AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING – MRCET (UGC – Autonomous)

R20A2111
AIR BREATHING PROPULSION

COURSE FILE
III B. Tech I Semester

(2022-2023)
Prepared By
Dr. Krishna Anand V G
Associate Professor

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade - ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
M aisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Kompally), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India.
 AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING – MRCET (UGC – Autonomous)

MRCET VISION
 To become a model institution in the fields of Engineering, Technology and Management.

 To have a perfect synchronization of the ideologies of MRCET with challenging demands of

International Pioneering Organizations.

MRCET MISSION

To establish a pedestal for the integral innovation, team spirit, originality and competence in the

students, expose them to face the global challenges and become pioneers of Indian vision of

modern society.

MRCET QUALITY POLICY.

 To pursue continual improvement of teaching learning process of Undergraduate and Post

Graduate programs in Engineering & Management vigorously.

 To provide state of art infrastructure and expertise to impart the quality education.
 AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING – MRCET (UGC – Autonomous)

PROGRAM OUTCOMES
(PO’s)
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge : Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with
an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions
in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms
of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports
and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance : Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering
and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team,
to manage projects and in multi disciplinary environments.
12. Life- long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
 AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING – MRCET (UGC – Autonomous)

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

VISION

Department of Aeronautical Engineering aims to be indispensable source in Aeronautical

Engineering which has a zeal to provide the value driven platform for the students to acquire
knowledge and empower themselves to shoulder higher responsibility in building a strong
nation.

MISSION

The primary mission of the department is to promote engineering education and research. To
strive consistently to provide quality education, keeping in pace with time and technology.
Department passions to integrate the intellectual, spiritual, ethical and social development of the
students for shaping them into dynamic engineers.

QUALITY POLICY STATEMENT

Impart up-to-date knowledge to the students in Aeronautical area to make them quality
engineers. Make the students experience the applications on quality equipment and tools.
Provide systems, resources and training opportunities to achieve continuous improvement.
Maintain global standards in education, training and services.
 AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING – MRCET (UGC – Autonomous)

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES – Aeronautical Engineering

1. PEO1 (PROFESSIONALISM & CITIZENSHIP): To create and sustain a

community of learning in which students acquire knowledge and learn to apply it
professionally with due consideration for ethical, ecological and economic issues.
2. PEO2 (TECHNICAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS): To provide knowledge based
services to satisfy the needs of society and the industry by providing hands on
experience in various technologies in core field.
3. PEO3 (INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY): To make the
students to design, experiment, analyze, and interpret in the core field with the help of
other multi disciplinary concepts wherever applicable.
4. PEO4 (PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT): To educate the students to
disseminate research findings with good soft skills and become a successful
entrepreneur.
5. PEO5 (HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT): To graduate the students in
building national capabilities in technology, education and research
 PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES – Aeronautical Engineering

1. To mould students to become a professional with all necessary skills, personality

and sound knowledge in basic and advance technological areas.
2. To promote understanding of concepts and develop ability in design manufacture
and maintenance of aircraft, aerospace vehicles and associated equipment and develop
application capability of the concepts sciences to engineering design and processes.
3. Understanding the current scenario in the field of aeronautics and acquire ability to
apply knowledge of engineering, science and mathematics to design and conduct
experiments in the field of Aeronautical Engineering.
4. To develop leadership skills in our students necessary to shape the social,
intellectual, business and technical worlds.
B. Tech (ANE) R20

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

III Year B.Tech. ANE- I Sem L/T/P/C
3/-/-/3
(R20A2111) Air Breathing Propulsion
Objective:
1. Students can focus on various propulsion systems available in aerospace industry
and also understand the future scenario.
2. Students will study the design aspects of inlet and Nozzles and their importance in
performance of engine
3. To provide an exposure with compressor and turbine design features
4. Evaluate design aspects of burner
5. Understand the performance aspects at the design point and off design operations

UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF PROPULSION:

Aircraft Engine Components‐ Performance Requirements, Thermodynamic Processes‐

Representation by T‐s and p‐v diagrams ‐ Pressure ratios, Temperature ratios. Energy
transfer, losses; Polytropic andStage Efficiencies;Engine Station Numbering, Thrust
generation, Equation of Thrust for installed and uninstalled cases, Factors affecting thrust,
Role of propulsion in aircraft performance.

UNIT II ANATOMY OF JET ENGINE‐I

INLETS: Locations, Types of inlets, operating principle, functions, geometry, operating

conditions, flow field, capture area, flow distortion, drag, and diffuser losses and methods of
mitigation, performance; Numericals on inlets.

