CHEMICAL EQUATION

A chemical reaction is a process where one or more substances are changed into new substances
with different chemical properties.
The process in which one or more substances are changed into one or more new substances.
Any chemical reaction consists of reactants and products.
Reactants are substances that start the chemical reaction.
Products are the new substances formed as a result of the chemical reaction.
Important observable characteristics of chemical reactions are:
(i) Evolution of gas (bubbles)
(ii) Formation of precipitate
(iii) Change in colour
(iv) Change in temperature
(v) Change in state
All chemical reactions are represented by chemical equations.
Chemical equation is a symbolic or words representation of a chemical reactions.

In a chemical equation:

• Reactants: They are written on the left side of the equation.

If there's more than one reactant, they are separated by a "+" sign, meaning "reacts with."

• Products: They are written on the right side of the equation.

If there's more than one product, they are also separated by a "+" sign, meaning "and."

• Arrow (→): This separates the reactants from the products. It indicates the direction in
which the reaction proceeds.

It stands for "yields" “produces” “gives” or "forms."

In some chemical equation, double arrows (⇋) are used.

A+B⇋C+D

This means that the reaction can proceed in both forward and backward direction. These
are known as reversible reactions.

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 • Sometimes the conditions required for a chemical reaction to take place may be placed
above or below the arrow.
• The physical states of reactants and products (s, l, g, aq.) are written next to each
substance in the equation.

There are three main types of chemical equations:

A+B→C+D
A reacts with B to produce C and D
Where :
A and B are the reactants
C and D are the products

▪ Word Equations
▪ Formula or Molecular Equation
▪ Ionic Equations

1. Word Equations
Word Equations are the equations which use the names of the reactants and products to
describe the chemical reaction.

a. Hydrogen peroxide → water + oxygen

b. Copper + oxygen → copper (II) oxide

Advantages

It does not require high knowledge to write them. It involves the memory of the names of the
reactants and products.

Disadvantages

▪ It uses a lot of space to write the names of reactants and products.

▪ It does not show the quantities of the reactants and products involved in the chemical
reaction.
▪ It does not show the number of atoms in the reactants and products.
▪ It does not show the physical states of the products and reactants.

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 2. Formula / Molecular Equations
Formula / Molecular Equations are the equations which use chemical symbols and formulae of
the reactants and products to describe the chemical reaction.

a. H2O2 → H2O + O2
b. Cu + O2 → CuO

Advantages of formula/molecular equation

▪ This provides a more precise representation than a word equation.

▪ It indicates the quantities of the reactants and products involved in the chemical
reaction.
▪ It shows the composition of reactants and products involved in the chemical
reaction.
▪ It indicates the states of the reactants and products involved in the chemical reaction.
▪

❖ Balancing Chemical Equations

The chemical reaction obeys the law of conservation of matter.

Law of Conservation of Matter

States “In a chemical reaction the total mass of the products equals to the total mass of the
reactants”.

Therefore, the number of atoms of each element must remain constant before and after the
reaction

Balancing chemical equation is the process of making the number of different types of atoms
equal on both sides of an equation.

Balanced chemical equation is a chemical equation in which the number of each type of atom is
equal on the two sides of the equation.

Steps of balancing chemical equation:

✓ Write down the word equation for the reaction.
✓ Write the formula/molecular equation for the reaction.
✓ Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product.
✓ Balance the number of atoms by adjusting the coefficients until the number of each atom
on reactant side is equal to those of product side.
✓ Use appropriate state symbols in the equation.

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Things to consider when balancing chemical equations:
✓ Only change the coefficients (these are the numbers in front of the substance).
✓ Never change the subscripts (the small numbers after elements).

Examples
Balance the following equation

Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
Atom Reactant product
Zn 1 1
H 1 2
Cl 1 2
From this table hydrogen and chlorine are not balanced.
But both appear together on the reactant side.
So putting 2 in front of HCl, the equation will be balanced.
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 ………Balanced

Importance of Balancing Chemical Equations

1. Mass Conservation: Balancing ensures that the mass of reactants equals the mass of
products, adhering to the conservation law.
2. Correct Ratios: It reveals the precise ratios of reactants required for a reaction, which is
crucial for stoichiometric calculations.
3. Quantities in Reactions: Helps in determining how much of each substance is needed or
produced, aiding in laboratory and industrial applications.
4. Chemical Manufacturing: Essential for designing processes in chemical industries to
optimize yield and minimize waste.
5. Laboratory Accuracy: Prevents errors in experiments by ensuring that reactions proceed

