HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

The subject of political science is comparatively new, though the study of politics is very old.
Although was codified in the 19th century, when all the social sciences were established, political
science has ancient roots; indeed, it originated almost 2,500 years ago with the works of Plato and
Aristotle. The discipline of Political science has a clear set of antecedents such as moral
philosophy, political philosophy, political economy, political theology, history, and other fields
concerned with normative determination of what out to be and with deducing the characteristics
and functions of an ideal state. In each historic period and almost every geographic area, we can
find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding

The antecedents of politics can be traced as below:

Ancient Greeks
The antecedents of Western politics can be traced back to the ancient Greek city-states (eg., Sparta,
Athens, Troy, Macedonia, Peloponnesia, etc.). Greece was a land of enlightenment and knowledge
in the ancient times. Like many other arts and sciences, political analysis received an extraordinary
degree sophistication among the Greeks The affairs of each city-state were studied by the
intellectuals/philosophers in the ancient Greece, and they called this study as ‘politics’. Greek
philosophers like Socrates (470-399 B.C) Plato (427-347 B.C), Xenophon (430-354 B.C), and
Aristotle (384-322 B.C) in their works – The Republic, The Law, and The Statesman (Plato)
Politics and Nicomachean Ethics (Aristotle), etc., analysed political system philosophically.

Indian subcontinent

In ancient India, the antecedents of politics can be traced back to the Rig-Veda, Samhitas,
Brahmanas, the Mahabharata and the Buddhist Pali canon. Kautilya (350-275 B.C) was a political
thinker in Takshashila. He wrote the Arthashastra, a treatise on political thought, economics, and
social order. It discusses monetary and fiscal policies, welfare, international relations, and war
strategies in detail, among other topics. Kautilya also known as Chanakya, later on became the
Prime Minister of Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya. Almost like the Arthashastra, the
ancient Tamil literary work ‘Thirukkural’ also deals with political science. The topics discussed by
Thirukkural, including the art of public administration, warfare, political diplomacy, civil society,
espionage (the practice of spying or using spies to obtain information about the plans and activities
especially of a foreign government), financial administration and local administration, etc.
Ancient China

Ancient china was the home to several competing schools of political thought, at different points
of the time in history. These included Mohism (a utilitarian philosophy), Taoism (a school of
thought based on the Supremacy of the state) and Confucianism (system of thought and behaviour).
Eventually, a modified form of Confucianism (heavily infused with elements of legalism) became
the dominant political philosophy in china during the imperial period. This form of Confucianism
was expounded upon by scholars in Korea and Japan.

Roman Empire
During the height of the Roman Empire, famous historians such as Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch
documented the rise of the Roman Republic and the organization and histories of other nations,
while statesmen (a statesman is a respected, skilled and experienced political leader or figure) like
Julius Caesar, Cicero and others reflected on the politics of the republics, Rome's empire and wars.
The study of politics during this age was oriented towards understanding history, understanding
methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments. The Roman law called
stoicism (the development of self-control as a means of overcoming destructive emotions)
committed itself to the preserving of proper hierarchical roles and duties in the state so that the
state as a whole would remain stable. Among the best known Roman stoics were philosopher
Seneca and the emperor Marcus Aurelius. The Roman Empire which was established in the year
753 B.C lasted up to the year 1453 A.D.

Medieval Europe

With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies.
The rise of monotheism and, particularly for the western tradition, Christianity, brought to light a
new space for politics and political action. Works such as Augustine of Hippo's ‘The City of God’,
synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity, redefining the
borders between what was religious and what was political during the middle ages, the study of
politics was widespread in the churches and courts most of the political questions surrounding the
relationship between church and state were clarified and contested in this period. The prevailing
assumption was that all power comes from god, and spiritual authority has higher than temporal
authority.

West Asia

In Persia, works such as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and Epic of Kings (Iranian myths,
legends, and events of the ancient past) by Ferdowsi provides an evidence of political analysis,
while the Middle Eastern Aristotelians such as Avicenna and later Maimonides and Averroes,
continued Aristotle's tradition of analysis and empiricism, writing commentaries on Aristotle's
works.
Renaissance

The term renaissance literally means 'rebirth' or 'revival'. This event marked the beginning of the
modern age. It took place in Europe mainly during the 14th to the 16th centuries A.D. The
Renaissance originated in Italy and then spread to other parts of Western Europe (During the
Middle ages church and state authorities were able to effectively suppress the freedom loving
adventurous thought of man. In a sense it was the 'rebirth' of this freedom of thought and action
that happened during the renaissance period. In another sense it could be interpreted as a revival
of interest in the study of ancient Greek and Roman works which championed the cause of freedom
of expression. It was an attempt to understand and appreciate the past, analyse the present and
make projections for the future. During the Italian Renaissance, Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)
established the emphasis of modern political science on direct empirical observation of political
institutions and actors. Machiavelli was also a realist, arguing that even evil means should be
considered if they help to create and preserve a glorious regime. Machiavelli therefore argues
against the use of idealistic models in politics. His major work, ‘The Prince’, published in 1531,
drew heavily upon his first hand observation of the statecraft and the power politics that dominated
his times. It was written as a guide for the future prince of a unified Italy.

