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Booklet - Unit 7

The document covers the fundamentals of radioactivity and particles, detailing the structure of atoms, types of radioactive decay (alpha, beta, gamma, and neutron radiation), and methods for detecting radiation. It explains the concepts of half-life, contamination versus irradiation, and safety measures for handling radioactive materials. Additionally, it discusses nuclear fission and fusion processes, along with practical applications of radioactivity in industry and medicine.

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21 views87 pages

Booklet - Unit 7

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IGCSE Physics

Topic 7: Radioactivity and Particles

Radioactivity

An atom consists of:

● A positively charged nucleus made of:
o Positive protons
o Neutral neutrons
● Surrounded by negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus

The radius of the nucleus is a lot smaller than the radius of the entire atom. Almost all the mass of
the atoms lies in the nucleus.

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0.0005 -1

Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. Isotopes are forms of an element’s
atom with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.
For a given nuclide (distinct nucleus):
● X is the symbol of the element
● A is the mass (nucleon) number (number of neutrons and protons)
● Z is the atomic (proton) number (number of protons)

Radioactive decay is the spontaneous transformation of an unstable nucleus into a more stable
one by the release of radiation. It is a random process which means one cannot know what
nucleus will decay or when it will decay because it is down to chance.

Decay processes:

● Alpha:
o A heavy nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus - 2A, 4X).
o The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
equation: Z AX→(X − 4A − 2Z) + α
o They are highly ionising and weakly penetrating. They are stopped by a sheet of
paper.
● Beta:
o A neutron turns into a proton and emits a beta particle (electron)
o The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
equation: ZAX→(X − A − Z ) + β −
o They are moderately ionising and moderately penetrating. They are stopped by
a thin sheet of aluminium.
● Gamma:
o After a previous decay, a nucleus with excess energy emits a gamma particle.
o Gamma particles are a form of electromagnetic radiation.
o They are lowly ionising and highly penetrating. They are stopped by many
centimetres of lead.
● Neutron radiation:
o In neutron-rich nuclides, occasionally one or more neutrons are ejected. They are
also emitted during nuclear fission.
o The nucleus becomes a new isotope of the original element according to the
following equation: Z AX→(X − A) + 1n

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Some ways of detecting radiation include:
● Photographic film:
o The more radiation absorbed by the film, the darker it gets (the film is initially white).
o They are worn as badges by people who work with radiation, to check how much
exposure they have had.
● Geiger-Muller tube:
o A Geiger-Muller tube is a tube which can detect radiation.
o Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to the machine, which
produces a clicking sound. The greater the frequency of clicks, the more radiation
present.

Weak radiation that can be detected from external sources is called background radiation.
Sources of background radiation include:
● From space:
o Cosmic rays include high-energy charged particles penetrating the atmosphere
● From Earth:
o Radioactive rocks which give off radioactive radon gas
o Food and drink which contains radioactive isotopes (such as Carbon 14)
o Fallout from nuclear weapons testing
o Medical sources such as x-rays from MRI scanners
o Nuclear power plants which produce radioactive waste

The activity of a radioactive source is the number of decays which occur per unit time and is
measured in becquerels (Bq where 1 Bq = 1 decay per second). The activity of a radioactive
source decreases over a period of time.

The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for

half the nuclei to decay, or the time taken for
the activity to halve. It is different for different
radioactive isotopes.
● In the graph, the count rate drops from 80
to 40 counts per minute in 2 days, which
means the half-life is around 2 days. Or
from 40 counts per minute to 20 counts
per minute in the next two days. Half-life
is constant (it does not depend on how
many nuclei have decayed).
● Background radiation must be subtracted
before attempting to perform half-life
calculations

Uses of radioactivity:
● Industry
o Smoke detectors
Long half-life alpha emitters are used in smoke detectors. Alpha particles cause a current in the
alarm. If smoke enters the detector, some of the alpha particles are absorbed and the current
drops, triggering the alarm.
o Thickness monitoring
Long half-life beta emitters can be used for thickness monitoring of metal sheets. A source and
receiver are placed on either side of the sheet during its production. If there is a drop or rise in the
number of beta particles detected, then the thickness of the sheet has changed and needs to be
adjusted.

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● Medicine
o Sterilisation of equipment
Gamma emitters are used to kill bacteria or parasites on equipment so it is safe for operations
(this means they can be sterilised through their protective packaging to eliminate the risk of
contamination).
o Diagnosis and treatment
- Short half-life gamma emitters such as technetium-99m are used as tracers in medicine as
they concentrate in certain parts of the body. The half-life must be long enough for
diagnostic procedures to be performed, but short enough to not remain radioactive for too
long.
- Other gamma emitters such as cobalt-60 can be used to destroy tumours with a high dose
of radiation.

Contamination occurs when a radioactive source has been introduced into or onto an object.
The contaminated object will be radioactive for as long as the source is in or on it.

Irradiation occurs when an object is exposed to a radioactive source which is outside the object.
The irradiated object does not become radioactive.

Exposure to radiation can destroy living cell membranes by ionisation, causing the cells to die,
or damage DNA which causes mutations that could lead to cancer.

Safety measures include:

● Minimising the time of exposure to radiation, keeping as big a distance from the
radioactive source as possible, and using shielding against radiation (such as protective
clothing made from dense materials such as lead).
● Radioactive waste from nuclear reactors must be disposed of carefully, usually by burying
it in sealed drums deep underground and remotely handling it after it has been thoroughly
cooled.

Fission and fusion

Nuclear fission:
● The process of splitting a nucleus is called nuclear fission.
● When a uranium-235 nucleus absorbs a thermal (slow-moving) neutron, it splits into two
daughter nuclei and 2 or 3 neutrons, releasing energy in the process.
● The neutrons then can induce further fission events in a chain reaction by striking other
uranium-235 nuclei.
● In a nuclear reactor:
o Control rods (usually made of boron) are used to
absorb neutrons and keep the number of neutrons
such that only one fission neutron per event goes on to
induce further fission.
o The moderator (usually water) slows down neutrons
by collisions so that they are moving slow enough to be
absorbed by another uranium-235 nucleus.
o A coolant (also water) is used to prevent the system
from overheating.
o The reactor core is a thick steel vessel which
withstands the high pressures and temperatures and
absorbs some of the radiation. The whole core is kept in a building with thick
reinforced concrete walls that act as radiation shields to absorb all the
radiation that escapes the reactor core.

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Nuclear fusion:
● The process of fusing two nuclei to form a larger nucleus is called nuclear fusion.
● There is a very small loss of mass in the process, accompanied by a release of energy.
● Nuclear fusion is how the sun and other stars release energy.
● Nuclear fusion does not happen at low temperatures and pressures because the
electrostatic repulsion of the protons is too great.

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SP22.2w Atomic notation practice
You will need a copy of the periodic table to help you answer these questions.
1 State the mass number and atomic number of the following elements.