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Exercise 1
Balance the following chemical equations:
1. P4 + O2 → P2O5
2. Al + O2 → Al2O3
3. KClO3 → KCl + O2
4. Na + H2O → NaOH + H2
5. Na2CO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2
6. KMnO4 + HCl → KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2
7. Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
8. N2 + O2 → N2O5
9. C2H6 + O2 → H2O + CO2
10. Pb(NO3)2 → PbO + NO2 + O2
11. Al(NO3)3 → Al2O3 + NO2 + O2
12. KMnO4 + H2O2 + H2SO4 → MnSO4 + K2SO4 + H2O + O2
13. KClO3 + HCl → KCl + H2O + Cl2 + ClO2
14. H2O2 → H2O + O2
15. C6H5F + O2 → CO + H2O + F2
16. C4H10 + O2 → H2O + CO2
17. PCl5 + H2O → H3PO4 + HCl
18. S8 + O2 → SO3
19. (NH4)2Cr2O7 → NH3 + H2O + Cr2O3 + O2
20. C2H5OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Exercise 2
1. Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 → CaSiO3 + P2O5
2. Mg + N2 → Mg3N2
3. SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
4. CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
5. CuSO4 + Mg → MgSO4 + Cu
6. Al(OH)3 + H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + H2O
7. Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
8. Al(OH)3 → Al2O3 + H2O
9. Na2O + H2O → NaOH
10. KNO3 → KNO2 + O2
11. ZnCO3 + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2O + CO2
12. CuFeS2 + O2 → Cu2S + FeO + SO2
13. Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) →Fe(l) + CO2(g)
14. Fe(s) + Cl2(g) → FeCl3(s)
15. Na2SO3(s) +HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)
16. Ca(OH)2(aq) +H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
17. Fe(s) + H2O(g) → Fe3O4(s) + H2O(l)
18. Li(s) + N2(g) → Li3N(s)

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 ❖ Indicating the Physical States of Substances
There are four physical states which should be indicated in the chemical equation
o Solid (s) Most of these states we are familiar with, but the aqueous solution probably it is the first
time to see.
o Liquid (l)
o Gaseous (g) Yeah, what does it mean?

o Aqueous solution (aq.) It means that the named substance is dissolved in water (aqua) to make a solution. This
will show only those substances which dissolve in water and form the solution with it.

aqua = water

Now let us see some of them as predicted by using Solubility Rules.

Solubility Rule
Solubility rules are the guidelines that help predict whether a substance is soluble or insoluble in
water. The table summarizes whether some common ionic compounds are soluble or insoluble in
water.
Soluble Insoluble
All compounds of sodium, potassium and None
ammonium
All nitrates (𝐍𝐎𝟑− ) None
All chlorates (𝐂𝐥𝐎− 𝟑) None
All hydrogencarbonates (𝐇𝐂𝐎− 𝟑) None
All acetates (ethanoates) (CH3COO-) None
All chlorides, bromides and iodides (halides) Those of silver, lead (II), mercury (I) (Hg 2−
2 )
except →
All sulphates (𝐒𝐎𝟐−𝟒 ) except→ Those of lead, barium, calcium, mercury(I)
(Hg 2−
2 )
Carbonates of sodium, potassium and All other carbonates
ammonium
Oxides of calcium, barium, sodium and All other oxides (O2-)
potassium
Hydroxides of sodium, ammonium, All other hydroxides (OH-)
potassium, barium
Sulphides (S2-), chromates (𝐂𝐫𝐎𝟐−
𝟒 ) and All other chromates, phosphates or sulphides
𝟑−
phosphates (𝐏𝐎𝟒 )of ammonium, sodium and
potassium

Indicate the state symbols of these equations:

1. CuSO4 + Mg → MgSO4 + Cu
2. NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O
3. HNO3 + NaOH → NaNO3 + H2O

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 3. Ionic Equations
Ionic Equations are chemical equations that show only ions that participate in a chemical
reaction.

They are especially useful for reactions occurring in aqueous solutions.

Steps of writing ionic equations:

i. Write molecular equation for the reaction.

ii. Indicate the physical states and balance the equation.
iii. Break down/split the aqueous ionic compounds into ions.
iv. Cancel/omit the spectator ions.
v. Write the net ionic equation.

Note:

Solids, liquids and gases are not separated into ions and they will not be cancelled.

Key Takeaways

• Complete ionic equation consists of the net ionic equation and spectator ions.
• Net ionic equation is an equation that only represents (shows) the ions and other
particles that are actively involved in the reaction.
• Spectator ions are ions that are present in the reaction mixture but do not participate
in the reaction.
• Do not split:

o Insoluble ionic compounds (precipitates – they remain as solid)

o Elemental substances (eg. Cu, Mg, O2)
o Molecular compounds (eg. organic compounds, gaseous, most covalent
compounds)

For each of the following, write the net ionic equations:

i. AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3

Ag+ (aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
ii. Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
iii. NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O
iv. Na2CO3 + HCl → NaCl + CO2 + H2O

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 Types of chemical reactions
▪ Combination/synthesis reaction is the chemical reaction in which two or more chemical
substances combine to form a single product.
A+B→C
ii. 2Na(s) + Cl2 (g) → 2NaCl(s)
iii. 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
iv. C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
v. Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s)
vi. CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
▪ Decomposition reaction is a chemical reaction in which a single compound breaks down
into its component part.
AB → A + B
Catalytic, electrolytic and thermal decomposition.
𝑀𝑛𝑂2
i. H2O2(l) → H2O(l) + O2(g)
ii. 2KClO3 (s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
iii. 2FeSO4(s) → Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
iv. 2H2O → 2H2 + O2
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