Enlightenment

This European philosophical movement of the 18th century, rooted in the 17th century scientific
Revolution and the ideas of great philosophers stood for the superiority of reason as a guide to all
knowledge and human concerns from this flowed the idea of progress and a challenge to traditional
Christianity. Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Burke, Mill and Hegel among others,
contributed to the literature of political philosophy. The works of the French philosophers like
Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot to name a few were paragon for political analysis, social science
and political critic. Their influence leading to the Free revolution has been enormous in the
development of modern democracy and political theory throughout the world.

Modern political science

Political science emerged as an independent discipline during the years 1850-1900, due to the
effect of some American scholars. It was first institutionalized in the United States of America,
The John Hopkins University, the Columbia University and the University of Michigan made
positive contribution to the growth of political science. The advent of political science as a
university discipline was marked by the creation university departments and chairs with the title
of political science during the second half of the 19th century all over the United States and also
in other parts of the world. In the year 1857, Francis Lieber was named the first professor of
History and political science at Columbia University. In the year 1880, Columbia formed the
first school of political science. The discipline established American Political science Association
in the year 1903, and the American Political Science Review was founded in 1906 in an effort to
distinguish the study politics from economics and other social sciences.
Modern political science is closely associated with the behavioural revolution that dominated the
study of politics in the USA from the 1940's and became substantially influential elsewhere.
Charles Merriam V.O.Key Jr, G.A.Almond, Robert Dahl and many others spearheaded the
behavioural movement. The behaviourists rejected much of the traditional study of politics,
including normative political theory. They also marginalized the analysis of constitutions, formal
public institutions and administrative law. What mattered was not what constitutions,
organizational charts and established legal principles suggested should happen, but what actually
did happen: political behaviour dispassionately measured and assessed. Moreover, these new
political scientists were interested in the political behaviour not just of governments, leading
politicians and bureaucrats, but of ordinary people as they participated in the political process by
voting in elections, forming allegiances to parties and joining all kinds of associations and groups.
In simple word Behaviouralism emphasized scientific, objective and value free study of political
phenomena as conditioned by the environment. Thus behaviouralism transformed the focus of the
subject.

In the late 1960's the behavioural movement lost its original appeal and momentum of the early
years. A reaction by a section of scholars against the behavioural movement culminated in a new
movement called post-behaviouralism. These scholars argued political science should be relevant
to life and its problems; it should seek to solve the problems of life and thereby enhance human
welfare; in the area of political science research the substance should be given more importance
than the technique.

Recent Developments

During early 2000, the perestroika movement in political science was introduced as a reaction
against what supporters of the movement called the mathematicization of political science. Those
who identified with the movement argue for a plurality of methodologies and approaches in
political science and for more relevance of the discipline to those outside it.
Political Science

Political science is an academic discipline concerned with the study of state and government.
Political science studies the functions performed by a government – e.g., legislation and
administration of the law. It also studies the behaviour of voters, the operation of Political parties,
the influence of political organizations and other factors in the functioning of the state. So, it is the
study of the state and of the organs and institutions through which the state functions.

No individual on earth can ever claim that he does not live in a state or under a government. All
individuals must belong to one or the other state with a government which may be democratic or
despotic. The discipline of political science covers all aspects of state and government. Thus,
political science is one of the major areas in social science dealing with all aspects of human
political behaviour and also the institutions which he influences and in turn gets influenced.

The English word ‘Politics’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Politicus’ which in turn is derived
from the Greek word ‘Polis’. Polis means ‘City State’. Politics, according to Greeks, is the study
of city state and its administration in practical as well as in philosophical terms. Though the term
of Political Science is a product of 19th century, earlier it was known by different names. Aristotle
who is rightly regarded as the ‘Father of Political science’, because of his far-reaching and
permanent contribution to the field of Politics called it as ‘Politics’, He wrote “Man by nature is a
political animal and he who by nature and not by mere accident is without state, is either above
humanity or below it’’, Getter regarded it as ‘science of state’, Sir Fredrick Pollock used the phrase
the ‘science of politics’. It was Mackenzie who suggested the use of the term “political science”.

The meaning of ‘political science’ has been subject to varied interpretations. From Plato to Easton,
it has been interpreted in different ways. Scholars differ greatly on the definition of this subject. It
is difficult to define Political science in a generally acceptable manner. Different political scientists
have defined the term Politics/ Political Science in different ways over the years.

TRADITIONAL VIEW

According to traditional Political Scientists, Politics/ Political Science is all about the study of state
or Government or related institutions. A few prominent views in this regard are as follows:

“Political Science deals with the associations of human beings that form Political units, with the
organization of their governments and with the activities of these governments in making and
administering Law and in carrying on inter-state relations” (Gettel).

“Political Science is that part of social science which deals with the foundations of the state and
principals of government” (Paul Janet).

“The study of politics concerns itself with the life of man in relation to organized states” (Prof.
Laski).

“Political Science begins and ends with state” (Garner).

“Political Science is a branch of social science dealing with the theory, organization government
and practice of the state” (E.C. Smith and A.J. Zurcher). •

"Political Science deals with the origin, development, purpose and all political problems of the
state" (Garies).

"Political Science is concerned with the state and with the conditions essential for its development"
(Lord Acton).

It is clear from the above definitions that according to the traditional view, the main subject of the
study of Political Science is the study of state and government.