11 14 4 59
a 5 B b 7 N c 2 He d 27 Co

55 48 108 195
e 25 Mn f 22 Ti g 47 Ag h 78 Pt

2 State the number of protons and the number of neutrons in one atom of each of these elements.

11 14 4 59
a 5 B b 7 N c 2 He d 27 Co

55 48 108 195
e 25 Mn f 22 Ti g 47 Ag h 78 Pt

3 Look up the atomic numbers and mass numbers of the following elements in a copy of the periodic table.
Represent each element in symbol form.

a lithium (Li) b fluorine (F) c sulfur (S) d krypton (Kr)

e calcium (Ca) f iron (Fe) g sodium (Na) h iodine (I)

4 Oxygen (O) atoms all have eight protons in the nucleus. The most common isotope of oxygen is oxygen-
16, but atoms of oxygen-17 and oxygen-18 also occur. Write these three isotopes of oxygen in symbol
form.
5 Naturally occurring uranium is a mixture of two isotopes. Atoms of one isotope have 146 neutrons, and
atoms of the other have 143 neutrons. The atomic number of uranium is 92 and its symbol is U. Write these
two isotopes of uranium in symbol form.
6 There are four commonly occurring isotopes of iron. Iron has an atomic number of 26. Write each of the
following in symbol form, and state the number of protons and neutrons in one atom of each isotope.

a iron-54 b iron-56 c iron-57 d iron-58

7 Work out the missing number for each of these isotopes without using a periodic table.

??
a copper-63: 29 Cu b tin-?? has 50 protons and 70 neutrons

?? ??
c xenon-136 has 54 protons: ?? Xe d radium-226 has 138 neutrons: ?? Ra

?? 65
e chlorine-37: 17 Cl f copper-??: 29 Cu

The top number is the mass number. It is the total number of protons and neutrons in
12
C
the nucleus.
The bottom number is the atomic number. It is the number of protons in the nucleus.
6

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SP22.3w Inside atoms – Strengthen

Name Class Date

1 Tick the boxes to show which statements are true and which are false. Correct any false statements.

True False

a The atomic number is the number of neutrons in an atom.  

b Electrons have a negative charge.  

c Electrons and protons have the same mass.  
d The mass number is the total number of protons and electrons.  
e Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons.  
f Isotopes of an element have the same number of neutrons.  
g A neutron has the same mass as a proton.  
h Protons have a positive charge.  
i Protons are found in the nuclei of atoms.  
2 Complete these sentences:
a The atomic number is the number of _________________ in the nucleus of an atom.
b An electron has a _________________ charge and a negligible _________________.
c Isotopes are atoms of an element with different numbers of _________________.
d The mass number is the total number of _________________ and _________________ in the nucleus.
e A neutron has a _________________ charge and a relative mass of _________________.
f A proton has a _________________ charge and a relative mass of _________________.

S1 Write glossary definitions for these terms: atomic number, electron, isotope, mass number, neutron,
proton.

3 The diagram shows an atom of nitrogen (N).

a Count the number of protons to work out its atomic number. __________________________________
b Count the total number of protons and neutrons to work out its mass
number. ________
c Write the symbol for this isotope of nitrogen. ________

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SP22.4w Inside atoms – Homework 1
Name Class Date

1 Complete the table below. In the atom column, remember to add the mass number and atomic number to
the chemical symbol.

Atom Atomic Mass number Number of Number of Number of

number protons neutrons electrons
1
1 H

H 2
2 1
Li 3 6
4 3
12
6 C

C 14
Mg 12 24
Mg 13
26
12 Mg

2 a What are isotopes? _________________________________________________________________

b How many isotopes of magnesium are shown in the table? ___________________________________
c What is the same in the isotopes of magnesium? ___________________________________________
d What is different in the isotopes of magnesium? ___________________________________________
3 Complete the table using information from the box. You can use each term once, more than once or
not at all.

0 1 +1 +2 −1 −2 1/1835 around nucleus in nucleus

Particle Location Relative charge Relative mass

proton
electron
neutron

4 The diagrams show atoms of boron (B).

a What is the same in the two atoms? _____________________________________________________

b What is different? ____________________________________________________________________

c Write the symbols for the two atoms. ____________________________________________________

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SP22.6w Radiation badges

One way of safeguarding people

who work close to radioactive
materials is to monitor their
exposure so that they can be
moved if they have received more
than the expected dose of
radiation.
Inside the badge is a piece of
photographic film. Different parts of
the film are covered up by different
materials. One part has no
covering, another has thin plastic,
a third has thick plastic and the
final part has plastic and lead a film badge worn by staff in hospitals and nuclear power stations to
covering. At regular intervals the monitor exposure to radiation
badge has the film removed and
processed. This shows the amount
and type of ionising radiation that
the wearer has received.

1 Why should the badge be worn on the outside of the clothing and not put in a pocket?
2 Why is it important to monitor the exposure of individuals to ionising radiation, rather than just trusting
them to follow safe working practices?
3 How does the badge distinguish between alpha and beta radiation?
4 Why has one part of the badge got lead as well as plastic on the front?
5 Which kinds of radiation would reach the film in each of parts A–D of the badge in the diagram?
6 Why not just make the badge sensitive to gamma radiation, because it is the most penetrating type?
7 Why would it not be acceptable for workers on the same team and working with the same materials to
exchange badges?
8 If it became clear that people using ionising radiation as part of their job were receiving doses that were
unsafe, how could they alter the way they used the sources to reduce the risk?
9 What would you say to someone who argued that these safety measures are unnecessary because
radiation is natural and we are exposed to it on a regular basis anyway?

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1
Types of radiation
SP22.7w Strengthen

Name Class Date

1 Cut out the grey cards at the bottom of the page and match the descriptions with the particle names.

S1 Describe alpha particles, beta particles and gamma radiation.

2 Complete this table to show the penetration and ionisation properties of the three types of radiation.

Radiation Penetration Stopped by Ionisation

alpha
beta
gamma

S2 Draw up a table to summarise the penetration and ionisation properties of the three types of radiation
in question S1.

3 Draw lines to match the types of radiation to their symbols. Each particles has two symbols.

0
alpha particles 1 e

α
+
beta particles β

4
2 He

−
positrons β

0
gamma rays 1 e

4 A particle with no charge can sometimes be emitted from an unstable nucleus. Tick one box to show the
name of this type of particle.

 proton  neutron  electron

alpha particle beta particle gamma ray

charge of −1 relative mass of 4 electron from the nucleus

relative mass negligible two protons and two neutrons no mass or charge

high frequency electromagnetic radiation charge of +2

medium poor a few millimetres of aluminium

medium only slightly ionising highly ionising

a few centimetres of air thick lead or very thick concrete good

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Types of radiation
SP22.8w Homework 1
Name Class Date

The diagram shows an experiment in which three different materials were placed in front of three radioactive
sources. Remember that alpha particles have a positive charge, beta particles have a negative charge and
gamma rays have no charge.

1 Complete the table of radioactive penetration using the diagram above. For the last two columns, use the
words ‘highly’, ‘partly’ or ‘slightly’.

