CS5

L1: Stratified rocks, absolute and relative

dating
Compaction

 Particles squeezed together under great

pressure

Deposition

 Particles deposited as loosely packed sediment

Erosion

 Particles carried away from their source by

different agents

Sediments

 Particles from weathered and eroded rocks

Strata

 Layers of sedimentary rock formed at the Earth’s

surface

Stratification How do stratified rocks form?

 Process where sediment layers are piled on top  Differences in densities of two rocks (and other
each other factors) arrange them in layers.

Stratified rocks Why do we need to study this?

 Rocks with layers similar to sedimentary rock  Sedimentary rock is the only type of rock that
preserves fossils
Weathering

 Breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces

DATING METHODS
 Study about absolute and relative dating.
Stratified rocks  Research on their similarities and differences.
 Rocks (mostly sedimentary) that have visible
bands of minerals.
 These bands run in lines that resemble
LAYERING.
Absolute Dating
 Technique used to determine the exact age of
the artefact or a site using methods such as
carbon dating
 Determines the numerical age
 Four methods are radiometric dating, amino
ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY
acid dating, dendrochronology, and
thermoluminescence  All rock layers are originally laid down
 Precision is high (deposited) horizontally and can later be
 Quantitative measurement deformed.
 Works better for igneous and metamorphic
rocks
 Expensive and takes time

Relative Dating

 Technique used to determine which object or

item is older in comparison to the other one
 Arranges fossils in an order LATERAL CONTINUITY
 Involves biostratigraphy, stratigraphy, and cross  Rock layers extend laterally, or out to the sides.
dating  Erosion may have worn away some of the rock,
 Precision is low but layers on either side of eroded areas will still
 Qualitative measurement “match up.”
 Works better for sedimentary rocks having  Same age kahit magkahiwalay
layered arrangements of sediments  Ex: grand canyon
 Less- expensive and efficient

Nicolaus Steno

 was a 17th-century Danish geologist.

 The laws of stratigraphy describe the patterns in
which rock layers are deposited.
 Father of stratigraphy (process to know the age
of rock)

INCLUSIONS

SUPERPOSITION  It states that any rock fragments that are

included in rock must be older than the rock
 New rock layers are always deposited on top of
(magma) in which they are included.
existing rock layers.
 Yung included rock is older than the layers
 Therefore, deeper layers must be older than
layers closer to the surface.
  It was a time of intense heat, volcanic activity,
and meteorite bombardment.
 The first solid crust began to form, but there
were no life forms yet.

CROSS-CUTTING RELATIONSHIP

 It states that any geologic feature or rock body

that cuts across or deforms another is the
younger of the two
 Ung rock nag cut corss sa 2 layers =youngest

b. Archean (4 to 2.5 billion years ago)

 The Earth’s crust stabilized, and the first oceans

formed.
 Simple life forms like bacteria (prokaryotes)
appeared.
 The atmosphere had little oxygen, but
photosynthetic organisms began releasing
oxygen into the atmosphere.

L2: Geologic Time Scale

Geologic Time Scale

 Is a system that divides Earth’s 4.5 billion-year

history into distinct intervals, allowing scientists
to describe the timing and relationships of
events in Earth’s history.
 It is divided into Eons, Eras, Periods, and Epochs, c. Proterozoic (2.5 billion to 541 billion yrs. Ago)
each representing significant changes in the
planet's geology, climate, and life forms.  Oxygen levels increased, leading to the Great
Oxidation Event.
 Eukaryotic cells evolved.
 The first multicellular organisms appeared.
1. Eons
 Eons are the largest divisions of geological time,
spanning hundreds of millions to billions of
years. Earth’s history is divided into four major
eons.

d. Phanerozoic (541 million years ago to present)

a. Hadean (4.6 to 4 billion years ago)
 This is the eon where most of the major life
 This eon marks the formation of Earth.
forms we recognize today evolved.
  It includes the rise of complex plants, animals, ended with the “Cretaceous-Paleogene
and the development of modern ecosystems Extinction” .