NOZZLE: Function, Types, Engine Back-pressure control, Exhaust nozzle Area Ratio; Thrust
Vectoring, Types; Thrust Reversal, Types of Thrust Reversal Systems; Nozzle Coefficients,
Gross Thrust coefficient, Discharge Coefficient, Velocity coefficient, Angularity coefficient

UNIT III ANATOMY OF JET ENGINE‐II

COMPRESSOR & TURBINE: Types, construction, stage, cascade, blade geometry, velocity
triangles, Euler equation, types of flow analysis, diffusion factor, stage loading, Performance
Maps, Off-design Performance, Multi-spooling; Axial flow turbines, Velocity diagram
analysis, no exit swirl condition, flow losses, causes tangential stresses, repeating stages,
Typical blade profiles, turbine performance maps, Blade cooling, materials, Similarities and
differences with compressors;Numericals on turbo- machinery

Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET) Page 100

B. Tech (ANE) R20

UNIT IV ANATOMY OF JET ENGINE‐III

BURNER: Essential considerations in Design of Burners; Primary Burners‐ types,

components, schematic diagram, operation; airflow distribution, Flame stability, Ignition
and Engine starting; Factors effecting Combustion Chamber Performance; Flame tube
Cooling; Fuel injection, Afterburners, flame stabilization, flame holders; fuels ‐ composition
and properties

UNIT V:

DESIGN OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE: Aircraft Mission Analysis, Engine Selection‐ Performance
and Parametric Analysis, Sizing the Engine, Major Considerations in Engine Components
Design.
SYSTEM MATCHING AND ANALYSIS: Component Matching of Gas Turbine Engine, Gas
Generator, Component Modelling, Equilibrium Points; Solution of Matching Problem,
Dynamic and Transient Response, Matching of Engine and Aircraft.

Text Books:
1. Mattingly, J.D., Elements of Gas Turbine Propulsion, McGraw‐Hill, 1996, ISBN0‐07‐
912196‐9.
2. Flack, R.D., Fundamentals of Jet Propulsion with applications, Cambridge University Press,
2005, ISBN0‐521‐81983‐0.
3. Jack D Mattingly., William Heiser& David Pratt., Aircraft Engine Design

References:
1. V. Ganesan., Gas Turbines, Tata McGraw‐Hill, 1999, ISBN, 0070681929.

Course Outcomes
1. Understand operation of different air breathing propulsion systems and their
applications
2. Learn construction and design features of inlets and nozzles
3. Develop knowledge on function of compressors and turbines and their performance
measurement techniques
4. Develop knowledge on function of combustors and their performance criteria
5. Identify problems of matching components of gas turbine engine and their design
features

***

Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET) Page 101

 FUNDAMENTALS OF PROPULSION
Propulsion

Propulsion (Lat. pro-pellere, push forward) is making a body to move (against

natural forces), i.e. fighting against the natural tendency of relative-motion to decay.
Motion is relative to an environment. Sometimes, propulsion is identified with
thrust, the force pushing a body to move against natural forces, and one might say
that propulsion is thrust (but thrust not necessary implies motion, as when pushing
against a wall; on the other hand, propulsion implies thrust).

Air Breathing Propulsion: An air-breathing engine is an engine that takes in air from
its surroundings in order to burn fuel

Classification of aerospace engines:

Aerospace engines are classified into two broad categories, namely,

airbreathing or non-airbreathing engines(Figure 1). Air breathing engines (or
airbreathers) are engines that use the air itself, through which the vehicle itself is
flying, both as a source of oxidizer for the fuel in the combustion chamber and as a
working fluid for generating thrust. Non-airbreathing engines are the rocket engines
wherein the propulsive gas originates onboard the vehicle. A rocket engine is defined
as a jet propulsion device that produces thrust by ejecting stored matter, called the
propellant
 Figure 1: Classification of aerospace engines

Jet engines are further subdivided into numerous categories. Jet engines are
subdivided into the following: ramjet, pulsejet, scramjet, gas turbines, turbo ram,
and turbo rocket engines. A brief description of each type follows, with further
classification where appropriate.

Gas Turbine Engines

• Gas turbine engines are the power plants for all the flying aircraft/helicopters
(and in this case may be denoted as aero engines or aero derivative gas
turbines) and
• The source of power in miscellaneous industrial applications in automotive,
tanks, marine vessels, and electric power generation.
Classification of Gas Turbines

Figure 2 Classification of gas turbines

THE TURBOJET ENGINE

The two pilotless air breathing engines described, viz., ramjet and pulsejet are simple
in construction. However, their application is limited and, to date, they have not been
used very extensively. The most common type of air breathing engine apart from
turboprop is the turbojet engine. The important features are shown in Fig. 3
 Figure 3 Schematic of Turbo jet engine with station numbering

This engine consists of the following components:

(i) a diffuser,
(ii) a mechanical compressor,
(iii) a combustion chamber

(iv) a mechanical turbine, and

(v) an exhaust nozzle

The function of the diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy of the entering air into a
static pressure rise which is achieved by the ram effect. After this air enters the
mechanical compressor.

The compressor used in a turbojet can be either centrifugal type or axial flow type.
The use of a particular type of compressor gives the turbojet typical characteristics.
The centrifugal compressor produces a high pressure ratio of about 4:1 to 5:1 in a
single stage and usually a double sided rotor is used to reduce the engine diameter
The axial flow compressor is more efficient than the centrifugal type and gives the
turbojet a long, slim, streamlined appearance. The engine diameter is reduced which
results in low aircraft drag.
The turbojets having centrifugal compressor have about 20 per cent weight
advantage over the axial flow turbojets. After the compressor air enters to the
combustion chamber, the fuel nozzles feed fuel continuously and continuous
combustion takes place at constant-pressure. The high pressure, high temperature
gases then enter the turbine, where they expand to provide enough power output
from the turbine.

The turbine is directly connected to the compressor and all the power developed by
the turbine is absorbed by the compressor and the auxiliaries. The main function of
the turbine is to provide power, to drive the compressor. After the gases leave the
turbine they expand further in the exhaust nozzle, and are ejected into the atmosphere
with a velocity greater than the flight velocity there by producing thrust for
propulsion.

