense with "For or Since" is used to express an action began at some time in
the past and is still continuing upto the time of speaking or just finished.
For ..............................period of time (for 2 days / for 10 days / for a long time)
Since ..............................point of time. (Since 1996, Since morning, since yesterday, since last week)
I know him since 1986☓
I have know him since 1986 √
Our teacher is sick for the last two days☓
Our teacher has been sick for the last two days. √

Present perfect continuous

action, which began at some time in the past and is still continuing. With the present perfect continuous tense an adverb or
phrase that expresses time is used.

For example
a) I have been reading this book since morning.

➢ Important Rule The present perfect continuous Tense" is also used for actions began in the past and are still
continuing.
I am reading this novel since morning.☓
I have been reading this novel since morning. √
They are going to English classes for the last one month.☓
They have been going to English classes for the last one month. √

Past simple
To indicate an action completed in the past.
Generally, adverbs or adverb phrases of past time are used in the past simple tense.

For example
a) The steamer sailed yesterday.

Past perfect
The past perfect tense is used when two actions happened in the past. In this case it is necessary to show which action happened
earlier than the other.
Here past perfect is used for the action, which happened earlier.

For example
a) When I reached the station the train had started.

➢ Important Rule When the first action led to thesecond action immediately
The simple Past Tense + Simple Past Tense are used.
When he opened the gate, they came in. √

➢ Important Rule When the first action completedbefore the second one started, the Past Perfect Tense for the
first finished action and the Simple Past Tense for the Second are used.
The patient had died before the doctor arrived. √
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More rules on verb & tenses

➢ Important Rule When the verb in the principal clause is in a past tense, the verbs in the subordinate clauses are normally
in the Past Tense.
He said that He will pass the examination.☓
He said that he would pass the examination. √
They told me that they have paid the fees.☓
They told me that they had paid the fees. √

➢ Important Rule When the subordinate clause expresses a universal truth the past tense in the main clause may be followed
by a Present Tense.
He said that the sun rose in the East.☓
He said that the sun rises in the East. √

➢ Important Rule The Past Tense in the main clause may be followed by any tense after the conjunction "Than" in the
subordinate clause.
He worked faster than we do / did. √

➢ Important Rule In Conditional Sentences, to express improbability in the Present, the Simple Past Tense in the if clause
and the Present Conditional Tense in the main clause are used.
If I am the Principal, I would Punish Him.☓
If I were the Principal, I would Punish Him. √
If he is rich, he would buy a car.☓
If he were rich, He would buy a car. √

➢ Important Rule To express unfulfilled condition in the Past, we should express with "Past Perfect Tense" in the if clause
and Perfect Conditional Tense in the Main Clause.
If you worked hard, you would have passed in the examination.☓
If you had worked hard, you would have passed in the examination. √

➢ Important Rule No other conjunction should be used as a connective word, in indirect speech when the question indirect
speech begins with "Why (or) How" question words.
He asked me that who my best friend was.☓
He asked me who my best friend was. √
He asked me that How I got time to write all posts in my Blog.☓
He asked me how I got time to write all posts in my Blog. √

➢ Important Rule No preposition is used after the verb "told"

He told me that he passed the examination.☓
He told me that he had passed the examination. √

➢ Important Rule The question forms in direct speech should be changed to affirmative sentences in indirect speech.
The receptionist asked me who do I want to meet in the office.☓
The receptionist asked me whom I wanted to meet in the office. √

➢ Important Rule The verb "Suggest" purpose in indirect speech should be followed by "that clause" with the auxiliary verb
"should"
He suggested me to go for a walk every morning.☓
He suggested to me that I should go for a walk every morning. √

➢ Important Rule In the absence of an indirect object after "suggest" a gerund form is used.
He suggested going for a walk every morning. √

➢ Important Rule The verb "Tell" should be used with an object.