Radiation Blocked by Penetrating Ionising

alpha
beta
gamma

2 The boxes show different types of radiation that unstable nuclei can emit.

alpha particle beta particle positron neutron gamma ray

a Write a P in the boxes of all the types of radiation that are particles.
b Write a + for all the types of radiation that have a positive charge, and a − for the ones with a negative
charge.
c Write a 1 for the types of radiation that have a mass equal to or greater than 1.
3 Complete the following sentences using the words in the box.
Ionising radiation is emitted from ____________ nuclei. The process is ____________. This means you
cannot predict when the nucleus will __________ and emit radiation. This radiation can cause atoms to
become __________. Ionisation occurs when an atom _________ or _________ electrons.

decay gains ions loses random unstable

4 Smoke detectors used in homes contain a source of alpha particles. Explain why the radiation from smoke
detectors does not harm people living in the house.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

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SP22.11w Nuclear equation practice

You will need a copy of the periodic table to help you answer these questions.
1 Copy these nuclear equations and replace each question
mark (?) with the correct number. Particle Symbol

a 255
Ac  24He  ??Fr alpha α 4
2 He
89

−
b 20
F  10 e  ??Ne beta β 0
1 e
9
+
c 5
He  10n  ??He positron β 0
1 e
2

1
d 53
Fe  0
e  ??Mn neutron 0 n
26 1

e 152
64 Gd  ??He  ?
62 Sm

2 Copy and complete these nuclear equations. Use a copy of the periodic table to find the symbol for
the new element that forms.
a 240
91 Pa  01e  ?

b 237
93 Np  24He  ?

c 8
3 Li  0
1 e?

d 187
78 Pt  10 e  ?

e 226
88 Ra  24He  ?

f 17
7 N  10n  ?

g 200
84 Po   0
1 e?

3 Copy and complete these nuclear equations to show the particle that was emitted during the reaction.
Replace each question mark (?) with the correct number or symbol.
a 227
88 Ra  ?  227
89 Ac

b 185
78 Pt  ?  185
77 Ir

c 170
78 Pt  ?  166
76 Os

d 146
62 Sm  ?  ??Nd

e 247
95 Am  ?  ?
96 ?

4 These equations show the results of some nuclear reactions. Copy and complete the equations to show
the starting elements.
a ?  10 e  223
88 Ra

b ? 0
1 e 38
18 Ar

c ?  24He  140
58 Ce

d ? 0
1 e 24
12Mg

e ? 0
1 e 20
10 Ne

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2
Radioactive decay
SP22.12w Strengthen
Name Class Date

1 Complete this table to show the different types of radioactive decay.

− +
Type of decay Alpha (α) Beta (β ) Positron (β ) Neutron
particle emitted
symbol of particle
relative mass of particle
effect on mass number
relative charge on particle
effect on atomic number

S1 Draw up a table to summarise the different types of radioactive decay, and what effect each one has on
the atomic number and mass number of the nucleus.

2 Potassium-42  42
19  −
K undergoes β decay. This decay does not affect the mass of the nucleus, and it
increases the atomic number by 1.
Fill in the boxes in this nuclear equation to show what happens.

42

□e  □Ca
19 K
□ □
S2 Carbon-14  14
6  −
C undergoes β decay. Write a balanced nuclear equation to show this

3 Fluorine-17  F
17
9
+
undergoes β decay. This decay does not affect the mass of the nucleus, and it
decreases the atomic number by 1. Fill in the boxes to show what happens.

 □e  □O
17
9F
□ □
4 Protactinium-231  231
91 
Pa undergoes α decay. This decay decreases the mass of the nucleus by 4 and
decreases the atomic number by 2. Fill in the boxes to show what happens.

231
91Pa  □He  □Ac
□ □

1
+1 decreases by 4 no change 0 n (neutron)

4 0 0 0

0 0
1 e decreases by 1 1 e no change

4
increases by 1 −1 2 He 0

no change +2 decreases by no change

These words and terms may help you with your answers to the questions.

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3
Radioactive decay
SP22.13w Homework 1
Name Class Date
1 Complete these sentences to describe what happens in the two different kinds of beta decay. You can use
the words in the box once, more than once or not at all.
−
In β decay, a neutron in the ____________ of an atom turns into a ____________ and an
____________. The ____________ leaves the atom. The ____________ number of the nucleus
increases by 1 because there is now one ____________ proton than there was before.
+
In β decay, a proton in the ____________ of an atom turns into a ____________ and an
____________. The ____________ leaves the atom. The atomic ____________ of the nucleus
____________ by 1 because there is now one fewer ____________ than there was before.

atomic decreases electron increases less mass more neutron

nucleus number positron proton

2 Write down the relative mass and relative charge on each of these particles:
a alpha particle relative mass = _________________ relative charge = ________________
b beta (electron) relative mass = _________________ relative charge = ________________
c positron relative mass = _________________ relative charge = ________________
d neutron relative mass = _________________ relative charge = ________________
3 Draw lines to match the particles to the changes they cause in a nucleus.

alpha mass number decreases by 1, atomic number does not change

beta (electron) mass number does not change, atomic number increases by 1
positron mass number decreases by 4, atomic number decreases by 2
neutron mass number does not change, atomic number decreases by 1

4 Complete these balanced nuclear equations to show what happens for the following decays.

a Francium-211  211
87 
Fr decays to astatine-207  207
85 
At by emitting an alpha particle.

□Fr  4He  □At

□ 2
□
b Beryllium-13  13
9 
Be emits a neutron  n .
1
0

□Be  □n  □Be
□ □ □
c Iron-59  59
26 Fe  undergoes β− decay by emitting a beta particle  e 0
1 to form a cobalt nucleus (Co).

□Fe  □e  □Co
□ □ □
d Fermium-258  258
100 
Fm decays to californium-254  254
98 
Cf . (You need to work out which kind of particle
is emitted.)

□Fm  ______  □Cf

□ □
e Thorium-234 decays to protactinium-234. (Remember to fill in the missing numbers for Th and Pa as
well as putting in the particle that is emitted.)

□Th  ______  □Pa

90 91

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Background radiation
SP23.2w Strengthen
Name Class Date

1 Tick the boxes to show which of the objects are common sources of large amounts of background
radiation.

 bananas  plastic comb  some rocks

 water  radiation from space  paper

S1 List three sources of background radiation.

2 Tick the boxes to show which statements are true and which are false.

True False

a Ionising radiation can be detected using a mobile phone camera.  

b A GM tube produces a current when radiation passes through it.  
c Photographic film becomes darker when radiation hits it.  
d GM tubes are connected to cameras so we can see how much radiation has
been detected.
 
3 Write correct versions of the statements in question 2 that are false.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

S2 Describe two ways of detecting radiation.

4 Complete these sentences using words from the box. You can use each word once, more than once or not
at all.
We are always exposed to some ionising ____________. This is called ____________ radiation.

The ____________ source of background radiation in some places is a radioactive gas called
____________, which is produced in rocks that contain ____________. There is a lot more
____________ gas in some parts of the country than others.

The ground itself is also slightly ____________. As ____________ materials such as brick or stone are
made from materials from the Earth, we get some ____________ radiation from those as well.

Some background radiation comes from ____________. Cosmic ____________ consist of charged
particles from the Sun and other ____________.

Other sources of background radiation are some kinds of ____________ and drink, and some
____________ treatments.

background building food largest magnesium medical radiation radioactive

radium radon rays smallest space stars uranium water

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Background radiation
SP23.3w Homework 1
Name Class Date

The pie chart shows the average contribution made to

background radiation from different sources.
1 a What percentage of background radiation is
contributed by food and drink, on average?