Here a compressor run by a turbine is used to provide additional pressure rise which
is not available in a ramjet engine. Since this engine has a separate mechanical
compressor, it is capable of operating even under static conditions. However,
increase in flight velocity improves its performance because of the benefit of ram
pressure achieved by the diffuser. Because of turbine material limitations, only a
limited amount of fuel can be burnt in the combustion chamber. The exhaust
products downstream of the turbine still contain a considerable amount of excess
oxygen.
 Figure 4 Cross sectional Internal View of Turbo Jet Engine.

In the analysis of turbojet cycle following assumptions are made:

(i) There is no loss of pressure in the combustion chamber.

(ii) The specific heat is constant.
(iii) Power developed by the turbine is just sufficient to drive the compressor

If ηd is the efficiency of the diffuser then the total pressure at the end of diffusion
process is given by

From the diffuser air goes into a compressor. If ηC is the compressor efficiency
and p02p01 the pressure ratio, we get
 FIG:T-S diagram

p-V diagram of a turbojet engine

The heat input per kg of air in the combustion chamber is given by

Since we have assumed that turbine and compressor work are same.

If ηT is the turbine efficiency and p04 p03 is the turbine pressure ratio,

If ηnoz is the nozzle efficiency then,

Performance of a Turbojet Engine

Figure 5
Advantages of Turbojet

(i) The power to weight ratio of a turbojet is about 4 times that of a propeller system
having reciprocating engine.
(ii) It is simple, easy to maintain and requires lower lubricating oil consumption.
Furthermore, complete absence of liquid cooling results in reduced frontal area.
(iii) There is no limit to the power output which can be obtained from a turbojet
while the piston engines have reached almost their peak power and further increase
will be at the cost of complexity and greater engine weight and frontal area of the
aircraft
(iv) The speed of a turbojet is not limited by the propeller and it canattain higher
flight speeds than engine propeller aircrafts.

Disadvantages of Turbojet
(i) The fuel economy at low operational speeds is extremely poor.
(ii) It has low take-off thrust and hence poor starting characteristics

THRUST AND THRUST EQUATION

Let us consider the control volume of a schematic propulsive device shown in Fig.6
A mass m˙ i of air enters the control volume with a velocity ci and pressure pi and
the products of combustion of mass m˙ j leaves the control volume with a velocity
cj and pressure pj . The flow is assumed to be steady and reversible outside the
control volume, the pressure and velocity being constant over the entire control
volume except that at the exhaust area Aj . Force F is the force necessary to balance
the thrust produced due to change in momentum of the fluid as it passes through the
control volume.

Figure 6 General schematic of a propulsive device

If pa is the atmospheric pressure, then writing the momentum equation, we get

where m˙j ,m˙i and m˙f are the mass flow rates of exhaust gases, air, and fuel
respectively. If

However, the pressure thrust developed is so small as compared to the momentum

thrust that it can safely be neglected for simple calculations and the net thrust is
given by
The thrust developed by the engine overcomes the drag on the aircraft and in doing
so it develops power, called the thrust power which is given by

SPECIFIC THRUST OF THE TURBOJET ENGINE

The thrust per kg of air flow is known as specific thrust or specific impulse.
Assuming m˙ a is the mass flow rate at inlet, the specific impulse, Isp, is given by

Thermal Efficiency of the Turbojet Engine

Transmission Efficiency

Due to friction and other losses the output from the transmission system is always
less than input to it and the transmission efficiency is defined as

Turbo fan engine

The turbofan engine consists of an inlet, fan, gas generator, and nozzle. A schematic
diagram of a turbofan is shown in Fig. In the turbofan, a portion of the turbine work
is used to supply power to the fan. Generally the turbofan engine is more economical
and efficient than the turbojet engine in" a limited realm of flight. The thrust specific
fuel consumption (TSFC, or fuel mass flow rate per unit thrust) is lower for turbofans
and indicates a more economical operation.

Figure 7 Turbofan layout

Bypass ratio
The bypass ratio (BPR) of a turbofan engine is the ratio between the mass flow rate
of the bypass stream to the mass flow rate entering the core. A 10:1 bypass ratio, for
example, means that 10 kg of air passes through the bypass duct for every 1 kg of
air passing through the core.

Ramjet Engine

The ramjet engine (Figure 8) is composed of three elements, namely, an inlet, which
is a divergent duct, a combustion zone, and a nozzle, either convergent or
convergent–divergent. There are no rotating elements, neither a compressor nor a
turbine.
Air entering the inlet loses velocity or kinetic energy and increases its pressure
energy since the inlet is a convergent duct. Next, it enters the combustion zone where
it is mixed with the fuel and burned. The hot gases are then expelled in the nozzle
where the thrust force is generated. The ramjet is inefficient at subsonic flight speeds.
As described earlier, the ramjet has the virtue of maximum simplicity, as no turbo
machinery is installed, and it has maximum tolerance to high-temperature operation
and minimum mass-per-unit thrust at suitable flight Mach numbers

Figure 8 Subsonic ramjet engine.

SCRAMJET engine
Scramjet is an acronym for supersonic combustion ramjet. The scramjet differs from the ramjet in that combustion
takes place at supersonic air velocities through the engine. This allows the scramjet to achieve greater speeds than a
conventional ramjet, which slows the incoming air to subsonic speeds before entering the combustion chamber.
Projections for the top speed of a scramjet engine (without additional oxidizer input) vary between Mach 12 and Mach
24 (orbital velocity). It is mechanically simple but vastly more complex aerodynamically than a jet engine. Hydrogen
is normally the fuel used. A typical scramjet engine is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9 Supersonic ramjet engine.