2. Eras c. Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago to present)

 Eras are subdivisions of eons and mark  Known as the “Age of Mammals”.
significant global changes in the fossil record,  After the dinosaurs’ extinction, mammals
such as mass extinctions or the rise of new diversified and became the dominant land
dominant life forms. animals.
 The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three major  This era also saw the evolution of primates,
eras. including humans.

a. Paleozoic Era (541 to 252 million years ago)

 Known as the “Age of Invertebrates” and “Age

of Fish”.
 Life transitioned from simple ocean-dwelling
organisms to the first land plants, insects, and
amphibians.
 It ended with the “Permian Mass Extinction”
the largest extinction event in Earth’s history.

3. Periods
 Periods are smaller divisions within eras and are
characterized by more specific events in Earth's
climate, geography, and the evolution of life.

b. Mesozoic Era (252 to 66 million years ago)

a. Cambrian Period (541 to 485 million years ago)
 Known as the “Age of Reptiles” and “Age of
Dinosaurs”.  Part of the Paleozoic Era, it marked the
 Dinosaurs dominated the land, while the first Cambrian Explosion, a rapid diversification of
birds and mammals appeared. life forms, including many invertebrates.
 Flowering plants evolved.
b. Jurassic Period
 The
(201 to 145
era
million years
ago)
  Part of the Mesozoic Era, this period saw the  Mammals evolved rapidly, with many modern
dominance of large dinosaurs like Brachiosaurus orders like primates, rodents, and hoofed
and the rise of the first birds. animals appearing.
 The climate was warmer, leading to widespread
tropical forests.

c. Quaternary Period (2.6 million years ago to present)

 Part of the Cenozoic Era, it includes the rise of

humans and the last ice ages.
 We are currently in the Holocene Epoch of this c. Pleistocene Epoch (2.6 million to 11,700 years ago)
period.
 Known as the “Ice Age”, it was characterized by
repeated glacial cycles.
 Early humans (Homo erectus and Homo
sapiens) evolved during this epoch.

4. Epochs
 Are the smallest divisions of geological time and
represent more finely tuned changes in the
Earth’s climate, life forms, and continental
shifts. Epochs are most notable in the Cenozoic d. Holocene Epoch (11,700 years ago to present)
Era.
 Marked by the end of the ice age, this is the
epoch of Human Civilization.
a. Paleocene Epoch (66 to 56 million years ago)  Agriculture, written language, and modern
society developed this time.
 Following the extinction of dinosaurs, early
mammals began to diversify.
 Primitive primates appeared.

b. Eocene Epoch (56 to 34 million years ago)

 Limited in Time

 Index fossils come from species that existed for

a relatively short period of time in the geologic
record, perhaps just a few million years.
 This narrow time range makes them highly
valuable for pinpointing the age of rock
formations.

Trilobites (Paleozoic Era)

 Trilobites are one of the most well-known index

fossils.
 They were marine arthropods that existed
during the Paleozoic Era, especially in the
Cambrian Period, and their distinctive three-
INDEX FOSSILS lobed body plan makes them easily
recognizable.
Index Fossils

 Index fossils are the remains of organisms that

were once widespread but existed for only a
short period of time geologically.
 They are extremely useful for determining the
relative age of rock layers and correlating those
layers between different geographical locations.
 These fossils allow geologists to "date" the rocks
in which they are found, providing a snapshot of
Examples of Index Fossils:
a specific time in Earth's history.
 For example, if an index fossil is found in rock Ammonites (Mesozoic Era)
layers across different regions, it helps scientists
 These spiral shelled marine animals were
conclude that those layers were formed around
widespread during the Mesozoic Era,
the same time.
particularly in the Jurassic and Cretaceous
periods.
 Their broad distribution and relatively short
Properties of Index Fossils:
lifespan make them excellent index fossils for
Easily Recognizable dating rocks from that era.

 Index fossils have distinct, easily identifiable

features that set them apart from other fossils.
 This makes them simple to identify, even in
fragmented or partial form.