_____________________________________

b Why might the percentages from different

sources vary for two people living in the same
house? ______________________________

_____________________________________

2 Draw a line from each box on the left to one of the boxes on the right.

Background radiation from ... … comes from …

cosmic ray uranium in rocks in the ground

radon gas radioactive isotopes in the environment

medical the Sun and other stars

food radiotherapy treatment and X-rays

3 Which type(s) of background radiation listed in the pie chart come(s) from the Earth?

_________________________________________________________________________________________

4 Why does background radiation vary across the UK? __________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

5 Most cosmic rays are stopped by the Earth’s atmosphere. Men and women stay on the International Space
Station (ISS) for several months at a time.
a What is the main source of background radiation in the space station? Explain your answer.

__________________________________________________________________________________

b How do the percentages of background radiation from different sources vary on the ISS compared with
the percentages on the ground in the UK?

__________________________________________________________________________________

6 Describe two ways of measuring the amount of radioactivity.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

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SP23.7w Half-life – Strengthen

Name Class Date

1 Tick one box to show the best definition of activity.

 the number of radioactive atoms in a sample

 the number of radioactive decays per second

 something measured in half-lives

2 Half-life can be described in two different ways. Tick two boxes to show the correct definitions for half-life.

 the time it takes for the activity of a sample to fall to half its value

 half of the time it takes for all radioactivity from a sample to stop

 the time it takes for half the number of unstable nuclei in a sample to decay
3 The half-life of fermium-257 is 100 days. A sample of fermium-257 has an activity of 80 becquerel (Bq).
Answer these questions to work out the activity of fermium-257 after 400 days.
a After 1 half-life, the activity is half its original level. What is the activity after 100 days? __________ Bq
b After another half-life, the activity halves again. What is the activity after another 100 days? (Hint: this
should be half your answer to part a). Activity after 200 days = ________ Bq
c What is the activity after 300 days? (Hint: this should be half your answer to part b). __________ Bq
d What is the activity after 400 days? __________ Bq

S1 A sample of caesium-137 has an activity of 100 Bq. What will its activity be in 90 years’ time?

4 The half-life of iodine-131 is 8 minutes. A sample of iodine has an activity of 500 Bq. Answer these
questions to find out how long it will take for the activity to drop to 125 Bq.
a What will the activity be after 8 minutes? ________ Bq
b What will the activity be after another 8 minutes (16 minutes altogether)? ________ Bq
5 Complete these sentences using words from the box. Each word can be used once, more than once or
not at all.

Radioactive decay is a process. We cannot when a particular unstable

atom will ____________.

If we have a ____________enough sample of atoms, we can predict ____________ how many will
decay in a given time. The number of decays in a second is the ____________, and is measured in
____________ (Bq). As unstable atoms decay, there are ____________ left to decay and the
activity ____________.

The half-life is the time taken for ____________ the unstable atoms in a sample to decay. After
one half-life the activity has also ____________ by half, because only half the number of
____________ atoms are left.

activity all approximately becquerel decay decreased decreases exactly

fewer half increased increases large more predict radioactivity random
small stable unstable

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SP23.8w Half-life – Homework 1

Name Class Date

The half-life is how long it takes for half of the

undecayed nuclei in a sample of radioactive material to
decay.
The graph on the right shows the activity of a radioactive
source over time. Use it to answer questions 1 and 2.
1 How long does it take for the radioactivity to drop:
a from 120 to 60 counts per second

__________________________________

b from 80 to 40 counts per second?

__________________________________

c from 50 to 25 counts per second? _______________________________________________________

2 What do you notice about your values in question 1? Explain your answer.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

3 Work out the half-lives of the radioactive isotopes shown on each of these graphs. Show your working.

half-life: ___________________________
b

half-life: ___________________________

The half-life of fermium-253 is 3 days.

4 A sample of fermium-253 contains 400 000 atoms. How many undecayed nuclei are left after:
a 3 days ____________________________________________________________________________
b 6 days ____________________________________________________________________________
c 12 days? __________________________________________________________________________
5 A sample of fermium-253 has 100 000 atoms. How long will it take for the number of undecayed atoms to
reduce to:
a 50 000 ____________________________________________________________________________
b 25 000? ___________________________________________________________________________

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4
Radiation in medicine
SP24.2w Homework 2
A PET scanner produces images of organs, using
radioactive emissions.
The patient is injected with radioactive tracer molecules,
which often have a form similar to glucose and so are easily
absorbed by cells. More of the tracer molecules are taken
up by more active cells. Part of each tracer molecule
contains a short-lived radioactive isotope. Radioactive
emissions from the organ being examined are detected, and
differences in the activities of different parts of the organ can
be seen.
+
The isotope in the tracer undergoes β decay, releasing a
Two gamma rays are emitted in opposite
positron. This almost immediately collides with an electron,
directions and detected by a ring of sensors.
releasing two gamma rays in opposite directions. The PET
scanner detects both of the gamma rays and calculates the
position of the source. The position is calculated by a
computer, using information about which sensors detected
the two gamma rays and the difference in their arrival times.
For example, in brain scans fluorine-18 is often used as the radioactive isotope in the tracer molecules. After
the tracer molecules are injected into the bloodstream, time is allowed for them to be taken up by the brain,
and the scan is then started. The accumulated radioactive tracer molecules show up on the scan, and staff
can see the position, size and levels of activity in different parts of the brain.

1 Why does the PET scanner have a circular

hole into which the patient moves?
2 Why are isotopes with long half-lives not
used in PET scan tracers?
3 Tracers used in diagnosis are often gamma
emitters or cause the production of gamma
rays. Explain why these isotopes are more
suited to this than isotopes that emit alpha or
beta particles.
4 Describe the difference between internal
radiotherapy and external radiotherapy.
5 Cobalt-60 emits beta and gamma radiation,
and has a half-life of 5.3 years.
Technetium-99m emits gamma radiation
and has a half-life of 6 hours.
Explain which of these isotopes is used in external radiotherapy and which is used as a tracer.
6 Isotopes used in internal radiotherapy are usually beta emitters. Explain why alpha or gamma emitters are
not used.

Extra challenge
7 In patients with Alzheimer’s disease, parts of the brain use much less glucose than normal. How would
this show up on a scan such as the one described above, compared with the way cancerous tumours
show up?

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4
Using radioactivity
SP24.5w Homework 1
Name Class Date

1 The three types of radiation have different uses because they have different properties. Write alpha, beta or
gamma next to each of these properties.

a most penetrating b medium penetration

c least ionising _ d medium ionisation

e most ionising _ f least penetrating _

2 a Why do water companies sometimes use radioactive sources as a tracer?

__________________________________________________________________________________

b Explain why the radioactive source used as a tracer must emit gamma rays.

__________________________________________________________________________________

3 Gamma rays are used to sterilise medical equipment. The equipment is usually sterilised while it is inside
a sealed bag, so that no microorganisms can get onto it after the sterilisation.
Why can alpha particles not be used for this purpose?