Pulsejet

A pulsejet engine is a very simple form of internal combustion engine. A pulsejet

is similar to a ramjet, except that a series of spring-loaded shutter-type valves (one-
way valves) are located ahead of the combustion section. In a pulsejet, combustion
is intermittent or pulsing rather than continuous Pulsejets use the forward speed of
the engine and the inlet shape to compress the incoming air; then shutters at the
inlet close while fuel is ignited in the combustion chamber and the pressure of the
 expanding gases force the jet forward.

Fig 10: pulsejet operation

Figure 11 Schematic of turbofan engine with station numbering

The Turboprop and Turboshaft engine

A gas generator that drives a propeller is a turboprop engine. The expansion of gas
through the turbine supplies the energy required to turn the propeller. The turboshaft
engine is similar to the turboprop except that power is supplied to a shaft rather than
a propeller. The turbo shaft engine is used quite extensively for supplying power for
helicopters. The turboprop engine may find application in VTOL (vertical takeoff
and landing) transporters. The limitations and advantages of the turboprop are those
of the propeller. For low-speed flight and, short-field takeoff, the propeller has a
performance advantage. At speeds approaching the speed of sound, compres sibility
effects set in and the propeller loses its aerodynamic efficiency. Due to the rotation
of the propeller, the propeller tip will approach the speed of sound before the vehicle
approaches the speed of sound. This compressibility effect when one approaches the
speed of sound limits the design of helicopter rotors and propellers. At high subsonic
speeds, the turbofan engine will have a better aerodynamic performance than the
turboprop since the turbofan is essentially a ducted turboprop. Putting a duct or
shroud around a propeller increases its aerodynamic performance

Figure 12. Schematic diagram of a turboprop

Component performance

Air intake performance

Inlet losses arise due to wall friction and shock waves (in a supersonic inlet).
•These result in a reduction in total pressure.
•The flow is usually adiabatic as it flows through the intake.
•Performance of intakes arecharacterized using total pressure ratio and isentropic
efficiency. Isentropic efficiency, ηd, of the diffuser is

This efficiency can be related to the total pressure ratio (πd) and Mach number

Compressor/fan performance

Compressors are to a high degree of approximation, adiabatic. Compressor

performance is evaluated using the isentropic efficiency.
The isentropic efficiency is thus a function of the total pressure ratio and the total
temperature ratio.

Combustion chamber performance

In a combustion chamber (or burner), there are two possibilities of losses, incomplete
combustion and total pressure losses.

Combustion efficiency can be defined by carrying out an energy balance across

the combustor.
Two different values of specific heat at constant pressure: one for fluid upstream
of the combustor and the other for fluid downstream of the combustor

Total pressure losses arise from two effects:

viscous losses in the combustion chamber

total pressure loss due to combustion at finite Mach number.
Turbine performance

The flow in a turbine is also assumed to be adiabatic, though in actual engines there
could be turbine blade cooling.Isentropic efficiency of the turbine is defined in a
manner similar to that of the compressor

Nozzle performance

The flow in the nozzle is also adiabatic, however losses in a nozzle could occur due
to incomplete expansion process (under or over-expansion). Friction may reduce the
isentropic efficiency.

PRESSURE OR FLOW LOSSES

In this section, effect of pressure losses will be considered. Although the irreversibility occurring
in the compression and turbine has the major effect on reducing the cycle performance from the
ideal values, loss due to friction and turbulence occurs throughout the whole plant. It is due to the
fact that no fluid flow process can be completely reversible. This overall loss may conveniently be
divided into the following losses.

(i) air-side intercooler loss,

(ii) air-side heat exchanger loss,
(iii) combustion chamber loss (both main and reheat),
(iv) gas-side heat exchanger loss, and
(v) duct losses between components and at intake and exhaust.
POLYTROPIC EFFICIENCY

It should be noted that isentropic efficiencies of compression and expansion process vary with
pressure. Therefore, it is necessary to take this variation into account while calculating the
performance of actual cycles. This variation can be taken into account by defining a new
parameter called polytropic or small-stage efficiency. Let us consider an infinites ima l
compressor stage (small stage with pressure and temperature rise of dp and dT respectively) in
which the isentropic efficiency remains constant. Then, the small stage efficiency is defined as the
isentropic efficiency of an elemental stage of the compression which is constant throughout the
whole process.

Factors Affecting Thrust

The thrust force of a single-stream aeroengine (ramjet or turbojet engine) depends on the inlet and
outlet mass flow rates, fuel-to-air ratio, flight speed, exhaust speed, and exhaust pressure.

Factor 1: Jet Nozzle

The outlet area and pressure of the exhaust nozzle affect the net thrust. The nozzle is either of the
convergent or convergent–divergent type. Convergent nozzles may be choked or unchoked. For a
choked convergent nozzle, the speed of the exhaust gases is equal to the sonic speed, which is
mainly influenced by the exhaust gas temperature. The exhaust pressure for a choked nozzle is
greater than the ambient pressure and thus the pressure thrust has a nonzero value.