▪ Displacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a

less reactive element from its compound.
A + BC → AC + B Reactivity Series of Metals

Potassium Most reactive

i. CuSO4(aq) + Fe(s) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
metal
ii. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) Sodium
iii. Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s) Calcium
In the
series, any
Magnesium metal above
▪ Precipitation reaction (double displacement reaction) is a displaces
reaction in which two soluble compounds combine to give a Aluminium any metal
below it
soluble and an insoluble compound. An insoluble compound Zinc from its
formed is called a precipitate. aqueous
Precipitate is the solid that forms in a solution during a Iron compound.
chemical reaction. Hydrogen

AB(aq) + CD(aq) → AD(s) + CB(aq) Copper

Silver
i. AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
ii. BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq) Gold

Platinum Least reactive

metal
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▪ Redox reaction is a reaction in which both reduction and oxidation takes place
simultaneously.

Definitions of reduction and oxidation are summarized as follows:

Oxidation Reduction
1. Addition of oxygen to a substance. 1. Removal of oxygen from a substance.
2. Removal of hydrogen from a substance. 2. Addition of hydrogen to a substance.
3.Increase in oxidation state or number of a 3. Decrease in oxidation state/number of
substance. a substance.
4. Removal of electrons from a substance. 4. Addition of electrons to a substance.

Examples of redox reactions are:

Class Task
0 -2
By using the definitions of oxidation and
ii. 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s) reduction inspect the following types of chemical
reactions.
+
0 3 ▪ Combination reactions
iii. 2Mg(s)+ O2 (g) → 2MgO(s) ▪ Decomposition reactions
iv. 2Na (s)+ Cl2 (g) → 2NaCl(s) ▪ Displacement reactions
v. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) – 2e- → Zn2+(aq) (Oxidation)
2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g) (Reduction)
vi. Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Oxidation

vii. CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(l)

Reduction

Oxidation

viii. PbO(s) + H2(g) → Pb(s) + H2O(l)

Reduction

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 HARDNESS OF WATER
Hard water is the water that does not readily form lather with soap.
Soft water is the water that readily forms lather with soap.
Hardness in water is caused by dissolved chlorides, sulphates and hydrogencarbonates of
magnesium and calcium.
Action of soap on hard water
When soap is used in hard water, a white precipitate called scum forms.
Calcium sulphate + sodium stearate → calcium stearate + sodium sulphate
(soap) (scum)
CaSO4 (aq) + C17H35COONa(aq) → Ca(C17H35COO)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

Types of hardness of water

There are two types of hardness of water:
1. Temporary hardness
This type of hardness is caused by the presence of dissolved magnesium hydrogencarbonate or
calcium hydrogencarbonate in water and can be removed by boiling.
2. Permanent hardness.
This type of hardness is caused by the presence of dissolved chlorides and sulphates of
magnesium and calcium. These cannot be removed by boiling the water.

How Water Becomes Hard

(a) Temporary hard water
▪ When rain water falls, it dissolves the carbon dioxide in the air to form carbonic acid.
𝐻2𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔)⇌𝐻2𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞)
▪ When this water reaches the earth’s surface, it passes through soil or rocks containing
limestone (calcium carbonate), dolomite or magnesium carbonate.
▪ The carbonic acid in the rain water reacts with the calcium carbonate or magnesium
carbonate to form calcium hydrogen carbonate or magnesium hydrogen carbonate.
H2CO3 + CaCO3 → Ca(HCO3)2
H2CO3 + MgCO3 → Mg(HCO3)2

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 (b) Permanent hard water
▪ Permanent hard water occurs when water flows through rocks rich in calcium
sulphate (gypsum), magnesium sulphate or chloride.
▪ These salts are highly soluble in water and remain dissolved even after boiling.
▪ They are thermally stable, so boiling the water will not break them down.

Treatment and Purification of Hard Water.

Methods of softening/removing hardness of water.
Hardness of water can be removed by the following methods:
1. Boiling
Boiling decomposes calcium hydrogen carbonate and magnesium hydrogencarbonate to form
insoluble calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate respectively. The insoluble carbonates are
filtered off leaving soft water.
Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
Mg(HCO3)2(aq) →MgCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2. Addition of calcium hydroxide (lime water).
Calculated quantity of calcium hydroxide is used to remove temporary hardness of water.
It precipitates insoluble calcium carbonate hence removing the calcium ions that cause hardness.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) →2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O (l)
3. Addition of aqueous ammonia.
This precipitates out calcium or magnesium carbonate and are filtered from the water.
Mg(HCO3)2(aq) + 2NH3(aq) → MgCO3(s) + (NH4)2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + 2NH3(aq) → CaCO3(s) + (NH4)2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
4. Distillation.
Distillation of water removes both types of hardness of water. Water is boiled to form vapour,
vapour is condensed to form pure and soft water.
Solid impurities are left in the distillation flask.
This is the most expensive method.
5. Addition of washing soda (Na2CO3)
This precipitates insoluble calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate which can be filtered off.
CaSO4 (aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
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Mg(HCO3)2 (aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → MgCO3(s) + 2NaHCO3(aq)
6. Use of ion exchangers
The hard water is passed through a container filled with small beads containing ion exchange
resin.
Resin contains sodium ions that are weakly attached to it.
When hard water is passed through an ion exchanger, calcium or magnesium ions replace
sodium ions and attach themselves on the resin.
Ca2+(aq) + Na2 – R(s) → Ca2+ - R + Na+(aq)
Calcium or magnesium ions are therefore left behind in the resin while soft water and sodium
ions flows out the container.
When all the sodium ions have been removed from the resin, it can be regenerated by adding a
concentrated solution of sodium chloride into the exchanger.