MODERN VIEW: -

Political Science as the study of state and government and its relationship with the individual
remained valid for a very long time, until the dawn of the 20th century. Sociologist like Max Weber
(1864-1920) in attempt to distinguish Political Science from other social sciences made a departure
and pointed out that the central idea of the subject must be power. After all the state was the
repository of power. The point was well taken and a host of writers in the U.S.A. began to give
attention to and focus on the study of power.

A new generation of Political Scientists led by George Catlin, Charles Merriam, Almond, Powell.
G. Bingham and others approached the study at 'Politics' by sociological, anthropological and
psychological methods. They criticized the traditional Political Science as too very parochial and
formal, as it concentrated mainly on state, government, institutions and their legal norms. These
scholars submitted that Political Science should also study - (a)Informal organizations (b)Non-
state institutions and (c)Power oriented behaviour of individuals which supplement the formal
structures of government and the political force that influence it.
It was contended that politics all along had been and continued to be 'Power Politics - be it slavery
in ancient times, Supremacy of the church and the state in medieval ages or the expansion of
franchise in the modern era - all are manifestations of a struggle for power. A host of new
definitions based on this premise came up, a-few prominent ones are as follows;

• "Political Science as an empirical discipline is the study of shaping and sharing of

power" (Abraham Kaplan and Harold. D. Lasswell).

• "Political Science centres on the struggle to gain and retain power, to exercise power

or influence over others or to resist that exercise" (Robson).

• "Politics is the struggle for power or the influencing of those in power"

(Max Webber).
"To some politics involves power, authority and influence" (Wasby).

• "Politics has been defined as the study of the general principles on which government can be
carried on successfully, In other words, the study of exercise of power" (J.H. Price).

"Politics is the authoritative allocation of values for the society" (David Easton).

"Politics is the struggle for power to make authoritative decisions for the whole society" (Shaw
and Pierce).

• "Politics is the study of influence and the influential" (Robert Dahl).

Political science is being given a much wider meaning today by including the study of the elements
of controversy, conflict and cooperation under its purview. The following definitions substantiate
this view: -"Politics is not a separate realm of public life and activity. On the contrary, politics
comprises all the activities of cooperation and conflict, Within and between the societies whereby
the human species goes about organizing the use, production and distribution of human, natural
and other resources” (A.Leftwich). "Politics means planning and organizing common projects,
setting rules and standards that define the relationships of people to one another, and allocating
resources among rival human needs and purposes" (C.Anderson)

"Politics is the activity (negotiations, arguments, discussion, application of force, persuasion etc.)
by which an issue is agitated and settled" (Edward Banfield).

"Politics is the activity which occurs in ordered community - a way in which disagreements are
resolved and translated into policies" (Eric Rowers).

Thus, as per the modern view- politics/political science includes the study of power, influence and
authority, authoritative allocation of values, conflicts, controversy and co-operation, process of
decision making and political institutions.

Politics and political science- A distinction:

The two terms 'Politics' and 'Political science' are used interchangeably, though a line of distinction
between the two may be drawn;

• Politics conveys the sense of political science in its practical form. Garner says that while
the term 'politics' is used to describe the activities by which public officials are chosen and
political policies promoted or, in a wider sense, the sum-total of the activities which have
to do with actual administration of public affairs, while political Science has a theoretical
approach to the origin, growth and development of state, government and its allied
institutions.

• The term 'political science' "has come to be more generally employed by the best of writers
and thinkers to describe the mass of knowledge derived from the systematic study of the
 state", while the meaning of the term "politics is confined to that of the "business or activity
which has to do with the actual conduct of affairs of state”.

• Political science involves political scientists, scholars and academics. Political scientists
are scholars and academics who rarely play and active role in a country’s political scenario.
Indeed, political scientists have a broad and comprehensive understanding of politics but
they tent to remain within the academic world. Politics involves politicians, agenda,
administrators and bureaucracy. Politicians and administrators are practitioners that need
to make concrete decisions and implement laws and norms in order to maintain order
within the country and to promote social and economic development.

The distinction between 'politics' and 'political science' is more academic in its orientation. These
two terms are being used interchangeably the world over.

Nature of Political Science

Man is by nature a social animal who is born in society and wishes to live in society. The social
nature of man is well, summarised by Aristotle. He says: He who is unable to live in society, or
has no need because he is sufficient for himself, must be either a beast or a God. Man’s love for
company is prompted by twin factors of necessity of fulfilling his wants and his gregarious nature,
to loved and to be loved. Thus, in order to satisfy his wants and requirements, which he alone
cannot fulfil and the desire to be cared and appreciated makes him to seek co-operation of others.
Man is social by nature but at the same time he is selfish, egoist and quarrelsome too. In the process
of living together in a society, he tries to dominate over others by controlling their actions or
regulate the activity of others according to his will. This nature of man leads to conflict in the
society. In order to put down such dominating behaviour of certain individuals, a regulating agency
was required which can protect the weak and helpless against the strong and dominant. The rules
and regulations that prescribe a certain code of behaviour in a society is called Laws. An organised
society requires an agency to make laws of the jungle (survival of the fittest) but also implement
them strictly and impartially. This law enforcing authority is called Government. The functioning
of the government can be effective if people settle down within a fixed geographical limit. This
fixed area in which the laws of the government operate is called Territory. The society so
constituted is called a state when the social conduct of the people is regulated by law supervised
over by a government having fixed territory along with the supreme power of Sovereignty. Thus,
political science is the study of State and Government in its all aspects.