The pressure thrust depends on both the area of the exhaust nozzle and the difference between the
exit and ambient pressures. If the nozzle is unchoked, then the jet velocity varies with the
atmospheric pressure. The exhaust pressure is equal to the ambient pressure, and the pressure thrust
is zero.

Factor 2: Airspeed

The airspeed, sometimes denoted as the approach speed, is equal to the flight speed in the thrust
force. Such a parameter has a direct effect on the net thrust. If the exhaust gas velocity is constant
and the air velocity is increased, then the difference between both velocities [(1 + f)ue − u] is
decreased, leading to a decrease also in the net thrust. If the air mass flow and the fuel-toair
ratio are assumed constants, then a linear decrease in the net thrust is enhanced (Figure 13).

Factor 3: Mass Airflow

The mass airflow m_ a is the most significant parameter in the thrust equation. It depends on the
air temperature and pressure as both together determine the density of the air entering the engine.
In free air, a rise in temperature will decrease the density. Thus, as the temperature increases, the
thrust decreases. On the other hand, an increase in the pressure of free air increases its density and,
consequently, its thrust increases. The effect of both of air temperature and pressure is illustrated
in Figure 14. In brief, the density affects the inlet air mass flow and it directly affects thrust. A
10,000 lb thrust engine, for instance, might generate only about 8,000 lb of thrust on a hot day,
while on a cold day this same engine might produce 12,000 lb of thrust.

Figure 13. Variation of thrust force with airspeed.

Figure 14. Variation of the thrust force with air temperature and pressure.

Factor 4; Altitude
As outlined earlier, the air temperature and pressure have significant effects on the thrust. Thus,
we need to know how the ambient temperature and pressure vary with height above the sea level.
The variation depends to some extent upon the season and latitude. However, it is usual to work
with the “standard” atmosphere.

Figure 15. Variation of the thrust force with altitude.

After 11,000 m the temperature stops falling, but the pressure continues to drop steadily with
increasing altitude. Consequently, above 11,000 m (36,089 ft) the thrust will drop off more rapidly
(Figure 15). This makes 11,000 m the optimum altitude for long-range cruising at nominal speed,
just prior to the rapidly increased effect of altitude on thrust. It may be concluded that the effect of
altitude on thrust is really a function of density.

Factor 5: Ram Effect

The movement of the aircraft relative to the outside air causes air to be rammed into the engine
inlet duct. Ram effect increases the airflow to the engine, which, in turn, means more gross thrust.
However, it is not that simple; ram effects combine two factors, namely, the air speed increases
and at the same time the pressure of the air and the airflow into the engine increases.
 Figure 16 Effect of ram pressure on thrust

Engine Performance Parameters

The performance of an aircraft engine may be criticized according to its ability to provide the
necessary thrust force needed in propelling an aircraft efficiently in its different flight regimes.
The engine performance parameters are identified as

1. Propulsive efficiency
2. Thermal efficiency
3. Propeller efficiency
4. Overall efficiency
5. Takeoff thrust
6. Specific fuel consumption
7. Aircraft range

1. Propulsive Efficiency
Propulsive efficiency is the conversion of the kinetic energy of air when it passes through the
engine into a propulsive power. It is identified by manufacturers of aeroengines as an external
efficiency. It is influenced by the amount of the energy wasted in the propelling nozzle(s) and
denoted by (ηp).

2. Thermal Efficiency

Thermal efficiency is the efficiency of energy conversion within the powerplant itself. So, it is
considered as an internal efficiency while the propulsive efficiency resembles an external
efficiency as stated earlier. Thermal efficiency is denoted by (ηth)

For a ramjet and turbojet engine: Using the first expression for the propulsive efficiency, the
following expression for (ηth) is obtained:

where (QR) is the heat of reaction of the fuel used. Other names for QR are the calorific value of
fuel or the lower heating value (LHV) . It is also alternatively written as QHV.

3. Propeller Efficiency

Propellers are used in two types of aeroengines: piston and turboprop. In both cases, shaft power
is converted to thrust power. Propeller efficiency (ηpr) is defined as the ratio of the thrust power
generated by the propeller (TP ≡ uTpr) to the shaft power (SP):
4. Overall Efficiency

The product of the propulsive and thermal efficiencies (ηp × ηth) or (ηpr × ηth) as appropriate
is called the overall efficiency. In all cases,

5. Takeoff Thrust

Takeoff thrust is an important parameter that defines the ability of an aeroengine to provide a static
and low-speed thrust that enables the aircraft to take off under its own power. Both ramjet and
scramjet engines are not self-accelerating propulsion systems.

6. Specific Fuel Consumption

This performance parameter of the engine has a direct influence on the costs of aircraft trip and
flight economics. Fuel consumption is either defined per unit thrust force (for ramjet, turbojet, and
turbofan engines) or per horsepower (e.g., for turboprop and piston-propeller engines).

7. Aircraft Range

Aircraft range is a design parameter of the aircraft, based on which the number, location, and
capacity of fuel tanks in the aircraft are determined. The aircraft weight is composed of the
structural weight, the payload (including the crew members, food, and service supply),
and the fuel weight. During any trip, only the fuel weight is changeable.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

Solution:
 ANATOMY OF JET ENGINE‐I

The purpose of any aircraft gas turbine engine inlet is to provide a sufficient air
supply to the compressor with as minimum a pressure loss as possible. This is to be
achieved with as small a drag force on the airplane as possible. The purpose of the
exhaust nozzle is to increase the velocity of the exhaust gas before discharge from
the nozzle. Further, it should collect and straighten the gas flow

INLETS:
The primary purpose of the inlet is to bring the air required by the engine from free-
stream conditions to the conditions required at the entrance of the compressor with
minimum total pressure loss.