Widespread

 These species must have lived over a large

geographic area.
 The wider their range, the more useful they are
in correlating rock layers between distant
locations.
L3: Natural Hazards, Mitigation and Landslides
Adaptation  Movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth
down a slope.
GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND HAZARDS  Landslides are a type of "mass wasting," which
 It is an extreme natural event in the crust of the denotes any down-slope movement of soil and
earth. rock under the direct influence of gravity.
 It poses a threat to life and property. Types:

 Rotational landslide
Earthquake  Translational landslide- continuous pagguho ng
lupa
 An earthquake is a sudden release of energy  Block slide- 1 buong block slides
along a fault in the Earth's crust.  Rockfall- debris slide
 It poses a severe threat because of its irregular  Topple
intervals and difficulty to forecast.  Debris flow- rapid movement of rock
Hazards:  Debris avalanche- extremely rapid
 Earthflow- movement of soil & fine materials
 Ground Shaking- movement of the ground; (sand)
damage infrastructures  Creep- not visible; unti-unti
 Tsunami- large wave that triggered by  Lateral Spread- horizontal movement of
earthquake; water move backward to create a soil/rock
big wave
 Landslides and rockfalls- disruption of soil
 Subsidence and Lateral- displacement of fault Hazard map
lines
 Spreading- buka ng lupa  A map that highlights areas that are affected by
 Liquefaction- weak soil causes to sink; or are vulnerable to a particular hazard.
happening in saturated soil  Normally created for natural hazards, such as
earthquakes, volcanic eruption, and landslides.

Volcanic Eruption

 Volcanic eruptions occur when molten material

from the Earth's interior is extruded to the HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA AND
surface. HAZARDS
 Avalanches of hot materials, release of toxic gas,
 The results of natural process or phenomena of
and lava flows make volcanic eruptions
atmospheric, hydrologic or oceanographic
dangerous.
nature.
Hazards:  Multiple hazards often concur in one extreme
meteorological event.
 Ground fracturing
 Gas emissions and steam explosions Cyclones
 Volcanic ash and gas
 A cyclone is a powerful, swirling storm system
 Pyroclastic flows- flowing molten material
characterized by strong winds and heavy rain.
pababa ng crust
 They form over warm ocean waters and can
 Ballistic rocks- fragments of magma (rock)
cause significant damage when they make
ejected during an explosive eruption
landfall.
 Lahars
  Cyclones spin counterclockwise in the Northern Thunder Storm
hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
 Thunderstorms are intense weather
Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect.
phenomena characterized by the presence of
There are different names for cyclones depending on lightning and thunder.
where they occur:  They typically form when warm, moist air rises
and cools, leading to condensation and cloud
 Hurricanes in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific.
formation.
 Typhoons in the Northwest Pacific.
 This process releases heat, causing the air to
 Simply cyclones in the South Pacific and Indian
rise even further and creating strong updrafts
Ocean.
and downdrafts within the storm.
They’re categorized by their wind speeds and can cause
Key features of thunderstorms:
flooding, high waves, and severe wind damage.
 Lightning
 Thunder
Storm Surge  Heavy Rain
 Hail
 A storm surge is an abnormal rise in sea level  Strong Winds
caused by a cyclone, hurricane, or other intense
storm systems. As strong winds and low
pressure push water towards the shore, it piles
MARINE AND COASTAL PROCESSES AND THEIR
up and creates a higher-than-normal tide.
 This can lead to severe coastal flooding, erosion,
EFFECTS
and destruction of property, often being the  Marine and coastal processes involve the
most deadly aspect of these storms. natural actions that shape and change
coastlines over time.

Flood or Flashflood Coastal Erosion

 Flash floods are sudden and intense floods that  The gradual loss of land due to wave action,
occur after a heavy rainfall or other events like tides, and storms.
dam breaks. Practical ways to cope with coastal erosion:
 These floods can sweep away anything in their
path, including cars, houses, and people.  Building seawalls and revetments to prevent
 They are particularly dangerous in urban areas wave action from eroding the shoreline.
where concrete surfaces prevent water from  Planting mangroves and other vegetation to
being absorbed into the ground. stabilize the coastline.

Tornadoes

 Tornadoes are violent, rotating columns of air

that extend from a thunderstorm to the ground.
 They can have wind speeds of up to 300 mph
and can be incredibly destructive, ripping
through anything in their path.
 Tornadoes are often accompanied by severe
thunderstorms, and they can form very quickly,
with little warning.

Submersion
  Rising sea levels and coastal flooding lead to Land development
land being submerged.
 Regulate coastal development to prevent
destabilizing coastlines and causing erosion.

Practical ways to cope with submersion: Waste Disposal

 Relocating communities or raising buildings to  Rising sea levels and coastal flooding lead to
avoid rising water levels. land being submerged.
 Building dikes or levees to hold back the sea.
Construction

 The movement of saltwater into freshwater

aquifers due to over-pumping or rising sea
levels.