_________________________________________________________________________________________

4 A smoke detector works by creating ions that can cause a current to flow across a narrow air gap.

a Which type of radiation is used in smoke detectors? ________________________________________

b Explain why this type of radiation is used. ________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

c Describe what happens in a smoke detector when smoke gets into it. __________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

5 The diagram shows a machine that produces thin

sheets of material. The material can be paper,
plastic or even metal foil.

a Which form of radiation is used to check the

thickness of the material? ___________________

b The machine can be used for making thick or thin

paper, but it can only be used for thin sheets of aluminium foil. Explain why this is so.

__________________________________________________________________________________

c Describe what happens if the material going through the machine is too thin.

__________________________________________________________________________________

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4
Dangers of radioactivity
SP24.7w Strengthen
Name Class Date

1 Tick the boxes to show which of these health problems can be caused by radiation.

 spots  skin burns  sneezing

 mutations to DNA  cancer  heart attacks

S1 What are the hazards posed by radiation?

2 Complete these sentences using words and phrases from the box. You can use each word once, more than
once or not at all.
Everyone is exposed to __________ radiation. Some people may be exposed to more than background
radiation if they work with __________ sources.

The __________ from radiation in a laboratory can be kept as __________ as possible by:

 storing sources in __________-lined containers, so that no __________ can escape into the
surroundings

 handling sources using __________ to keep the source further from the body

 never __________ sources at people.

People who work with radiation in hospitals can __________ the amount of radiation they are exposed
to by keeping as __________ the source as they can, using __________ sources (so that the radiation
only goes into the patient) and keeping the __________ they are exposed as short as possible.

Some __________ are treated using radioactivity. This is only done when the __________ of the
treatment are greater than the risks. The __________ possible dose that will work is used. Isotopes with
__________ half-lives are used, to keep the time that patients are exposed as __________ as possible.

aluminium background benefits close to doctors far away from highest

increase large lead limit long lowest patients pointing radiation
radioactive risks shielded short small throwing time tongs

S2 Describe three ways of minimising the risks from radiation.

3 Tick the boxes to show which statements apply to irradiation and which apply to contamination.

Irradiation Contamination

a happens when radioactive material gets on the skin  

b happens when someone is exposed to a source of radiation
near the body
 

c happens when radioactive material gets inside the body  

d stops when the person moves away from the radioactive
source
 
e exposure to radiation continues as long as the source is on or
in the body
 

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Dangers of radioactivity
SP24.7w Strengthen

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SP25.2w Nuclear energy – Strengthen

Name Class Date

1 Write fission, fusion or decay after each of these statements.

a small nuclei join up __________________________________________________________________

b unstable nuclei emit alpha or beta particles, or gamma radiation _______________________________

c used in nuclear power stations _________________________________________________________

d releases energy in the Sun ____________________________________________________________

e large nuclei split up to form smaller nuclei ________________________________________________

2 What do all types of nuclear reaction release? ________________________________________________

S1 Describe three different types of nuclear reaction.

3 The statements describe some facts about using nuclear energy to generate electricity. Tick the boxes to
show whether each one is an advantage or a disadvantage.

Advantage Disadvantage

a People think that nuclear energy is dangerous.  

b Nuclear power stations do not emit carbon dioxide.  
c An accident could contaminate a large area.  
d It costs a lot of money to safely dismantle a power station at the end
of its life.
 

e Nuclear fuel will last a long time.  

f Nuclear energy causes fewer deaths than using fossil fuels to
generate electricity.
 

g Nuclear waste will remain active for millions of years.  

S2 Draw up a table to show the advantages and disadvantages of using nuclear energy to generate
electricity.

● In radioactive decay, an unstable nucleus emits alpha, beta or gamma radiation.

● In fission a large nucleus splits up to form smaller nuclei, and in fusion small nuclei join up to make larger
ones. We use nuclear fission reactions to generate electricity, but we cannot yet use nuclear fusion
for this.
● Fusion occurs naturally and is what provides the energy that makes the Sun shine.

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2
SP25.3w Nuclear energy – Homework 1

Name Class Date

1 These statements are about different types of nuclear reaction. Tick the boxes to show which statements
are true and which are false.

True False

a All nuclear reactions release energy.  

b In fusion reactions, large nuclei split up to form smaller ones.  
c Fusion reactions release energy in the Sun.  
d In fission reactions, large molecules break up to form smaller ones.  
e Fusion makes large molecules out of smaller ones.  
f We use the energy from fission reactions to generate electricity.  
2 Write correct versions of the false statements.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

3 Complete these sentences using words and phrases from the box. You can use each word once, more than
once or not at all.
Nuclear fuels release energy in __________ reactions. Nuclear fuels are __________, but supplies of
uranium will last a lot longer than supplies of __________.

When fossil fuels are __________ to release energy, they release polluting gases. These include
carbon __________, which is contributing to __________. Nuclear fuels do not release __________
dioxide when they release energy.

burnt carbon climate change dioxide fission fossil fuels fusion

monoxide non-renewable renewable sulfur

4 Join the sentence halves to make four sentences describing the disadvantages of nuclear energy.

Nuclear power stations produce radioactive … contaminate a large area.

waste, which…

An accident in a nuclear power station … it costs a lot of money to decommission

could… a nuclear power station safely.

Many people do not trust nuclear power …is expensive to dispose of safely.
because…

Parts of nuclear power stations become …they think it is dangerous.

radioactive as they are used and so …

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SP25.3w Nuclear energy – Homework 1

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SP25.7w Nuclear fission – Homework 1

Name Class Date

The diagram shows a chain reaction of uranium-235. The diagram does not show all the fission products;
it only shows the small particles produced when a uranium-235 nucleus splits into two.

1 a What is the particle called that goes into the uranium-235 nucleus on the left? ____________________

b Why does the uranium-235 nucleus then split? ____________________________________________

c What is the proper name for this process? ________________________________________________

2 a What are the two large parts called when the uranium-235 nucleus splits up? ____________________

b What are the three small particles called? ________________________________________________

c What else is released? _______________________________________________________________

3 a What happens in a controlled chain reaction? _____________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

b How is a chain reaction controlled in a nuclear reactor core? _________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

4 Complete these sentences using words from the box. You can use each word once, more than once or
not at all.
The chain __________ in a nuclear power station releases energy. The __________ of the nuclear
reactor has pipes containing a __________. This coolant __________ as it flows through the core, and
is sent to a heat __________. In the __________ exchanger energy is transferred to __________. The
water gets hot enough to make __________. The steam is used to turn a __________, and the turbine
makes a __________ turn to produce __________.

coolant cools down core electricity energy exchanger generator

heat heats up reaction sealant steam turbine water

daughter nuclei energy fission neutron unstable

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SP25.11w Nuclear fusion – Strengthen
Name Class Date

1 Tick the boxes to show which statements apply to nuclear fusion and which to nuclear fission. Some
statements may apply to both.

Fusion Fission Both

a changes happen to the nuclei of atoms   

b small nuclei join to make bigger ones   
c energy is released   
d large unstable nuclei split up   
e very high temperatures and pressures are needed   
f is used to generate electricity in many countries   
g one reaction can cause more to happen, in a chain reaction   
h does not need high temperatures and pressures   
i produces radioactive waste materials   
j makes the reactor radioactive   
k provides the energy that makes stars shine   
S1 Describe the differences between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

2 Copy and complete these sentences to explain why high temperatures and pressures are needed to make
fusion reactions happen. You can use each word once, more than once or not at all.
A __________ reaction happens when two __________ nuclei join up to make a __________ one. For
this to happen, the two nuclei have to get very __________ to each other.