Advantages and disadvantages of hard water

Advantages of hard water Disadvantages of hard water
▪ It has a good taste ▪ Wastes soap – some of the soap is
used to produce scum – more soap
is required for washing.
▪ Provides calcium required for ▪ It leads to the formation of furs in
strong bones and teeth. kettles and boilers (boiler scale).
This can lead to wastage of fuel
because fur is a bad conductor of
heat.
▪ Prevents lead poisoning – coats ▪ Causes dirty marks (stains) on
lead pipe with a thin layers of lead clothes and in baths.
(II) sulphate and carbonate.
▪ Helps in the formation of shells in ▪ Reduces the lifespan of the
some organisms eg. Snail and egg household appliances.
shells.

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Exercise
1. Explain how hard water can be made soft using an ion-exchange column.
OR
Ion exchange columns can be used to soften hard water. Describe how ion exchange
column softens water.
2. An ion exchange column is used for a few weeks. Sodium chloride solution now needs to
be passed through the ion exchange column. Suggest why.
3. What are the importance of treatment and purification of hard water?

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 Dear Form Three class, we are happy to present to you the key concepts in our Third Topic
Acids, Bases and Salts. Mdomo Washa and Mnyonge Bin Hanahaki are here to clarify key
concepts. Let’s go!

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

➢ ACIDS
Acid is a substance which when dissolved in water produces hydrogen ions as the only positively
charged ions.
All acids contain hydrogen but not all compounds/substances that contain hydrogen are acids.
NOTE
Acids do not show acidic behaviour in the absence of water.
The presence of hydrogen ions is what makes the solution acidic. The acids produce hydrogen
ions only when dissolved in water.
Some natural acids in our daily life:

Name of natural acid Natural sources

Ethanoic /acetic acid Vinegar and rotten fruits such as grapes, pineapple and orange
Citric acid Citrus fruits such as lemons and oranges.
Lactic acid Sour milk, cheese and muscles
Tartaric acid Grapes, bananas and tamarind
Folic acid Fruits, vegetables, nuts and grains
Formic acid Bee or ant stings
Malic acid Apples, strawberries and plums
Ascorbic acid Fruits and vegetables, for example, tomatoes
Oxalic acid Spinach and tomatoes

Classifications of acids
Based on the origin, acids can be classified as:
▪ Mineral (inorganic) acids are acids synthesized in industries from mineral resources.
Examples are:
✓ Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
✓ Hydrochloric acids (HCl)
✓ Nitric acid (HNO3)
✓ Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
✓ Sulphurous acid (H2SO3)
✓ Nitrous acid (HNO2)

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 ✓ Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
▪ Organic acids are the acids which can be synthesized in industries or obtained directly
from organic materials. Examples of synthesized organic acids are:
✓ Ethanoic acid /acetic acid (CH3COOH)
✓ Methanoic acid (HCOOH)
The question from Mdomo Washa:
The most common acids found in chemistry laboratory are:
What do all acids have in common?
▪ Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) An answer from Mnyonge Bin
▪ Hydrochloric acids (HCl) Hanahaki:

▪ Nitric acid (HNO3) A common thing in all acids is that

▪ Acetic/ ethanoic acids (CH3COOH) they produce hydrogen ions when
dissolved in water.

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
(a) Physical properties
1. Acids have a sour taste
2. Acids exists in solid, gaseous and liquid forms
3. Most acids are soluble in water
4. Solution of acids turn blue litmus paper red
5. Acids are conductors of electricity. Because they release ions when dissolved in
water. These ions are responsible for conducting electricity.
6. Acids are corrosive in nature
7. Acids change the colour of phenolphthalein indicator to colourless.
8. Acids change the colour of methyl orange indicator to red.

(b) Chemical properties

1. Acids have a PH less than 7 on a PH scale.
2. Acids react with metals which are above hydrogen in the reactivity series to form salt and
hydrogen gas.

Reactive metal + acid → salt + hydrogen gas.