L4: Theories/Experiments on How Life

Began
POSSIBLE EXPLANATIONS ON HOW LIFE COULD
HAVE BEGUN
Extraterrestrial Origin

 life originated on another planet outside our

Saltwater Intrusion Solar System.
 The movement of saltwater into freshwater Panspermia
aquifers due to over-pumping or rising sea
 The seed of life exists all over the universe and
levels.
can be propagated through space.

Divine Creation

 Life was put on Earth by divine forces.

 Life doesn’t come into being by the people but
it is the handiwork of God on the earth.

Origin from Nonliving Matter

 Life arose from inanimate matter after Earth

cooled.

Practical ways to cope with salt water intrusion:

 Managing freshwater extraction and monitoring

aquifers to prevent saltwater contamination.

EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED TO PROVE THE

MITIGATING THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES CONTRACTING BELIEFS ON HOW LIFE CAME
ON COASTAL PROCESSES ABOUT
Francisco Redi’s Experiment  He disproved the theory of spontaneous
generation.
 Life is necessary to produce life.
 He believed that microbes move through the air
 Disagreed sa origin from non living matter
and could be killed by boiling.
 He placed meat in three jars: one open, one
 Disapproved john needham
covered with gauze, and one sealed. Maggots
appeared only in the open jar, where flies could
lay eggs. He concluded that maggots came from
fly eggs, not the meat, proving life arises from
existing life, not non-living matter.

Louis Pasteur’s Experiment

 He was credited for conclusively disproving the

theory of spontaneous generation. “Life only
comes from life”
John Needham’s Experiment

 John Needham was a proponent of spontaneous

generation—living organisms develop from non-
living matter
 He boiled meat broth, poured it into loosely
sealed flasks, and observed microbial growth

 Intact Flasks: The broth remained clear and free

of microorganisms because the curved neck
prevented contaminants from reaching the
broth.
Lazzaro Spallanzani’s Experiment
  Broken-Neck Flasks: Microorganisms appeared,
and the broth became cloudy, as dust and
microorganisms from the air could enter.

PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL

Cell

 The structural and fundamental unit of life.

 Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke
with the help of a microscope in 1665.

Cell theory

 All living things are made up of one or more

CELLS
 Cells are the basic units of all living things.
 All cells came from pre-existing cells

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROKARYOTE AND

EUKARYOTE
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
Prokaryotic Cell
Movement
 “pro” = pre, “karyon” = nucleus
 Origianted about 3.5 billion years ago  All living things move.
 Primitive forms  Animals move from one place to another.
 Unicellular  Plants also move but not as usually observable
 Developing nucleus than animals.
 Small in size
Reproduction
 Non-bounded membrane
 biological process by which new individual
organisms –"offspring" – are produced from
Eukaryotic Cell their "parents".

 “eu” = true, “karyon” = nucleus Sensitivity

 Originated about 1.2 billion years ago
 Living things are able to respond to the
 Advanced
environment through a stimulus.
 Multicellular
 True nucleus present Growth and Development
 Larger in size
 Living things grow over their lifetimes; changes
 Membrane-bounded
in size and form.

Respiration

 It is the process in which the energy from the

food eaten is being released in all living cells.

Excretion
  It is the removal of toxic minerals in excess from  Food with ore desirable traits, such as potatoes
the organism. that produce less of cancer-causing substance
when fired
Nutrition
 Medicinal foods that could be used as vaccines
 Living things take in minerals and food from the or other medicines
environment in order to survive and grow.

Disadvantages Genetically Modified Organisms

Genetic Engineering
 Unintended harm to other organisms
 It is the process by which genes from one  Reduced effectiveness of pesticides
organism is transferred into another organism of  Interfere in food chain
an entirely different species.  Bad effects on the body

Generated Modified Organisms (GMO)

 Genetic engineering results to genetically

modified organisms (GMO) and other products
such as proteins.

Advantages of Genetically Modified Organisms

 Tastier and more nutritious food

 Disease- and drought-resistant plants that
require fewer environmental resources (water
and fertilizer)
 Less use of pesticides
 Increased supply of food with reduced cost and
longer shelf life
 Faster growing plants and animals