The nuclei of all atoms have a __________ charge, and positive charges __________ each other. This
is called __________ repulsion. This force can be overcome if the nuclei are forced to be very close to
each other by high __________. If the temperature is __________ as well, the nuclei will be moving
very __________, and this also makes them __________ likely to collide.

attract close electrostatic fast fission fusion high large

larger less low magnetic more negative positive pressures
repel slowly small smaller

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Nuclear fusion –
SP25.12w Homework 1
Name Class Date

1 Tick the boxes to show whether each of the following statements is true or false.

True False

a A uranium-235 nucleus splitting into two daughter nuclei is an example of

nuclear fusion.
 
b Nuclear fission in a power station produces radioactive nuclei.  
c Only nuclear fission makes a reactor radioactive, and not nuclear fusion.  
d Nuclear fission is the reaction that is the source of energy in stars.  
e Uranium-235 splits up to form two daughter nuclei and two or three protons.  
f In nuclear fusion, larger nuclei are joined together to form smaller ones.  
g The fusion of hydrogen produces helium.  
2 For all statements that are false, write down a correct version of the statement.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

3 Write a paragraph to compare nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. The sentences have been started for you.
Fusion involves the joining of _____________________________________________________________

whereas fission involves one large _________________________________________________________ .

The conditions needed for fission can be produced ____________________________________________

whereas the conditions needed for fusion ____________________________________________________ .

We use nuclear fission reactors to _________________________________________________________

but we only have experimental reactors _____________________________________________________ .

fairly easily two small nuclei to make are difficult to produce to make two smaller ones
a larger one and some neutrons

nucleus splitting up for nuclear fusion to make a larger one generate a lot of
electricity

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4
1 The diagram shows the main parts of a nuclear reactor.

shielding

coolant out
control rod

moderator
reactor vessel

fuel rod

coolant in

(a) Draw a line linking each part of the reactor with its main function.
The first one has been done for you.
(2)

part of reactor main function

control rod controls the rate of fission

coolant absorbs dangerous radiation

fuel rod contains uranium for fission

shielding removes energy from the reactor

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
(b) State the type of energy released in a fission reaction.
(1)

. . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(c) Explain the role of the moderator in a fission reaction.

(2)

(d) Explain, in terms of neutrons, what is meant by controlled nuclear fission.

(3)

(Total for Question 1 = 8 marks)

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
2 A student finds this representation of nuclear fission on a

daughterwebsite.
nucleus
n

uranium
nucleus
n n

daughter
nucleus

(a) Describe what happens when nuclear fission of uranium occurs.

(3)

. . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(b) The daughter nuclei move off with high speed.

Name the type of energy that this gives them.
(1)

. . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(Total for Question 2 = 4 Marks)

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
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PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
1 Tritium is an isotope of hydrogen that decays by emitting beta particles.

It is used in some luminous signs.

(a) (i) The symbol for tritium is 31H.
Determine the number of protons and the number of neutrons in a single
atom of tritium.
(2)

number of protons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................ ........................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

number of neutrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................... ........................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(ii) Describe three differences between an alpha particle and a beta particle.
(3)

. . . . . . . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(iii) Suggest why tritium cannot emit alpha particles.

(1)

. . . . . . . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
(b) Tritium is used in this luminous sign.

glass tube containing

tritium gas

In this sign
• the letters are made up of glass tubes containing tritium gas
• the inside of each tube is coated with a phosphor
• the phosphor emits light when beta particles hit it

Suggest why this sign is safe to use even though beta particles are ionising and
can be dangerous.
(2)

. . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
(c) The graph shows how the activity of tritium in this luminous sign varies with time.

1200 –

1000 –

800 –
activity in
600 –
counts per minute
400 –

200 –

0–
–

–
0 10 20 30 40
time in years

(i) Explain what is meant by the term half-life.

(2)

. . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(ii) Use the graph to estimate the half-life of tritium.

Show your working.
(2)

half-life = ............................................... years

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
(d) The manufacturer of this luminous sign claims that the sign will work for more
than 20 years.
The minimum activity required for the tubes to emit sufficient light is 400 counts
per minute.
Evaluate the manufacturer’s claim.
(2)

. . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(Total for Question 1 = 14 marks)

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
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PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
4 A teacher uses this apparatus to demonstrate radioactivity to his students.

counter

source

(a) The teacher needs to take some safety precautions.

Put one tick (9) on each row to show whether the safety precaution is needed or not.
Two have been done for you.
(2)

safety precaution needed not needed

not touch the source with bare hands 9

use tongs

wear gloves 9

wear goggles

students sit at least two metres away

wear a lead apron

store source in a lead box

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
(b) The teacher uses this method to investigate radioactivity.
Ɣ place the detector 10 cm from the radioactive source
Ɣ record the count with different absorbent materials between the source and
the detector
Ɣ repeat the investigation using a different radioactive source
Ɣ also repeat the investigation without a source
The table shows his results.

Counts in 30 s for each material

Source used
5 mm of 5 mm of 0.2 mm of 5 mm of 5 mm of 5 mm of
aluminium lead paper plastic stone wood

barium-133 3 843 1 989 not taken 4 551 10 408 4 557

strontium-90 14 15 42 770 182 13 331

none 15 15 14 15 14 15

(i) State why the teacher keeps the distance constant between the source and
the detector.
(1)

. . . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(ii) Explain why there is a reading when no source is used.

(2)

. . . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
(iii) Explain which of the materials the teacher used is the best absorber
of radiation.
(3)

. . . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(iv) A student makes this conclusion.

¶6WRQH LV WKH ZRUVW DEVRUEHU RI UDGLDWLRQ·
Evaluate this conclusion.
(3)

. . . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
(v) Explain what type of radiation strontium-90 emits.
(3)

. . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(vi) Suggest why the teacher does not take a reading for barium-133 and paper.
(1)

. . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(vii) Barium-133 and strontium-90 both have a half-life of over 10 years.

Suggest why isotopes with a much shorter half-life are not suitable for
this investigation.
(1)

. . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(Total for Question 4 = 16 marks)

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
5 Sodium-24 is a radioactive isotope.

(a) What are isotopes?

(2)

. . . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(b) Sodium-24 decays by emitting beta particles.