Scope of Political Science

By the scope we mean the area or the extent of the subject. There is a lack of precision in the
definitions and meaning of political science and that creates confusion regarding the precise
boundaries of the subject. According to R.H.Soltau, "It is not an easy job to determine precisely
the boundary lines of political science in view of fact that there is no aspect of our common life
which may not sometimes and somehow become political. On the question of the scope of Political
Science there are three groups of thinking.

The First School of the scholars including Frank Goodnow, Garries and H.J. James argue that the
scope of Political Science is the study of the state alone. They are of the view that the study of the
state obviously includes the study of government as well. Without state life can’t be sustained.

The Second School of scholars consisting of John Seelay, Stephan, Leacock, Karl Deutsh and
Robson contend that the scope of political science includes the government alone. They argue that
it is the government that anchors the ships of the state and hence a state can’t be imagined in the
absence of a government and though the state orders and compels obedience, it is the government
that enforces it.

The Third School of thinkers consisting of Harold J. Laski, Garfield Gettel and Gilchrist strike a
meaningful balance between two extreme views and conclude that the scope of political science
includes the study of both state and government. The state and government are complimentary to
each other and has no existence in isolation because the conception of the state is never complete
without the organised government. Thus, the scope of political science shall include both the study
of state and the government in all its aspects.

In 1948 a committee of the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and cultural
Organization) drew up the following list of subjects of political science:

(1) Political Theory-(a) Political theory (b)History of political ideas

(2) Political institutions-(a)Constitution (b)National government(c)Regional and Local
government (d)Public administration(e)Economic and social functions of government(f)
Comparative political institutions.
(3) Political parties, groups and public opinion-(a)Political Parties (b)Groups and Association
(c)Citizenship participation in Government and Administration (d) Public Opinion.
(4) International Relations-(a)international politics (b)International law (c)International
organization and Administration.

1. POLITICAL THEORY

(a)Political Theory- Political theory is the most important branch of political science. Based on
political ideas or thoughts of political thinkers, political theory formulates definitions of concepts
of democracy, liberty, equality, grounds of political obligation etc. A student of political science
must start lessons with political theory, which explains the rudimentary concepts of political
science.

(b) History of political Ideas- Political theory also includes the history of political ideas. Great
thinkers around the world during the last 2500 years have speculated on the fundamental qualities,
elements, purposes of organization and problems of the state. Plato, Aristotle, Kautilya,
Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau,Marx, Lenin, Gandhi are some of the great political
thinkers of the world.

2. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
(a) Constitution- The study of political institutions centers round the actual forms and facts of
political life; of them the constitution is the most important. The fundamental principles that
determine the form of state are called constitution. The study of the constitutions of different
countries of the world is an important function of political science.

(b) National government- In modern time’s government or administration of a country has three
distinct levels- national, regional and local. The national government administers the affairs that
concern the entire nation, such as defense, foreign affairs, economic affairs, nuclear energy etc.
These and similar problems are included in the study of national government.

(c) Regional and local government- These days the functions of the government are extremely
varies and multifarious (with many different qualities). It is not possible for the national
government to exercise them efficiently and expeditiously especially in large countries. Hence for
administrative convenience the state is divided into regions, provinces and provided with a
government of its own. Besides, districts, counties, cities villages also have administrative
institutions, which are collectively called as local governments.

(d) Comparative study of political institutions-The in-depth study of a single country’s

government and politics can be fascinating and illuminating, but it is also very essential to study
the governments and political institutions of other countries also. The political institutions of every
country have some special features. A comparative study of different political institutions is very
valuable. The study of comparative politics can throw up considerable variations in political
practice across countries. A comparative study of political institutions of different countries of the
world falls under the scope of political science.

(3) POLITICAL PARTIES, GROUPS AND PUBLIC OPINION

(a) Political parties- In every state, especially in democratic states, political parties play an
important role in the conduct of government. In the words of R.G. Gettell, “A political party
consists of a group of citizens, more or less organized, who act as political unit and who, by the
use of their power, aim to control the government and carry out their general policies”. The study
of political parties is important for understanding the nature and working of the political
institutions of a country.
(b) Groups and Associations – Besides political parties there are in every state organized group
and association which try to influence directly or indirectly the politics and administration of the
state, for the protection and promotion their special group or class interests. A study of these groups
and associations also falls under the scope of political science.

(c) Citizen participation in Government and Administration- Do the citizens of a state take
interest in its political affairs? Do they assert to take active part in politics? Do they get adequate
opportunities to participate? How far do they influence the decisions of their government? The
study of these and similar problems also constitutes and essential part of political science.
(d) Public opinion- Public opinion is the ‘mind’ of the public. It is the opinion which the people
in general hold on questions of common interest at a certain time. How do the opinions, attitudes
and beliefs of citizens affect the policymaking of political elites? To what extent are changes in
public opinion on major issues reflected in the decisions of political elites? The study of these and
similar questions is an essential part of the subject-matter of political science.