Functions of Inlet

• The inlet functions to capture and decelerate air prior to entry into the
compressor.
• While the inlet is often optimized for cruising conditions, it must provide
adequate mass flow during all other engine operating conditions including
takeoff, landing, and maneuvering.

The performance of an inlet is related to the following characteristics:

(i) high total pressure ratio,
(ii) controllable flow matching requirements,
(iii) good uniformity of flow,
(iv) low installation drag,
(v) good starting and stability,
(vi) low signatures (acoustic, radar, etc.,), and minimum weight, and
(vii) low cost while meeting life and reliability goals.

The performance should not be prejudice in the presence of an incidence angle or

yaw. It is useful to observe that the requirement that the flow is uniform before the
compressor could be more important than to have small total pressure loss. The inlet
is essentially a duct where the air flows in stationary conditions. It is designed
according to rules of gas dynamics; since such laws have different implications
depending on how the flow enters in the duct, if in supersonic or subsonic conditions,
the main classification of distinguishes between:

1. Subsonic inlet; 2. Supersonic inlet

Subsonic inlet nomenclature
Most subsonic aircraft have their engines placed in nacelles. Hence, in this section
we may not deal with the inlet alone but include the nacelle at subsonic Mach
numbers. The cross section of a typical subsonic inlet and its geometric parameters
are shown in Fig. The inlet area A1 , is based on the flow cross section at the inlet
height. It may be noted that the subsonic inlet can draw in airflow whose free-stream
area A0 is larger than the inlet area A1. The operating conditions of an inlet depend
on the flight velocity and mass flow requirements.

Fig: Typical streamline patterns for subsonic inlet

A list of the major design variables for the inlet and nacelle includes the following:
(i) Inlet total pressure ratio and drag during cruise
(ii) Engine location on wing or fuselage
(iii) Aircraft attitude envelope
(iv) Inlet total pressure ratio and distortion levels required for engine operation
(v) Engine-out windmilling airflow and drag
(vi) Integration of diffuser and fan flow path contour
(vii) Integration of external nacelle contour with thrust reverser and accessories
(viii) Flow field interaction between nacelle, pylon, and wing
(ix) Noise suppression requirements

Commonly used intake for Civil and military aircraft:

Fig: Types of pitot subsonic intakes: (a) podded pitot, (b) integrated pitot,
and (c) flush pitot.

Diffuser flow and losses

 • The flow within the inlet is required to undergo diffusion in a divergent duct.
• This reduction in flow velocity creates an increase in static pressure that
interacts with the boundary layer

The flow within the inlet is required to undergo diffusion in a divergent duct. This
reduction in flow velocity creates an increase in static pressure that interacts with
the boundary layer. For the design of an optimum diffuser, research has shown that
the boundary layer profile should maintain a constant shape. The boundary layer
thickness will, of course, increase as the flow moves down the diffuser. The
stipulation of a constant shape for the boundary layer profile implies the assumption
that mixing re-energizes the profile at the same rate as the static pressure depletes it.
 Fig: Types of flow in straight-walled diffusers
Methods to avoid the losses in diffuser

By using vortex generators together with a short, wide-angle diffuser, it may be

possible to have a lower total pressure loss than with a long diffuser without vortex
generators. Here, the reduced skin friction losses associated with flow separation are
traded against vortex losses. The use of shorter diffusers may reduce weight and
facilitate engine installation.

SUPERSONIC INLETS

The inlet used on a supersonic aircraft is the design that optimizes performance
for the mission for which the aircraft is designed. The supersonic inlet must have the
following characteristics:
(i) provide adequate subsonic performance,
(ii) good pressure distribution at the compressor inlet,
(iii) high pressure recovery ratios, and
(iv) must be able to operate efficiently at all ambient pressures and temperatures
during take-off, subsonic flight, as well as its supersonic design condition.
The inlet performance characteristics that are used to assess the performance of
supersonic inlets and those with the largest influence on aircraft performance and
range are
(i) total pressure recovery,
(ii) cowl drag,
(iii) boundary layer bleed flow,
(iv) capture-area ratio (mass flow ratio), and
(v) weight.

Types of supersonic inlet:

1. Axisymmetric or two-dimensional intakes

2. Variable or fixed geometry
3. Internal, external or mixed compression
Axisymmetric or two-dimensional intakes

• The axisymmetric intakes use axisymmetric central cone to decelerate the

flow down to subsonic speeds.
• The two-dimensional inlets has rectangular cross sections as found in the F-
14 and F-15 fighter aircraft.

Variable or fixed geometry

 • For variable geometry axisymmetric intakes, the central cone may move fore-
and-aft to adjust the intake area.
• Alternatively, the inlet area is adjusted in the case of rectangular section
through hinged flaps (or ramps) that may change its angles.
• For flight at Mach numbers much beyond 1.6, variable geometry features
must be incorporated in the inlet to achieve high inlet pressure recoveries
together with low external drag.