He told that he had passed in the test.☓
He said that he had passed in the test (OR) √
He told me that he had passed in the Test. √
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Conditionals Important!
Type If clause Main clause Example
I Simple present will – future or (Modal + infinitive) It is rains tomorrow, we’ll go to the cinema.
If I had a lot of money, I would travel around
II Simple past would + infinitive
the world.
If I had gone to bed early, I would have
III Past perfect would + have + past participle
caught the train.

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Adverbs
What are Adverbs?
An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies" a verb. Lets try to understand this with a small
example.

Adverb Example
Rinku sulakh walks gracefully (The word 'gracefully' is an adverb. It modifies the verb 'to walk'.)

Shortcut rule
The adverbs 'too much' is usedwith nouns and 'much too' is used with adjectives.
Too much pain / Too much insincerity (Nouns)
Much too painful / much too careless (Adjectives)
Example
His failure is too much painful for me ☓
His failure is much too painful for me √
His wife's rude behaviour gives him much too pain ☓
His wife's rude behaviour gives him too much pain

Shortcut rule
Before the word 'Enough' an adjective under positive form should be used.
He is more intelligent enough to follow you. ☓
He is intelligent enough to follow you. √
She is enough lucky to get the job. ☓
She lucky enough to get the job. √

Shortcut rule
The adverb quite ('quite means perfectly/ completely) should not be used with the adjective 'Handsome'.
He is quite handsome. ☓
He is very handsome. √

Shortcut rule
Late / Lately. The adverb 'late' indicates time and lately means recently.
He was punished for coming lately. ☓
He was punished for coming late. √

Shortcut rule
When we begin a sentence with 'seldom / never / hardly / rarely / scarcely / barely / neither / never, the rule of inversion should
be applied (i.e.,) an auxiliary verb is used before the subject.
Hardly he goes to school. ☓
Hardly does he go to school. √
Seldom I got to films. ☓
Seldom do I got to films. √
No sooner the school bell rings than all the boys go to their class rooms. ☓
No sooner does the school bell ring, than all the boys go to their class rooms.
After Only + adverbial expression.
Only by working hard, he got success. ☓
Only by working hard, did he get success. √
Not only but also
Not only she reads but also she writes. ☓
Not only does she read but also writes. √

Shortcut rule
The adverbial phrase 'No less than' should be used with uncountable nouns whereas 'No fewer than' is used with countable
nouns.
There were no less than forty people who were killed in the accident. ☓
No fewer than forty people were killed in accident. √

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Shortcut rule
The adverb (As) is not used after call and consider.
He called me as a fool ☓
He called me a fool. √
I always consider him as my brother. ☓
I always consider him my brother. √

Shortcut rule
The derived adjectives such as interested / pleased / satisfied / delighted are used with 'much' but not 'very'.
I am very interested to play cricket. ☓
I am much interested to play cricket. √

Shortcut rule
The adverb 'very' is used with positive adjectives and 'much' with comparative adjective forms.
He is very clever to understand it. √
He is much clever to understand it. ☓

Shortcut rule
10 'Very much' should be used with comparative forms.
It is very much better to stay here tonight. √

Conjunctions

Shortcut rule
The co-relative conjunctions are used in pairs.
Not only - but also Either - or Neither - nor Both - and Though - yet Whether - or
Please see that the pair is properly used.
They will either do the work else return the money. ☓
They will either do the work or return the money.√
Both kumar as well as Ravi must finish it. ☓
Both kumar and Ravi must finish it.√
Not only does he read but also writes.√
Though he is rich but he is economical. ☓
Though he is rich yet he is economical.√

Shortcut rule
After the adverbs "Hardly / Scarcely", the conjunction 'when or before' should be used.
Hardly had he left the place than the Bomb exploded.☓
Hardly had he left the place when the Bomb exploded.√

Shortcut rule
After 'Rather / Other, the subordinating conjunction 'Than should be used.
He has no other object but to get a handsome job. ☓
He has no other object than to get a handsome job.√
I would rather buy a scooter but not a cycle. ☓
I would rather buy a scooter than a cycle.√