(4) INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

(a) International Politics- The study of international politics has been one of the long-standing
concerns of political scientists. Science and technology have converted the world into a big global
village. No state howsoever powerful, can live in isolation. The policies and activities of one state
have its impact on other states, either directly or indirectly. Many of the big political issues, such
as peace and war, global inequality, the conservation of the environment and the very survival of
humanity transcend state borders. The sub-discipline of international relations examines the efforts
of governments, organizations and people in tackling these vital issues.

(b) International law- International law is another important sub discipline of political science.
During the present century an extensive body of laws, known as international law, has developed.
This law governs the relations between states. Its study constitutes an important part of political
science.

(c) International organizations- International relations today are deeply influenced by

international organizations. From the middle of the 19th century, a series of international
organizations have been established. They reflect a developed stage of international relations and
exercise decisive influence upon external behaviour of member states. These days the UNO and
its specialized agencies play a very useful role in promoting harmony among states and integrating
their functions and welfare activities. Many Regional organizations like the ASEAN, SAARC etc
are playing a proactive role in the present times. The study of these and many other international
organizations has become an important feature of political science.

The scope of political science has expanded further in the recent times. With its academic
independence and adaptation of sophisticated methods of observation and measurement, the
discipline has developed many new fields and subfields of study. Many new items have been added
to the list of subjects of political science like, Political behaviour, political modernization, political
development, political socialization, Political culture, new social movements, environmentalism,
globalization, terrorism etc.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY POLITICAL SCIENCE

What is the use of the study of political science? The critics may say that political science is all
theoretical; that it has little relation to reality; that it deals with legal fictions and obsolete (out of
date) concepts; that it is incapable for giving exact answers to disputed questions and that it is
disastrous to a politics. As a matter of fact, every science, whether natural or social has its own
significance.

The following points highlight the significance of the study of political science:

1. Gives precision and clarity to political terms: According to many political scientists’ political
science gives precision and definiteness to the meaning of different political terms in circulation
many common political terms like liberty, equality, justice, democracy, rights, freedom, injustice
etc., are simply taken for granted without actually understanding their real meanings. The
definitions offered by leading political scientists in their works, after an in-depth study of these
terms and concepts, help the lay men to understanding these concepts better, proper understanding
of local, national and international political affairs is possible only when people have a proper
knowledge about the meanings and implications of terminology. Basic knowledge of political
science is very valuable for this reason.

2. High Educative value: Knowledge of political science has become indispensable in modern
times because everyone is either directly or indirectly concerned with politics. Robert Dahl writes,
a Citizen encounters politics in the government of a country, town, school, church, business firm,
civil association, club, political parties and a host of organizations. Politics is one of the
unavoidable facts of human existence. Everyone involved in some fashion at some time in some
kind of political system and activity" Thus, the knowledge political science has high educative
value as it is very essential to every citizen to keep himself active involved in different kinds of
political activities.

3. Creates awareness about state and government: The study of political science is of great
value to a people, as it helps them to know why the state was organized in the past and why its
continuation is justified. This apart it enables every person to understand the functions and
responsibilities of the state. Knowledge of political science also helps people to understand
structure and working of the governments. For example, basic knowledge of political science can
help a person to understand the basic distinction between parliamentary and presidential form of
government and also know how a unitary form of government is different from a federal
government. Citizens who are knowledgeable about politics are an asset to the state.
4. Makes people conscious about their rights and duties: political science makes people
conscious of their rights and obligations. Basic knowledge of political science helps citizens to
understand the implications of the rights enshrined in the constitution of their respective countries.
This apart it also enables them to apply these rights for their well-being and even fight against the
government when their rights are violated. All citizens have many obligations towards their states
and fellow citizens. For example, honest exercise of franchise, payment of taxes, render national
service when called upon to do so etc. Basic knowledge of political science enables the citizens to
understand these obligations better and discharge them effectively.
5. Enables people to exercise control over the governments: A 'good' citizen who behaves
properly and votes regularly, is no longer good enough. He must know how his government really
operates, what interest’s and forces are behind particular policies, what the results of such policies
are likely to be, who his elected representatives are and what they stand for. When citizens of a
state possess a sound knowledge of political science, they can be well informed about the affairs
of the state. This will also make them vigilant and enable them to exercise check against any
arbitrary rule by the government. The nature of abuse of authority power by the officials and the
political masters can be well understood by people, who possess a good knowledge of political
science. The misdeeds of governments and its officials can be exposed only by the kinds of
citizens. Intelligent and responsible citizens alone can save states and democracies.

6. Valuable to those who manage the affairs of the state: Political science is said to be a science
statesmanship and leadership. The knowledge of political science is of great value to Constitutional
maker, Legislators, Civil servants, Judges, Policy makers, and all others who are associated with
the government in some way or the other. These functionaries, when they have the knowledge of
political science will be aware of the principles which should guide them and hence, they can avoid
the pitfalls. The knowledge of political science is desirable to understand the affairs of the state,
problems of the citizens, working of the government and its different Institutions, the postures of
political parties and various other civil society groups and various other matters. It will also enable
them to come out with effective solutions to the several problems faced by the citizens in different
spheres. In politics, all activities are either to bring a change or to resist a change and knowledge
of politics is essential for both.