Ca + H₂SO₄ → CaSO₄ + H₂

Mg + HNO₃ → Mg(NO₃)₂ + H₂

3. Acids react with metal/ammonium hydroxides to form salt and water.

Metal hydroxide + Acid → Salt + Water

Ca(OH)₂ + H₂SO₄ → CaSO₄ + H₂O

Mg(OH)₂ + HCl → MgCl₂ + H₂O

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 4. Acids react with metal oxides to form salt and water

Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water

MgO + H₂SO₄ → MgSO₄ + H₂O

CaO + HCl → CaCl₂ + H₂O

The two reactions (3 and 4) above are known as neutralization reaction.

Neutralization reaction is the reaction between acid and base to form salt and water
only.

5. Acids react with metal carbonates to form salt, water and carbon dioxide.

Acid + metal carbonate → Salt + carbon dioxide + water

H₂SO₄ + Na₂CO₃ → Na₂SO₄ + H₂O + CO₂

6. Acids react with metal hydrogencarbonate to form salt, water and carbon dioxide.

Acid + metal hydrogencarbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide

H₂SO₄ + NaHCO₃ → Na₂SO₄ + H₂O + CO₂

Strength of acids

Strength of an acid is a measure of its ability to ionize (dissociate) in water to produce hydrogen
ions (H+).

Based on their strengths, acids are grouped into:

(i) Strong acids are acids which ionize completely in water to give large amounts of
hydrogen ions(H+).

Examples of strong acids are:

✓ Hydrochloric acid
✓ Nitric acid
✓ Sulphuric acid

For example, when hydrochloric acid dissolved in water:

HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Only ions will be present in this solution.

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 (ii) Weak acids are acids which ionize partially in water to produce small amounts of
hydrogen ions (H+).

Examples of weak acids:

✓ Ethanoic acid
✓ Oxalic acid
✓ Citric acid

When ethanoic acid is dissolved in water:

CH3COOH(aq) ⇋ CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

The solution contains both molecules of ethanoic acid and ions.

The differences between:

Strong Acids Weak Acids

1. ionize completely in water to give large Ionize partially in water to give small amount
amounts of hydrogen ions(H+). of hydrogen ions.
2.Gives high concentration of hydrogen ions Gives low concentration of hydrogen ions.
3.Their solution contains contain ions only. Their solutions contain ions and molecules.
4. They are good conductor of electricity. They are bad conductors of electricity.

Acid concentration

Concentration of an acid is a measure of the amount of available acidic ions dissolved in a

solvent.

Dilute acid is an acid which contains a large amount of water and small amount of acid
molecules.

Concentrated acid is an acid which contains a large amount of acid dissolved in a little amount
of water.

A concentrated acid is not necessarily a strong acid. Strong acids are still strong even if it is dilute.

Concentration vs. strength

i. Acid strength refers to how an acid ionizes (or dissociates into ions) in water while acid
concentration refers to the amount of acid dissolved/present in a given volume of solution.
ii. The strength of acid cannot be changed while the concentration of acid can be changed by
either adding acid or water in a given acid solution.

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Basicity of Acids

Basicity of an acid is the number of hydrogen ions which can be produced by one molecule of
acid.

Types of Basicity

There are three types of basicity which are:

a. Monobasic acid is an acid which dissociates to produce only one hydrogen ion when
dissolved in water. This acid is said to have a basicity of one

Examples of monobasic acids:

✓ nitric acid
✓ hydrochloric acid
✓ ethanoic acid

b. Dibasic acid is an acid which dissociates to produce two hydrogen ions when dissolved in
water. This acid is said to have a basicity of two.

Examples of dibasic acids:

✓ Carbonic acid
✓ sulphuric acid
✓ Oxalic acid

c. Tribasic acid is an acid which dissociates to produce three hydrogen ions when
dissolved in water. This acid is said to have a basicity of three.

Example of tribasic acid:

✓ Phosphoric acid

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 ➢ BASES

Base is a substance that neutralizes an acid by reacting with hydrogen ions.

Bases include the oxides, hydroxides, and carbonates of metals.

Examples of bases:

Calcium hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide All alkalis are

bases but not all
bases are alkalis.
Potassium hydroxide
By MW
A base which is soluble in water is called an alkali.

Examples of natural substance containing bases

• ashes,
• banana peels, and
• avocado.
Bicarbonate is
There are some bases occur naturally on land and in water bodies: another common
name of
• soda ash (sodium carbonate), hydrogencarbonate
• baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) by MW
• limestone (calciumcarbonate).

An alkali is a compound which when dissolved in water produces hydroxide ions (OH-) as the
only negatively charged ions.

Examples some alkalis (soluble bases):

✓ Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

✓ Potassium hydroxide (KOH) Sometimes hydroxide (OH-)
✓ Ammonia solution (NH3(aq)) is known as hydroxyl by MW
✓ Potassium carbonate (KOH)
✓ Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
✓ Potassium oxide (K2O)

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Strength of alkalis

Strong alkali is an alkali which ionizes completely in water and thus produces a large amount of
hydroxide ions (OH-).

𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)→𝑁𝑎+(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻−(𝑎𝑞)

𝐾𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)→𝐾+(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻−(𝑎𝑞)

Weak alkali is the one which ionizes partially in water and produces a small amount of
hydroxide ions.

NH4OH ⇌𝑁𝐻4+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻−(𝑎𝑞)

PROPERTIES OF BASES

(a) Physical properties

1. Most bases have a bitter taste. For example, milk of magnesia, a common antacid.
2. Bases have a ‘soapy’ or slippery feel.
3. Most bases are insoluble in water.
4. Bases turn red litmus paper blue.
5. Bases change the colour of phenolphthalein (POP) indicator pink and that of methyl
orange (MO) indicator yellow.
6. Bases generally do not have odour except for ammonia which has a pungent smell.
7. Bases are corrosive depending on their pH and concentrations.
8. Soluble bases (alkalis) conduct electricity when dissociated into ions.

(b) Chemical properties

1. Bases have pH values greater than 7.

2. Bases react with acids to form salt and water.

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)→ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

3. Bases when heated with ammonium salts release ammonia gas.
NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl (aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
4. Alkalis precipitate many insoluble hydroxides from a solution of their salts. Or
Alkalis react with most cations to precipitate hydroxides.

CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)→ Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

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Acidity of a base

The acidity of a base is the number of hydroxide ions that a basic molecule can producein the
aqueous solution.

Acidity of bases can be classified into three types:

• Monoacidic bases,
• Diacidic bases and
• Triacidic bases.

Base Acidity
NaOH → Na+ + OH- Monoacidic
Ca(OH)2 → Ca2+ + 2OH- Diacidic
Al(OH)3 → Al3+ + 3OH- Triacidic

Wow!

Hydroxide ions are responsible for the change of colour of litmus paper from red to blue while
hydrogen ions are responsible for the change of blue litmus paper to red.

Neutralization Reaction

Neutralisation is a reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and water.

It is the reaction between the hydroxide ions found in the basic solution and the hydrogen ions
found in an acidic solution.

The reaction is referred to as neutralisation because the resulting products are neither basic nor
acidic.

Applications of neutralisation reaction

• Treating insect stings and bites

Insects such as bees, have stings that inject an acidic liquid in the blood through the skin.
The stings can be neutralised by rubbing baking soda on the affected area.

Ant bites and nettle (a plant with stinging hair) stings contain methanoic acid (formic
acid) which is neutralised by using baking soda or other alkaline substances such as
cucumber and avocado.

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 Wasp stings are alkaline and can be neutralised with vinegar which contains acetic
acid.

• Relieving indigestion

Indigestion is a discomfort in the Stomach that is associated with difficulty in

digesting food.
It is caused by the presence of excess acid like hydrochloric acid in the
stomach.
The excess acid can be neutralised by taking a liquid or
tablets that contain magnesium or sodium hydrogencarbonate (antacids).

• Soil treatment

Most plants grow well in soils that have optimal pH values. When soils are too
acidic, some chemicals such as calcium oxide (quicklime) and calcium hydroxide
(slaked lime) are added to adjust the soil pH. Such chemicals that neutralise the
soil acidity are called liming materials.
Also, high soil alkalinity can be lowered by addition of acidic substances such as sulphur and
ammonium based fertlizers.

• Neutralising accidental spills

If an acid or an alkali spills on the floor or work surface in the laboratory, it can
be neutralised.
For example, sulphuric acid which is very corrosive, can be neutralized by adding
sodium hydroxide.

• Treating factory wastes

Liquid wastes from factories often contain acids and bases. If the wastes get into water bodies
such as lakes, ponds and rivers, they can harm aquatic organisms like fish. Acidic wastes can be
controlled by adding bases such as calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) to neutralise them.

• Preventing formation of acid rain

Acid rain is caused by chemical reactions between rainwater and gases such as
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide which are released into the atmosphere.

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Acid rain increases the acidity of soils, rivers and lakes and adversely
affects vegetation and aquatic organisms.

To reduce this problem, air pollution devices containing bases are fitted in exhaust
pipes and chimneys to neutralise the acidic compounds before reaching the
atmosphere.
• Manufacture of fertilisers
The production of ammonium fertilisers is done through the neutralisation of
ammonia with a mineral acid.
Ammonium nitrate for example, is produced by the reaction of ammonia with nitric
Ammonia gas also reacts with sulphuric acid to give ammonium sulphate
((NH4)2SO4) fertilizer.
NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4(aq)

Acid-base Indictors
Acid-base indicators are chemicals that are used to determine the chemical nature
of a substance whether is acidic or basic.

An indicator is a substance which shows whether a solution is acidic, alkaline or

neutral.
They are chemical substances that change color depending on the PH of the
solution they are in.
Acid-base indicators are also known as PH indicators because acidity and alkalinity
relate to PH range.