Shortcut rule
After the subordinating conjunction 'lest' the auxiliary 'should' is used. Lest - for fear that / If it is not so.
Work hard lest you fail. ☓
Work hard lest you should fail.√

Shortcut rule
The connecting word 'that' is used with the adjective phrase 'the same/the only/superlative adjectives/all
This is the same book which I wanted. ☓
This is the same book that I wanted.√

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Shortcut rule
The conjunction 'or' is used with not / never.
I have never spoken to him nor written to him. ☓
I have never spoken to him or written to him.√

Shortcut rule
With the word 'such' the connective 'that' may be used.
There was such a noise what we could not hear ourselves. ☓
There was such a noise that we could not hear ourselves.√

Shortcut rule
Until - Denotes Time Unless - Denotes Condition
You will not succeed until you work hard. ☓
You will not succeed unless you work hard.√
I want to stay here unless she speaks the truth. ☓
I want to stay here until she speaks the truth.√
You cannot do well until you prepare yourself. ☓
You cannot do well unless you prepare yourself.√

Shortcut rule
After the connective 'because' the words ' so / therefore / as' are not used.
Because he came late so he failed to see her. ☓
Because he came late, he fail to see her.√

Shortcut rule
The adverb 'Not' should not be used with the connective 'Till/unless/lest/until' in that clause.
Until he does not solve this problem, I will stay with him. ☓
Until he solves this problem, I will stay with him.√
Unless they do not work sincere, they will not succeed. ☓
Unless they work sincerely, they will not succeed.√

Shortcut rule
When 'since' is used as a conjunction should be preceded by present perfect tense and followed by a verb in the past tense to
denote point of time.
Many things have happened since I have left the school. ☓
Many things have happened since I left the school.√

Shortcut rule
With the conjunction 'if' 'then' should not be used.
If you work for 8 hours a day, then you will get through the examination. ☓
If you work for 8 hours a day, you will get through the examination.√

Shortcut rule
When two objects are joined by' as well/besides/along with /together with / in addition to / except / including with, the verb
agrees with the first subject in number.
He as well as his students have gone there. ☓
He as well as his students has gone there.√

Prepositions

Shortcut rule
Across
Across - On the opposite side of
My Cousin lives across the river.√
Across - From one side to another
The boy swam across the river √
Across - both sides

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He threw the luggage across his shoulders √
Come Across - means meet accidentally / suddenly
When I was going to market, I came across an old friend. √
I suddenly came across him ☓
I came across him. √

Shortcut rule
Between
Used for two persons / things.
She is sitting between munni and sheela. √
Among
Used with more than two persons / things
The principal distributed prizes among the winners√
Amid or Amidst
Used for more than two persons / things (groups)
Amid his friends √
It was hard to hear amid all the cheering. √

Shortcut rule
During - denotes duration.
During the war, many people suffered hardship. √
We go to Darjeeling during summer every year. √

Shortcut rule
From - is used with past / future tenses
I stayed there from Monday to Wednesday. √
I will start my preparation from Monday next. √

Shortcut rule
Of - denotes origin / cause
She comes of a rich family (origin) √
He died of Malaria (cause) but she died in an accident. √
Off - denotes 'separation' A button has come off. √
He is off duty today. √

Shortcut rule
After a preposition, a pronoununder objective case should be used.
He depends on I. ☓
He depends on me. √

Shortcut rule
When two words are connected by 'and / or' etc., the prepositions should be mentioned clearly to be used with them.
He was surprised at as well as pleased with her performance.√
She is conscious and engaged in her work. ☓
She is conscious of and engaged in her work √

Shortcut rule
No preposition should be used with the noun
'Home' except when it is followed by an adjective in the possessive case, say go to home / arrive home / reach home / get home.
I went to his home / He went home. √
He decided to go to Krishna's home. √

Shortcut rule
After transitive verbs such as 'Discuss / Describe / reach / order / tell / demand / a attach / resemble / ridicule etc. no preposition
is used. The verbs directly take an object.
The poet describes about the beauty of nature.☓
The poet describes the beauty of nature. √
He ordered for two cups of tea. ☓
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He ordered two cups of tea. √