Internal Compression inlet:

The internal compression inlet locates all the shocks within the covered passageway
. The terminal shock wave is also a normal one, which is located near or at the throat
External Compression inlet

External compression intakes complete the supersonic diffusion process outside the
covered portion of the inlet where the flow is decelerated through a combination of
oblique shocks (may be a single, double, triple, or multiple). These oblique shocks
are followed by a normal shock wave that changes the flow from supersonic to
subsonic flow. Both the normal shock wave and the throat are ideally located at the
cowl lip. The supersonic diffuser is followed by a subsonic diffuser, which reduces
the Mach number from high subsonic value after the last shock to the value
acceptable to the engine.
Internal and external Compression inlet:

The set of shocks situated between the forebody and intake lip are identified as
external shocks, while the shocks found between the nose lip and the intakes throat
are called internal shocks
Model of operation in inlet

1. Supercritical
2. Critical
3. Sub critical

Critical condition

The capture area (Ac) for supersonic intakes is defined as the area enclosed by the
leading edge, or highlight, of the intake cowl, including the cross-sectional area of
the forebody in that plane. The maximum flow ratio is achieved when the boundary
of the free stream tube (A∞) arrives undisturbed at the lip. This means

Subcritical operation

At Mach numbers (or speeds) below the value of the critical (design) value described
above, the mass flow is less than that at the critical condition and the normal shock
wave occurs in front of the cowl lip and this case is identified as subcritical. It is to
be noted here that
Supercritical operation

If the at air speeds is greater than the design value, then the oblique shock will
impinge inside the cowl lip and the normal shock will move to the diverging section.
This type of operation is referred to as the supercritical operation

Nozzle

The exhaust nozzle converts the gas thermal energy in to kinetic energy (gas
velocity) can the generation of engine thrust.
A two-dimensional (or planar rather than axisymmetric or circular) nozzle is used in
scramjet engines planned for powering hypersonic aircraft; Mach number is greater
than 5, because of the following reasons:
First, circular nozzles are comparatively heavy and do not lend themselves easily to
variable geometry, and the need for tight integration.

Second, the flow at the exhaust nozzle entry is supersonic, rather than the sonic or
choked throat condition of convergent–divergent nozzles.

Third, the design produces uniform and parallel flow at the desired exit Mach
number because that maximizes the resulting thrust.

Fourth, the design is a minimum length exhaust nozzle. This is achieved by placing
sharp corners that generate centered simple or Prandtl–Meyer expansion fans at the
nozzle entry.

Functions of nozzle

• The nozzle serves as a back-pressure control for the engine and an acceleration
device converting gas thermal energy to kinetic energy.
• A secondary function of the nozzle is to provide required thrust reversing
and/or thrust vectoring.
• Be matched to other engine components for all engine-operating conditions.

Requirements of Nozzle
Nozzles should fulfill the following requirements :
1. Be matched to other engine components for all engine operating conditions
2. Provide the optimum expansion ratio
3. Have minimum losses at design and off-design conditions
4. Permit afterburner operation (if available) without affecting main engine operation
5. Allow for cooling of walls if necessary
6. Provide reversed thrust when necessary
7. Suppress jet noise and infrared radiation (IR) if desired
8. Provide appropriate force for takeoff/landing for vertical takeoff and landing
(VTOL) or vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) aircraft
9. Provide necessary maneuvering for military aircrafts fitted with thrust-vectoring
systems
10. Do 1–9 with minimal cost, weight, and boat-tail-drag while meeting life and reliability
goals

Types of nozzle
1.Convergent or convergent-divergent (C-D) types
2. Axisymmetric or two-dimensional types
3. Fixed-geometry or variable-geometry types

Convergent or convergent-divergent (C-D) types

Convergent nozzles are used in almost all the present subsonic transports. Moreover, in most cases
these convergent nozzles are also choked, and incomplete expansion of the flowing gases to the
ambient pressure is encountered. At nozzle outlet, the gases exit at sonic speed while the pressure
is greater than the ambient pressure. Thus a pressure-thrust force is developed. On the contrary, a
convergent-divergent nozzle (C-D) satisfies a full expansion to the ambient pressure
Fixed-geometry or variable-geometry types

Variable area nozzle, which is sometimes identified as an adjustable nozzle, is necessary for
engines fitted with afterburners. Generally, as the nozzle is reduced in area, the turbine inlet
temperature increases, and the exhaust velocity and thrust increase.

Axisymmetric or two-dimensional types

The nozzles depicted in Figure below are capable of vectoring the thrust up or down to produce an
up force or down force. Down force will force the aircraft nose to pitch upward while up force has
the opposite effect
Engine Back-pressure control

The C-D nozzle is designed to have the exit pressure equal to the ambient pressure The throat area
of the nozzle is one of the main means available to control the thrust and fuel consumptio n
characteristics of an existing engine. In preliminary engine cycle analysis, the throat area of the
nozzle is fixed by selection of specific values for the engine design parameters and the design mass
flow rate. Assumption of constant areas can establish the off-design operating characteristics of
the engine and the resulting operating lines for each major component. Changing the nozzle throat
area from its original design value will change the engine design and the operating characteristics
of the engine at both on- and off-design conditions.

One advantage of the variable-area exhaust nozzle is that it improves the starting of the engine.
Opening the nozzle throat area to its maximum value reduces the backpressure on the turbine and
increases its expansion ratio. Thus the necessary turbine power for starting operation may be
produced at a lower turbine inlet temperature. Also, since the backpressure on the gas generator is
reduced, the compressor may be started at a lower engine speed, which reduces the required size
of the engine starter.