PH scale
The pH scale is a scale of numbers from 0 to 14 used to express the acidity, neutrality or
alkalinity of a substance.
PH<7 = ACIDIC SOLUTION eg. Hydrochloric acid solution
▪ Acidic solutions have pH of less than 7. PH = 7 = NEUTRAL SUBSTANCE eg. Water, common salt
▪ Alkaline solutions have pH greater than 7. solution
▪ Neutral solutions have pH of 7. PH > 7 = BASIC/ALKALI SOLUTION eg. Sodium hydroxide

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Occurrence of PH indicators
▪ Natural PH indicator is a substance which is found naturally and can be used to determine
whether the substance is acidic or basic.
Examples of natural indicators:
o Turmeric (yellow in acidic and red in basic solutions).
o Red cabbage juice (pink in acid and green in bases).
o Hibiscus flower (pink in acid and green in bases).
o Beetroot juice (red in acid and yellow in bases).
The most commonly used natural indicator is litmus which is extracted from lichens.
Litmus in form of solution or strip of papers has different colors in the following substances:
✓ water (purple color)
✓ acidic solution (red color)
✓ basic solution (blue color)
▪ Synthetic PH indicators are chemical substances which are made from different
substances in the laboratories used to determine the PH of the substances.
Examples of synthetic indicators:
o Universal indicator
o Phenolphthalein (POP) indicator
o Methyl orange (MO) indicator
Universal indicator
Universal indicator is a mixture of PH indicators that gives a wide range of colors depending on
the PH of the solution.
Examples of colors:
PH value Color of the universal indicator
1-2 Red
3 Pink
4 Brown
5 Yellow
6-8 Green
9-10 Blue
11-12 Indigo
13-14 Violet

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Colour changes of common indicators in acidic and basic solutions
Indicator Acidic Basic PH range
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink 8-10
Methyl orange Red Yellow 3-5
Methyl red Yellow Red 5-8
Phenol red Yellow Red 7-8
Bromothymol blue Yellow Red 6-8

Uses of PH indicators
1) They are used in wastewater monitoring to avoid environmental pollution.
2) They are used in agriculture to test the acidity or alkalinity of soil.
3) They are used to test the PH of water used in swimming pools to ensure that the water
used is approximately neutral.
4) They are used in acid-base titrations to show the completion of a reaction (end point).
5) They are used to give rough PH values of chemical solutions and drinks such as fruit
juices and water.

Salts
A salt is the substance formed when either all or part of ionisable hydrogen ions of an acid is
replaced by a metallic ion or ammonium ion.

TYPES OF SALTS
1. Normal salts (Neutral salts)
Normal salt is formed when all the replaceable hydrogen ions of an acid have been replaced by
a metal or ammonium ion.

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Examples of normal salts
▪ Sodium sulphate
▪ Potassium nitrate
▪ Calcium chloride
In general, normal salts include chlorides, sulphates, sulphites, nitrates, phosphates and
carbonates of metals and ammonium radical.

2. Acid salts
Acid salt is a salt formed when replaceable hydrogen ions of an acid are partially replaced by a
metallic ion or ammonium ion.
They are formed when only some of the replaceable hydrogen ions of an acid are replaced by a
metal or ammonium ion.
Acid salts are formed when dibasic or tribasic acids are reacted with metal ions or ammonium
ions.
They still contain replaceable hydrogen ions.
Examples
▪ Potassium hydrogencarbonate (KHCO3)
▪ Sodium hydrogensulphate (NaHSO4)
▪ Sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3)
In general acid salts include: -
Hydrogencarbonates, hydrogenphosphates of metals and hydrogensulphates.

3. Basic Salts
Basic Salt is the salt formed when a base is only partially neutralized by an acid, leaving some
hydroxide ions in the salt. They still contain hydroxide ions.
▪ Basic copper(II) carbonate (CuCO3.Cu(OH)2) from Cu(OH)2 and H2CO3
▪ Magnesium hydroxy chloride (Mg(OH)Cl) from Mg(OH)2 and HCl

4. Double salts
A double salt is a mixture of two salts which when dissolved in water gives two different cations
or anions.
A double salt is a salt formed when two different salts crystallize together in a fixed ratio.
These salts contain two different cations or anions crystallized together in a definite ratio.

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Examples of double salts.
▪ Potassium aluminium sulphate (potash alum), KAl(SO4)2.12H2O
▪ Potassium magnesium chloride, KCl.MgCl2.6H2O.
▪ Ferrous ammonium sulphate,(NH4Fe(SO4).12H2O.

Preparations of salts
Salts are prepared basing on their solubility in water.

A. Soluble salts are prepared by:

▪ action of an acid on:
(i). a metal
(ii). A hydroxide of a metal Refer the chemical properties of acids
(iii). An oxide of a metal (basic oxides)
(iv). A carbonate of a metal
▪ Direct method
This involves the direct reaction of elements, usually metal and non-metal.
For example, iron (III) chloride
2Fe + 3Cl2 → 2FeCl3
B. Insoluble salts can be prepared by double decomposition/precipitation method.
✓ In this method, two soluble salts are used to form an insoluble salt and a soluble salt.
✓ The insoluble salt precipitates, while the soluble salt remains in solution.
✓ The precipitate is filtered and washed with distilled water and then dried.
Example:
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI2(s) + KNO3(aq)

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Other common insoluble salts include calcium sulphate (CaSO4), magnesium carbonate
(MgCO3), silver chloride (AgCl), barium carbonate (BaCO3), barium sulphate (BaSO4) and lead
(II) sulphate (PbSO4).