In conclusion, A modern man without the knowledge of political science is imperfect. Pericles:
'’Just because you do not take an interest in politics doesn't mean politics won't take an interest in
you’’. George Bernard Shaw wrote, "Political science is the science by which alone civilization
can be saved”.

The relationship between political science and other social sciences

Political science is not and cannot be a self-contained discipline. Social sciences are inter-related
and interdependent It studies man's political behaviour in association with other men as members
of a common society. This society studied by different social sciences, one among which is political
science. The very fact that man's activities cannot be completely compartmentalised, show that his
political activities cannot be isolated from other activities Many problems of man including
political problems are the common concern of all social sciences. It has to be appreciated that
man's political activity is a part of his general behaviour, and that the study of political science is
only the study of one aspect of his integrated social life Indebted to Other Social Sciences. If man's
political activity cannot be cut off completely from other activities, a study of political science
cannot be made in complete isolation. Political science touches the other social sciences at various
points, and so we must examine the relations of this social science with other social sciences for
the proper understanding and appreciation of the different problems in political science
"Familiarity with economics, anthropology, sociology, history, psychology, geography etc. is
essential to a proper understanding of the nature of political processes and to a genuine
appreciation of the basic problems of political life”.

Political Science and Sociology

Let us briefly examine the relationship between political science and sociology. Both sociology
and political science deal with human activity, but there is difference in their respective spheres.
Sociology is the basic social science, and it has to conduct the study of the various aspects of man’s
social life. It explains how these different aspects are intimately connected with one another. The
study of sociology pertains to all kinds of human associations and to all human “associated
processes” It is proper to regard sociology as a general social science, and special social sciences
like political science and economics as differentiations the field of political science is narrower
than that of sociology, as it specialises only in the study of man’s political life, political principles,
political machinery and institutions. Man in pre-political condition the study of political science
begins at a stage when man became a member of an organised political society the discipline does
not primarily study human institutions of the pre-political period. On the other hand, sociology
commences its study at an earlier stage, when there was no state and government. Inter-dependence
sociology and political science help each other in the study of man’s activity in society as sociology
also deals with human customs, traditions and usages in the pre-political stage, it helps political
science by presenting facts which are useful in knowing the origin of social laws and political
institutions. It is sociology that tells the political scientist the reasons of state formation. In the
same way, political science helps sociology by furnishing the details about state and government,
which are essential in understanding sociological problems.

Political Science and History

Political science and history are inter-related. History presents record of man’s achievements and
failures in his quest of civilisation and culture. It peeps into the past and gives a chronological
record of human activity in various fields political, social, religious, economic, literary and artistic
Political science restricts itself to the study of political theory and organisation. Both the disciplines
find themselves on common ground sometimes in the study of man, and they depend on each other
by its very nature, political science in narrower in scope than history. One of the methods of
studying political science is historical, the historian places at the disposal of the political
investigator, a very useful fund of information about man's activities in the past in the various parts
of the world. Part of this fund of material is drawn by the student of political science in
investigation regarding the origin and the growth of political institutions. Hence, it said that history
furnishes invaluable raw material to the political scientist.

Seeley says, “History without political science has no fruit and political science without history
has no root”. The inter-dependence of the two subjects is so great that they depends each other
frequently “Separate them (history and politics) and the one becomes a cripple, if not a corpse and
the other a will-of-the wisp” (Burgess).

Political Science and Economics

Political science and economics (the science of wealth) are both social sciences, which are closely
connected. In the past, economics which was regarded as a branch of political science was called
political economy. Today the two subjects have been separated and assigned different fields, but
the fields are closely related in the promotion of human welfare, both the social sciences go hand
in hand in a way, they can be regarded as the two sides of the same coin. The relationship between
political science and economics became very intimate with the outbreak of The Industrial
Revolution (1750-1850) The excessive concentration of wealth in the hands of a few industrial
capitalists and the merciless exploitation of the workers and the poor and the weak sections of
society made the state regulate industry, finance, trade and commerce through legislation. This
shows that the activities of the state came to be influenced by economic conditions. In modern
times, due to the rise of forces of liberalism and enlightenment, the energies of the political scientist
and economist are bent for the good of society. Administrators and economists, who plan in
collaboration in the larger interests of the state. The welfare of the people in a state would not be
realised if economic principles are separated from political principles, and if economic activities
are not regulated by the state.

Political Science and Ethics

Political science and ethics are interdependent with each other. Both political science and ethics
are social sciences; one is the science of the state and the other of morality. The state was organised
for law and order, for the maintenance of peace, for protecting the weak against the strong and for
promoting the welfare of the people. In the state, ethical principles and human values have to be
given a place. “The political ideal cannot be divorced from the ethical ideal we cannot conceive a
perfect state where wrong ethical principles prevail. The ethical and the political in this case
coincide the science of ethics is therefore prior to political science”.
Plato, the Greek philosopher established an intimate connection between politics and ethics
According to him, membership of the state is necessary for leading a good and virtuous life. In his
Republic, Plato spoke of the state aiming at the establishment of justice or moral excellence.
Aristotle also gave much importance to ethics and regarded it as part of politics. To Hegel, the state
is the highest expression of morality.