Exhaust Nozzle Area Ratio

• Maximum engine thrust is realized for ideal flow when the exhaust nozzle
flow is expanded to ambient pressure (pe = p0).
• A small amount of under-expansion is less harmful to aircraft and engine
performance than overexpansion.
• The exhaust nozzle pressure ratio (pte = p0) is a strong function of flight Mach
number.
• The throat area of the nozzle is controlled to satisfy engine backpressure
requirements, and the exit area is scheduled with the throat area.

Thrust vectoring

Thrust vectoring is the ability of an aircraft or other vehicle to direct the thrust from
its main engine(s) in a direction other than parallel to the vehicle’s longitudinal axis.
Thrust vectoring is a key technology for current and future air vehicles. The primary
challenge is to develop a multi axis thrust-vectored exhaust nozzle that can operate
efficiently at all flight conditions while satisfying the design constraint of low cost,
low weight, and minimum impact on radar cross-section signature. The technique
was originally envisaged to provide upward vertical thrust as a means to give the
aircraft VTOL or short takeoff and landing (STOL) capability. Rockets or rocket-
powered aircraft can also use thrust vectoring.
These forces may be simultaneously or separately oriented in all directions, that is,
in the yaw, pitch, roll, thrust reversal, and forward thrust directions of the aircraft.
Thrust vectoring is also used as a control mechanism for airships, particularly
modern non rigid airships. In this application, the majority of the load is typically
supported by buoyancy, and vectored thrust is used to control the motion of the
aircraft.

Mechanical thrust vectoring can be further subdivided into engine/nozzle internal

thrust vectoring (ITV) and engine/nozzle external thrust vectoring (ETV). ITV
system is illustrated in Figure. where only pitch control is available.
 Fig: Example for pitch control internal thrust vectoring nozzle (ITV). (a) Normal
(Unvectored) operation. (b) Down-pitch operation

Thrust vectoring nozzle: (a) up-pitch and

(b) down-pitch

Shock thrust vector control involves injecting a secondary jet into the primary jet
from one of the divergent flaps. An oblique shock wave is formed that deflects the
primary jet in the pitch plane. Both coflow and counter flow concepts involve the
use of a secondary jet together with the Coanda effect. Curved reaction surfaces are
positioned downstream of the nozzle exit to which the jet may attach according to
the Coanda effect. The side onto which the jet attaches is controlled by tangential
injection of a secondary jet of air upstream of the surfaces. The resulting thrust vector
force generated on the reaction surface can then be used to provide useful moments
for aircraft control

a) Shock vector, (b) co-flow, and (c) counter flow fluidic thrust-vectoring
concepts.

Thrust Reversing

Thrust reversers are used on commercial transports to supplement the brakes. In-
flight thrust reversal has been shown to enhance combat effectiveness of fighter
aircraft. Stopping an aircraft after landing is not an easy problem due to the increases
in its gross weight, wing loadings and landing speeds . The amount of force required
for stopping an aircraft at a given distance after touchdown increases with the gross
weight of the aircraft and the square of the landing speed.
A good thrust reverser must fulfill the following conditions:
1. Must not affect the engine operation whether the thrust reverser is applied or
stowed
2. Withstand high temperature if it is used in the turbine exhaust
3. Mechanically strong
4. Relatively light in weight
5. When stowed should be streamlined into the engine nacelle and should not add
appreciably to the frontal area of the engine
6. Reliable and fail safe
7. Cause few increased maintenance problems
8. Provide at least 50% of the full forward thrust

Types of Thrust Reversing

The most commonly used reversers are clamshell-type, external-bucket type doors
and blocker doors, Clamshell door system sometimes identified as preexist thrust
reverser is a pneumatically operated system. When reverse thrust is applied, the
doors rotate to uncover the ducts and close the normal gas stream.
When the thrust reverser is applied, the reverser automatically opens to form
a “clamshell” approximately three-fourth to one nozzle diameter to the rear of the
engine exhaust nozzle. When the thrust reverser is applied, the reverser
automatically opens to form a “clamshell” approximately three-fourth to one nozzle
diameter to the rear of the engine exhaust nozzle.
Nozzle Coefficients

• Gross Thrust coefficient

• Discharge Coefficient
• Velocity coefficient
• Angularity coefficient

Gross Thrust coefficient

The gross thrust coefficient C gtc is the ratio of actual gross thrust F actual to the ideal
gross thrust F ideal.

Empirically derived coefficients are applied to Eq. above to account for the losses and
directionality of the actual nozzle flow. Each engine organization uses somewhat differe nt
coefficients, but each of the following basic losses are accounted for:

(i) Thrust loss due to exhaust velocity vector angularity

(ii) Thrust loss due to the reduction in velocity magnitude caused by
friction in the boundary layers
(iii) Thrust loss due to loss of mass flow between stations 7 and 9 from
leakage through the nozzle walls
(iv) Thrust loss due to flow nonuniformities

Discharge or Flow Coefficient

• The ratio of the actual mass flow m˙ 8 to the ideal mass flow m˙ 8i is called the discharge
coefficient CD
Velocity Coefficient
and represents the effect of frictional loss in the boundary layer of the nozzle. It is mainly a
function of the nozzle ratio A8/A9 and the half-angle α, as shown in Fig.below

Angularity Coefficient
Figure above presents the correlation of the angularity coefficient with the area ratio A8/A9 and
half-angle α.