(i) Describe the nature of a beta particle.
(1)

. . . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(ii) Name a piece of equipment that can be used to detect beta particles.
(1)

. . . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(iii) Describe how a detector can be used with sheets of lead, aluminium and
paper to show that a sample of sodium-24 emits beta particles.
(2)

. . . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
(c) A sample of sodium-24 has an activity of 1400 Bq.
On the axes, sketch a graph to show how the activity of this sample changes over
the next 40 hours.
(the half-life of sodium-24 is 15 hours)
(3)

1600

1400

1200

1000

activity
in Bq 800

600

400

200

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
time in hours

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
(d) Granite is a rock.
It contains a radioactive isotope of uranium that decays very slowly.
(i) Explain how scientists can use this radioactivity to find the age of a piece of granite.
(4)

. . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(ii) Suggest why the age of a piece of granite could not be found using a uranium
isotope with a half-life of 15 hours.
(2)

. . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(Total for Question 5 = 15 marks)

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
Pearson Textbook Worksheet-Marking Scheme
Question
Answer Notes Marks
number
1 (a) All lines correct = 2 marks 2
Any correct added line = 1 mark

(b) kinetic energy; 1

(c) slows neutrons/reduces KE of neutrons; makes the neutrons 2

thermal/eq
ignore
moderator absorbs
neutrons
and any one from

(which)allows fission to continue;

(which) causes (induced) fission;
(so) neutrons can be absorbed by ignore
uranium;  neutrons collide
with uranium
 successful
collisions

(d) any three of - 3

MP1 each fission (of a nucleus) caused e.g. a nucleus splits
by a single neutron; when neutron has
been absorbed
MP2 each fission releases more than one
neutron;
MP3 excess neutrons can speed up the
reaction;
MP4 (more) fissions release excess
energy;
MP5 control rods absorb neutrons; ignore
‘block’/ eq
MP6 control rods regulate the rate of allow
fission/reaction; control rods speed
up/slow down rate of
fission

Total 8 marks

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
Question
Answer Notes Marks
number
2 (a) any 3 of: 3
accept
MP1. neutron absorbed by (U) nucleus; collides with/hits/bombards/eq
n for neutron

MP2. (U nucleus) splits; condone breaks up

MP3. (producing 2) daughter nuclei; must be plural

reject ‘daughter cells’ for MP3

MP4. extra neutrons released; must be plural

(b) kinetic (energy) accept phonetic spellings e.g. 1

‘kenetic’

Total 4 marks

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
Question
Answer Notes Marks
number

3 (a) A description to include any 5 of Correct process using consistently incorrect 5

MP1 nucleus absorbs neutron OR nucleus hit by particle instead of neutron (e.g. electron) =
neutron; max 4
MP2 splits into (two) fragments/parts OR daughter NB uranium, U-235 or nucleus must be
atoms OR daughter nuclei; mentioned
MP3 extra neutrons released;
MP4 (kinetic) energy released; Reject cells, molecules, more uranium
MP5 released neutrons hit further nuclei OR
uranium nuclei;
MP6 moderator slows down the neutrons/ makes it Ignore heat
more likely for a neutron to be absorbed;
allow atoms OR uranium atoms
MP7 control rods absorb extra neutrons;
MP8 idea that control rods help prevent a
“runaway” chain reaction;

(b) kinetic/movement energy; 1

(c) Idea that the shielding absorbs radiation / Allow “stops radiation /particles from 1
particles / energy; escaping”
Ignore “radioactvity” escaping

Total 12

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
Question
Answer Notes Marks
number
1 (a) (i) number of protons = 1; 2
number of neutrons = 2;

(ii) any three of the following ignore descriptions of 3

comparisons: applications of types
MP1. beta particle is negatively of radiation
charged and alpha is positively
charged;
MP2. beta particle has lower/less mass allow ‘beta is lighter’
ORA; ORA
MP3. beta particle has 1 charge but
alpha has 2 charges;
MP4. beta particle is an electron but
alpha is 2p + 2n /eq;
MP5. beta is less ionising;
MP6. beta has higher speed;
MP7. beta particles have larger range;
MP8. beta has higher penetrating allow beta can pass
ability; through paper but
alpha will be stopped

(iii) any sensible suggestion; ignore tritium is too 1

e.g. small
 alpha is 4 nucleons, tritium has
(only) 3 / eq
 tritium has only 1p, 2p are in alpha
 tritium has not got enough mass /
mass number too low
 tritium has not got enough nucleons
 tritium has not got enough p /
atomic number too low
 tritium has not got enough p+n

(b) any two from: ignore: 2

MP1. energy explanation;  beta particles have
e.g. beta particles have given up low ionisation
all their KE on impact /OWTTE
MP2. absorption explanation;  no gas can escape
e.g. beta particles have hit (and
been absorbed by) phosphor
MP3. penetration explanation;
e.g. beta cannot penetrate (thick)
glass / tube
MP4. range explanation;
e.g. signs are further away than
the range of beta

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
Question
Answer Notes Marks
number
1 (c) (i) time taken; allow 2
how long it takes
reject ‘half the time’
and either of

 for (radio)activity to halve; allow count rate for

activity
 for half of (radioactive) nuclei / reject:
atoms / isotope to decay;  particles
 molecules
 substance
 ‘break down’
 ‘reactivity’
 a nucleus / an atom
 halve in mass
 to completely/fully
decay

(ii) working seen/appropriate line(s) on 2

graph seen;
13.5 years; tolerance ± 0.5 years

(d) MP1. correct judgment re claim; 2

MP2. (because) EITHER

correct statement re time (at allow range of 21-22
which the activity is 400); years

activity (at 20 years); allow range of 410 to

440

e.g.
the manufacturer is correct because
the time would be 21.5 years (to reach
an activity of 400)

the manufacturer is correct because

the activity is 420 (counts per minute)
(at 20 years)

total marks = 14

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
Question
Answer Notes Marks
number
2 (a) A - fission 1

(b) A - absorbing some of the neutrons 1

Total 2 marks

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
Question
Answer Notes Marks
number
3 (a) (i) A – electromagnetic waves 1

(ii) time; accept 2

how long it takes
do not accept ‘half of the
time’
for amount of (radioactive) accept for ‘amount’
isotope to halve; (number of un-decayed)
nuclei / atoms / molecules
/ (un-decayed) mass of
OR isotope
for (radio)activity to halve;

(b) Any two of - specific concepts and 2

terminology are needed
if the source is external
max mark is ONE
allow
MP1. (α or β) would have ORA
insufficient range; penetration

MP2. (α or β) would be absorbed ORA

by patient/air; stopped by skin / bone

MP3. (α or β) are more ionising Allow (α or β) would be

(than gamma rays); (more) likely to cause
cancer/ damages cells
(than gamma rays), ORA

(c) (i) Any two of - specific concepts and 2

terminology are needed
do not credit repeat of
stem
Reject for 1 mark.
(it/nucleus) breaks down
MP1. Idea that activity is due to allow
nucleus decaying;  nucleus is unstable
 nucleus emits gamma
 nucleus changes into
new isotope
MP2. (after some time) fewer fewer atoms of the same
radioactive nuclei /atoms isotope left
left;
MP3. Number (of nuclei) decay rate decreases
decaying per second
decreases;

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
(ii) one halving calculated; 3
Idea of four half-lives / halvings;  4 repeated halving seen
 fraction remaining is
1/16 of activity
Evaluation;
e. Allow
(420/2=) 210 for 1 mark

24 ÷ 6 = 4 (half-lives)  four divisions by 2 seen

for 2nd mark
 remaining fraction =
1/16 = 0.0625
26 MBq (26.25) Correct answer without
working scores full marks

Total 10 marks

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
Question
Answer Notes Marks
number
4 (a) (i) 2
not
safety precaution needed
needed

not touch the source

( )
with bare hands
use tongs 

wear gloves ( )

wear goggles 

students sit at least 

two metres away
wear a lead apron 

store source in a 
lead box
Ignore incorrect ticks in
3 ticks correct in first column; first column (award 1
mark as long as the three
2 ticks correct in second column; correct boxes are ticked)