Political Science and Psychology

“Psychology is the science of consciousness and deals with the rational and irrational aspects of
the human mind’’. As human beings’ figure in the study of political science, it has to be taken for
granted that psychology is intimately connected with the subject. In the evolution of political
institutions, we note the influence of psychological factors, human psychology provides an insight
into the political habits of man. The political scientist, the politician, the administrator and the
statesman have to give due weight to human sentiments and emotions “Political interests and
political parties are to a great extent psychological in nature and the traditions and ideals of a
people are potent forces in political life”. In the general elections, leaders tap the psychological
factor for support. Rulers should see that generally the governmental measures do not go against
the people’s sentiments and emotions.

Political Science and Anthropology

Both political science and anthropology are social sciences. Anthropology is: (1) The science that
deals with the origins, physical and cultural development, racial characteristics, and social customs
and beliefs of mankind. (2) The study of man’s similarity to and divergence from other animals.
(3) The science of man and his works. (4) Also called philosophical Anthropology is the study of
the nature and essence of man.’ Thus anthropology is ‘the science of man in its widest sense.’
Languages, races and cultures of people living in the various parts of the world provide rich
material for Anthropological studies, which deal with man as a social being. The study of
anthropology is helpful to political scientist. Anthropology shows how man’s political behaviour
is the result of race, culture and environmental influence. It throws much light on the conditions
of the primitive man and helps the political scientist to study the origin of social life and
development of state. It furnishes valuable information on the government, laws, racial divisions,
habits, customs and usages of early societies. The rich material furnished by anthropology on
diverse cultures and social systems is very useful for comparative political analysis.

In recent years the importance of Anthropology has been increasing, as primitive people very
gradually became developing nations, and the political affairs of these nations could be better
studied with the help of anthropology. The political scientist was not able to understand easily
without the support of anthropological details the cultural features of the primitive societies
following the political patterns of Western countries.

Political Science and Geography

Geography is the “science of the earth’s surface, form, physical features, natural and political
divisions, climate, production, population etc “It enables the student of political science to know
the influence of environment on political institutions. Applied political geography called
geopolitics furnishes, useful information in the study of the origin and growth of political
institutions. The historical development and evolution of political institutions of a country can be
easily linked with the nature of the soil, mountains, plains, rivers and insularity recognition of
geographical factor. The role of geography in the evolution of political institutions was recognised
by political thinkers like Aristotle even in ancient times. In modern times, the credit of noting the
relation between the two subjects goes to Bodin and scholars like Rousseau, Montesquieu and
Buckle took note of the geographical factor and its role in the construction of political institutions.

Political Science and Philosophy

Political science and philosophy also depend on each other. Philosophy represents the love of
Wisdom and “the knowledge of causes and laws of all things’’. It helps to understand the “why”
and “how” in political science. As a social science, it is connected with political science. The great
philosophers of Greece like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle saw in political institutions scope for the
realisation of philosophical principles. In fact, they brought politics under the control of
philosophy. In modern times the two disciplines were separated yet we cannot have a science of
government without principles of philosophy. The state as an organisation serving human ends
remains highly indebted to philosophy. In the books of eminent writers like Hegel, Spencer and
Bosanquet, the relationship between the two subjects is clearly brought out.

Political Science and Statistics

Historically, statistics and politics had been closely related. Modern statistics are ‘political
Arithmetic’ and ‘university statistics’. ‘Political arithmetic’ was introduced in England by William
Petty and ‘university statistics’ was founded by a German professor Hermann Conring. ‘Both were
concerned with the political problems of their day-state-building and state-preservation-and both
were concerned with achieving empirical foundations for their political ideas’. In trying to
formulate causal explanations of political life, the descriptive emphasis of the German school
became as important as the explanatory approach of the English school. Scientific interest in causal
data analysis has since then been concerned with (a) descriptive account of variables, attributes
etc. influencing political action, and (b) politically meaningful explanations of these variables,
attributes and actions. Statistics is concerned with systematic and methodical collection, analysis,
and presentation of numerical data. The study of government involves empirical investigations of
various kinds concerning political processes (parties etc), political institutions (e.g. legislature,
bureaucracy etc.), activities and outputs of government and their impact on the citizens. In all these
spheres of inquiry, data analysis is indispensable. The main contribution of statistics to politics is
therefore to facilitate causal data analysis to increase political understanding. There are various
well-developed statistical methods and models (e.g. analysis of variance and covariance,
multivariate statistical theory) that are increasingly being used in political analysis to introduce
scientific rigour and to produce sounder explanations of political phenomena. A word of caution
would be in order here. There is a saying that in a society where statisticians thrive, liberty and
individuality are likely to be emasculated. Statistical data are often manipulated by the state to
serve narrow, partisan interests. Instead of revealing the truth, data analysis is done in such a way
that truth does not actually come out.