Shortcut rule
After the verbs "Say / suggest /propose / speak / explain / reply / complain / talk / listen / write" the proposition "to" should be
used if any object is used.
He did not reply me. ☓
He did not reply to me. √
You never wrote me. ☓
You never wrote to me. √
He suggested her that she should eat less. ☓
He suggested to her that she should eat less. √

Shortcut rule
Since - Denotes point of time For – denotes period of time.
They should be used with present tense or the present perfect continuous tense / past perfect tense / past perfect continuous
tenses.
I know her since 2011. ☓
I have known her since 2011. √
He is working in the bank for the past 3 years. ☓
He has been working in the bank for the past 3 years. √

Shortcut rule
After the verb "Enter" the preposition "into" should not be used except when it is used with reference to agreement or
conversation.
He entered into the premises without any permission. ☓
He entered the premises without any permission. √
They entered a hot discussion. ☓
They entered into a hot discussion. √

Shortcut rule
Wait for – Await, Despite - inspite of
He is awaiting for the reply. ☓
He is awaiting the reply. √
Despite of his hard work, he failed in the examination. ☓
Despite his hard work he failed in the examination. √
This book comprises of 5 chapters. ☓
This book comprises of 5 chapters. √
This book consists of 5 chapters. √

Shortcut rule
Dispose of - Sell away.
He disposed off his scooter. ☓
He disposed of his scooter.

➢ Important Rule For the interrogative sentences that begin with auxiliary verbs, "if or whether as a connective
word in indirect speech.
He said to me, "Are you going there?"☓
He asked me if I was going there. √
He asked me that I was going there √
“Are they ready or not?" she said to me.☓
She asked me whether they were ready. √
She asked me that they were ready or not. √

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Parallelism
Definition of parallelism
The balance between two or more similar words, phrases or clauses is called parallelism in grammar.
Parallelism is also called parallel structure or parallel construction. Parallel construction prevents awkwardness, promotes
clarity and improves writing style and readability.

Rules of parallelism
Parallelism is used to balance nouns with nouns, prepositional phrases with prepositional phrases, participles with participles,
infinitives with infinitives, clauses with clauses.

Parallelism is used with elements joined by coordinating conjunctions.

My mother likes cooking and to read. (×)
My mother likes cooking and reading(√)

Parallelism is used with elements in lists or in a series.

This task can be done individually, in pairs, or can be done in groups of four. (×)
This task can be done individually, in pairs, or in groups of four. (√)

Parallelism is used with elements being compared.

She is mad about watching TV more than to read a book . (×)
She is mad about watching TV more than reading a book. (√)

Parallelism is used with elements joined by a linking verb or a form of be

To learn is understanding the world. (×)
To learn is to understand the world. (√)

Parallelism is used with elements joined by linking words.

The teacher not only wants his students to keep quiet but also to do the task . (×)
The teacher wants his students not only to keep quiet but also to do the task . (√)

Nouns
He Likes music, art, and science.
Gerunds
He likes dancing, Swimming, and painting. (Verb + Ing Form)

Adjectives
He is tall, cool, and handsome. (Adj)
They wanted to paint, the living room, to lay a new carpet, and to buy a new sofa. (Infin)
Past Tense
The Romans conquered, colonized, and governed much of the world.
Past Perfect Tense
He had finished the game, had taken a shower, and had eaten lunch by the time I went to his house.

Note The auxiliary "had" may be omitted in the second and the third verb phrases.
The structure joined by and, but, as, or then, or although must have the same grammatical form.
And
He enjoyed the music of spain and the sculpture of France (N PHRASE)
But
That verb form is not active, but passive (Adj)
As
Taking the bus can be as costly as taking a plane (V + Ing)
Or
He wanted to borrow a car or to rent one while his car was being repaired. (Infin)
Than
Eating in a restaurant is more fun than cooking at home
Although
Although he liked to eat good food, he did not like to pay high prices for it. (Infin)

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