(b) (i) (because distance is a) controlled variable; allow idea of fair 1

test/affecting results

ignore comments
relating to accuracy,
reliability

(ii) MP1. idea of background radiation; allow ‘sources of 2

radiation all around
us’
MP2. any ONE sensible source; allow nuclear weapons
e.g. testing/disasters
cosmic rays
rocks/Earth/buildings
some foodstuffs (coffee)
radon

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
(iii) MP1. lead; 3

MP2. idea of best absorber giving lowest count dependent on MP1

rate;

MP3. for Ba-133/can’t evaluate using Sr-90 dependent on MP1

data;

(iv) any 3 of: no mark for ‘I agree 3

with this conclusion
/OWTTE’
MP1. stone absorbs better than {plastic / allow stone best
wood / paper} for Sr-90/beta; absorber for Sr-90

MP2. stone worst absorber for Ba-133/gamma;

MP3. use of data to justify MP1 or MP2; e.g. the count rate for
plastic is about half
that of stone for
Ba-133
MP4. may not be worse absorber than paper
as paper much thinner/not tested for
Ba-133;

(v) MP1. beta; allow ‘beta and 3

gamma’

MP2. it’s not alpha because {alpha would not allow ‘it goes through
reach the detector at this distance/ paper’
alpha would not go through paper};

MP3. it’s not gamma because gamma is not allow ‘it doesn’t go
stopped by metals ; through metals’

MP2 and MP3

dependent on MP1

(vi) reading would be too high/eq; 1

(vii) idea that count rate needs to be constant allow 1

during the investigation/ORA; either
idea that would not
need to replace the
source often/ORA;
or
idea that shorter half-
life has higher activity
and therefore is more
hazardous;

Total 16 marks
PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
Question
Answer Notes Marks
number
5 a (Atoms / nuclei with the) same number of ALLOW relevant correct alternatives e.g. 1
protons; • atomic number, proton number 1
Different numbers of neutrons; • nucleon number, atomic mass
ignore comments about electrons

bi Electron; ignore comments about properties of electrons 1

e.g. speed
ALLOW
• e- or e+
• positron

ii any suitable detector ALLOW 1

e.g. • phonetic/incorrect spelling
Geiger(-Muller) tube/detector/counter;
photographic film;
zinc sulfide;
gold leaf electroscope;

IGNORE 1
iii beta penetrates paper; • all details of experimental setup 1
beta absorbed/stopped by lead +/or aluminium ; • beta goes through aluminium/eq
DO NOT ALLOW
• bounced back for absorbed
• contradictions in answers e.g. re aluminium

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
MP1. line goes through 0,1400 and (first half-life ALLOW for MP2 1
plotted at) 15, 700; an ecf from incorrect first half-life to ‘correct’
MP2. line goes through/second half-life plotted at second half-life e.g. 800---400 1
30, 350;
MP3. a correctly curved line between 15 and 30 IGNORE 1
hours AND the line extends beyond 35 hours; • a slight upcurve at 35 to 40 hours
• Bar charts
i.e.

• Since this is a sketch then allow

tolerance of +/- 1 square on the points

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
Question
Answer Notes Marks
number
d i any FOUR from: allow as a numerical example 1
MP1. there is a known proportion / composition / ignore work out the proportion when rocks 1
activity when rocks formed; were formed 1
1
MP2. measure/determine the proportion of ALLOW
uranium or the activity now; • Bq for activity
• radioactivity for activity
• amount for proportion
IGNORE
• measure half-life of uranium
• they know its activity

MP3. compare activity now to original activity/eq;

MP4. (hence) determine the time / number of

half-lives elapsed;

MP5. (hence) calculate age from reference to ALLOW colloquial expressions such as
half-life; ‘see how long it took to decay this much’

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com
ii MP1. 1
idea that it/half-life is too short comparative of some sort needed for MP1
OR allow not enough time
idea that decay occurs too quickly/rapidly;

PLUS
1
MP2. (hence)
U / isotope would (all) have decayed (long ago) care that you do not award both alternatives
OR for MP2
IGNORE
U activity would be too small (to distinguish from granite decays
background / to measure); it decays

(Total for Question 5 = 15 marks)

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com

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Booklet - Unit 7

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Booklet - Unit 7

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IGCSE Physics

Topic 7: Radioactivity and Particles

An atom consists of:

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

The ​half-life​ of an isotope is the ​time taken for

Safety measures include:

Fission and fusion

a lithium (Li) b fluorine (F) c sulfur (S) d krypton (Kr)

e calcium (Ca) f iron (Fe) g sodium (Na) h iodine (I)

a iron-54 b iron-56 c iron-57 d iron-58

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Name Class Date

a The atomic number is the number of neutrons in an atom.  

b Electrons have a negative charge.  

3 The diagram shows an atom of nitrogen (N).

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Atom Atomic Mass number Number of Number of Number of

2 a What are isotopes? _________________________________________________________________

0 1 +1 +2 −1 −2 1/1835 around nucleus in nucleus

Particle Location Relative charge Relative mass

4 The diagrams show atoms of boron (B).

b What is different? ____________________________________________________________________

c Write the symbols for the two atoms. ____________________________________________________

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One way of safeguarding people

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Name Class Date

S1 Describe alpha particles, beta particles and gamma radiation.

Radiation Penetration Stopped by Ionisation

 proton  neutron  electron

alpha particle beta particle gamma ray

charge of −1 relative mass of 4 electron from the nucleus

high frequency electromagnetic radiation charge of +2

medium poor a few millimetres of aluminium

medium only slightly ionising highly ionising

a few centimetres of air thick lead or very thick concrete good

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Radiation Blocked by Penetrating Ionising

alpha particle beta particle positron neutron gamma ray

decay gains ions loses random unstable

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1 Complete this table to show the different types of radioactive decay.

no change +2 decreases by no change

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atomic decreases electron increases less mass more neutron

alpha mass number decreases by 1, atomic number does not change

□Fr  4He  □At

□Fm  ______  □Cf

□Th  ______  □Pa

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 bananas  plastic comb  some rocks

 water  radiation from space  paper

S1 List three sources of background radiation.

a Ionising radiation can be detected using a mobile phone camera.  

S2 Describe two ways of detecting radiation.

background building food largest magnesium medical radiation radioactive

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The pie chart shows the average contribution made to

b Why might the percentages from different

Background radiation from ... … comes from …

cosmic ray uranium in rocks in the ground

radon gas radioactive isotopes in the environment

medical the Sun and other stars

food radiotherapy treatment and X-rays

4 Why does background radiation vary across the UK? __________________________________________

6 Describe two ways of measuring the amount of radioactivity.

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Name Class Date

1 Tick one box to show the best definition of activity.

 the number of radioactive atoms in a sample

 the number of radioactive decays per second

 something measured in half-lives

Radioactive decay is a ____________ process. We cannot ____________ when a particular unstable

activity all approximately becquerel decay decreased decreases exactly

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The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for

Radioactive decay is a process. We cannot when a particular unstable

a most penetrating b medium penetration

c least ionising _ d medium ionisation

e most ionising _ f least penetrating _