Political Science and Jurisprudence

The state, which is the central theme of political science, operates through law. Hence,
jurisprudence, as the science of law, is closely related to politics. Eminent political philosophers
like Bentham, Austin, Jellinek, Stammler have sought to construct juridical concepts in conformity
with their ideas about political systems. It is quite an old maxim that laws tend to be a reflex of a
particular social pattern. A society with a predominant peasant population would beget laws
certainly different from one with a preponderant industrial element. Further, the legal system has
to keep pace with the changing pattern of a community. Since law seeks to regulate social relations,
when these relations change the code of social regulations, known as law, also, undergoes
necessary modifications. The capital-labour relation that obtained, say, about a hundred years back
in England has undergone a radical change under the impact of growing democratisation and
organisation of trade unionism. English law has, to a significant extent, taken cognisance of this
fact and been reoriented along collectivist lines. Thus, a social ideal primarily deduced from a
prevalent social relation is sought to be embodied in the legal code of a society. Political science
and Jurisprudence, however, differ in their approaches. Jurisprudence, for instance, deals with
persons and situations in general or even abstract forms. It follows a normative approach, while
political science is also interested in descriptive analysis as it is closely related to the living political
realities. Law may well flourish as an exercise in logic rather than in life; politics, however, seeks
to bridge the gulf between abstract legalism and the concrete realities of life. In spite of their
differences in approach, legislations and judicial pronouncements are helpful in understanding the
nature of law and growth of convention, which a political scientist can hardly afford to disregard.

Political Science and Biology

Biology deals with organic evolution. Some eminent writers sought to convert political science
into a biological science by treating its central theme, the state as "a phase of development from
associations formed among animals of a species included in the subject matter of natural
history."14 The state, according to them, possesses the characteristics of a biological organism. In
its growth and operations it is supposed to follow the laws governing the organic bodies. It was
Herbert Spencer in whose writings politics had become biology. According to him, the state and
the biological organisms are alike in their structure and operation. Without pushing this analogy
too far, it may be observed that political science and biology have distinct fields of investigation.
Especially, when politics deals with the conscious relations of associated men, it does not succumb
to but transcend the laws of biology.

Political Science and Chemistry

Chemistry provides knowledge and innovation, while democracy ensures collective decision-
making. Together, they can drive sustainability, health, technology, and evidence-based policies.
In the 20th century, Spanish chemists were influential in political contexts, from liberal to
dictatorial regimes. They were considered “political actors” and “ideological agents” who adapted
to different political systems.

Political Science and Physics

Political Science and Physics intersect in several ways, through energy policy: nuclear power
plants, climate change, infrastructure development, international co-operation in scientific
research etc.

Political Science and Religion

Intimate Connection between Religion and Politics: In ancient and medieval times, religion and
politics were intimately connected. In fact they were mixed up. In ancient Egypt, Sumeria, India,
China and other countries religion exercised dominating influence over political affairs. Similarly
in medieval Europe, states were Christian. In the countries conquered and ruled by Muslim rulers,
there was theocracy. In almost all the countries in the world in ancient, medieval and early modern
times, the control of priests was conspicuous. Gradually in modern time’s tolerance and secularism
rose and in several states political affairs were freed from religious bondage. In advanced countries,
it is felt that religion is a personal affair, and it should not be allowed to interfere in politics.

Summing Up
Political science, as the discussions in this chapter point out, is related to a number of disciplines.
It is in some sense a ‘derived’ social science. For a proper understanding of political phenomena,
one has to rely upon a number of sister disciplines such as economics, sociology etc. The current
trend toward systems analysis of political life reflects the need for broad-based understanding of
politics. After all social sciences have branched out for the sake of specialization. But political
reality is part of a larger social reality that has to be understood by stepping out of the narrow
disciplinary boundaries.

Is Political Science – a Science?

The use of the term political science has become a matter of controversy, and scholars are divided
in their opinion on this issue. Sir. Fredrick Pollock, John Seelay, Hobbes, Bodin, Sidgwick and
other scholars contend that the discipline of political science is a Science. On the other hand,
scholars like J.S. Mill, Henry Maitland, Bucker, Charles Beard, Edmund Burke, James Bryce and
others argue that political science cannot be considered as a science. They contend that the title
‘political science’ is both misleading and mischievous. Henry Maitland observes: “when I see a
good set of examination questions headed by the words ‘political science’, I regret not the
questions but the title”.
In order to arrive at a decision as to whether political science is a science, it is essential to know
the characteristics of science. Science is a systematic body of knowledge with characteristics of
definiteness, predictability, experimentation, generalisation and verification of data. The laws of
science such as theory of relativity, Newton’s laws of motion, or the law of gravitation is definite
and precise at all places and under all, but the same definiteness can't be expected of any of the
social sciences including political science. In political science we are concerned with the mind of
man than his body. Since human mind can't be predicted owing to dynamic nature of man, nothing
can be definitely predicted. Human mind is often compared with that of a monkey which does not
rest at one place. Because of the ever-changing nature of mind, it is difficult to predict his mind at
any point of time. For a political scientist, entire world is a laboratory whereas a scientist works
on certain known assumptions and established formulas to arrive at pre-determined concluding
observations.

The political science agrees that it is neither an exact science nor it can claim to be one. The
contention of the political scientists is that in dealing with the complex and unpredictable human
nature, they also adopt well-established scientific tools of investigation such as observation,
analysis, experimentation etc. For example, the public opinion polls and election surveys are based
on certain reasonable scientific methods such as random sampling, interview method,
questionnaire method, field study, etc. The main object of our study is about the unpredictable
nature of man and hence the outcome would surely be prone to inexactness. So, we can say that
political science is not an exact science but can claim to be a 'science' as far as its approach to
numerous political problems is based on tools of sound scientific technique. Political Science is
thus a science, though not like the physical sciences.