Properties of Salts
a. Physical properties
1. Physical appearance
o Some salts are coloured while others are white in colour.
o The texture of salts ranges from crystalline, fine crystalline to powder.
Physical appearance of some salts
Salt Color texture
1. Hydrated copper(II) sulphate blue crystalline
2. Sodium chloride white crystalline
3. Iron(II) chloride green crystalline
4. Calcium nitrate white crystalline
5. Calcium carbonate white powder

2. Solubility of salts.
Some salts are soluble in water, some are sparingly soluble and others are insoluble in
water.

b. Chemical properties
1) Action of heat on salts
o Carbonates:
✓ Carbonates of more reactive metals like sodium and potassium they are stable to heat
therefore they do not decompose.
✓ Carbonates of moderate reactive metals decompose to form the corresponding metal
oxide and carbon dioxide.
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
MgCO3 → MgO + CO2
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
CuCO3 → CuO + CO2
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
PbCO3 → PbO + CO2
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
✓ Ammonium carbonate decomposes slowly at room temperature to ammonia gas, carbon
dioxide and water.
(NH4)2CO3 → NH3(g) + H2O + CO2
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡

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 o Nitrates
Nitrate salts Products
Nitrates of potassium and sodium Metal nitrite + oxygen
Examples:
NaNO3 → 𝑁𝑎NO2 + O2
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
KNO3 → KNO2 + O2
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
Nitrates of calcium, magnesium, aluminium, Metal oxide + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen gas
zinc, iron, lead and copper Examples:
Pb(NO3)2 → 𝑃𝑏O + NO2 + O2
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
Nitrate of silver and mercury Metal + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen gas
Examples:
HgNO3 → Hg + NO2+ O2
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
Ammonium nitrate Dinitrogen oxide + water
NH4NO3 → N2O + H2O
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡

o Sulphates.
Most sulphates are stable when heated gently but on strong heating they decompose forming SO2
or SO3 and an oxide of a metal.
Fe2(SO4)3(s) →Fe2O3(s) + 3SO3(g).
Hydrated iron (II) sulphate and copper (II) sulphate when heated lose water of crystallization on
gentle heating and then decompose on strong heating.
FeSO4 .7H2O (s)→ FeSO4(s) + 7H2O (l)
2FeSO4(s) →Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3 (g)
CuSO4. 5H2O(s) →CuSO4(s) + 5H2O (l)
CuSO4 (s) → CuO (s) + SO3 (g)
Ammonium sulphate melts and then decomposes to form ammonia and ammonium hydrogen
sulphate.
(NH4)2SO4(s) → NH3(g) + NH4HSO4(s)
o Chlorides
Most chlorides are stable to heat however, ammonium chloride decomposes to form ammonia
and hydrogen chloride
(NH4)2Cl(s) ↔ NH3(g) + HCl (g)
heat

The gases can recombine on cooling.

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 2) Basing on the exposure to air salts are categorized as:
i. Deliquescent salts are salts that absorb moisture from the air (environment) to
form a solution.
o Calcium chloride (CaCl2) Sodium hydroxide , phosphorus oxides,
potassium hydroxide are deliquescent but
o Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) they are not salts
o Zinc chloride (ZnCl2)
o Sodium nitrate (NaNO3)
o Iron(III) chloride (FeCl3)
ii. Hygroscopic salt is the one which absorbs water from air without forming a
solution.
o Sodium chloride (NaCl)
o Potassium chloride (KCl)
o Copper sulphate (CuSO4)
Note: All deliquescent salts are also hygroscopic, but not all hygroscopic salts are deliquescent.
iii. Efflorescent salt is the one which when left in air loses all the water of
crystallization.
o Hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3.10H2O)
o Hydrated sodium sulphate (Na2SO4.10H2O)
o Hydrated iron(II) sulphate (FeSO4.7H2O)

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Diaprofcamp.com Online Chemistry Notes

Introduction to Chemistry Compounds of Metals

Laboratory Techniques and Safety Chemical Kinetics, Equilibrium and Energetics

Heat Sources and Flames Ionic theory and electrolysis

Scientific Method Non-metals and Their Compounds

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Matter Part 2 Hydrogen chloride gas

Matter Part 3 Sulphur

Air, Combustion and Rusting Sulphur dioxide

Firefighting Sulphuric acid

Oxygen Nitrogen gas

Hydrogen Ammonia

Water Carbon

Fuels and Energy Carbon dioxide

Atomic Structure Carbon monoxide

Periodic Classification Soil acidity

Valency and Oxidation States Hand written: Soil Chemistry Calculations

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 Chemical equations

Hardness of water

Acids, Bases and Salts

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Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations

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