ATTITUDE OF BEDS

Structural Geology And Rock Mechanics

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
- Is the study of factors such as origin, occurrence, classification, type and effects of various secondary
structures like folds, faults, joints, rock cleavage and are different from those primary structures such as
bedding and vesicular structure, which develop in rocks at the time of their formation (Tandom, 2013).
ROCK MECHANICS
- Is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behavior of rock. It is that branch of mechanics
concerned with the response of rock to the force fields of its physical environment. It is an important
field in civil engineering as it applies in the majority of infrastructure projects including dams, roads,
tunnels, bridges, buildings, and protection of slopes (geoengineer, n.d.)

Azimuth
− A compass direction of the line measured in degree (0-360) clockwise from north with north=0, east=90,
south=180, west=270. Expressed In Three Digits (000)
Quadrant
- a compass direction measured 0-90 degrees from north or south
Map View
- Also known as top view
- It is the bird’s eye point of view of the earth surface
Cross-Sectional View
- representation of a geometry on a plane perpendicular to the earth’s surface.

PLANAR
- Two important principle components: strike and dip
- Geologic structures: beddings, joints, faults, axial planes and such
Methods in determining the attitude:
1. Strike and Dip
2. Right Hand Rule
3. Dip-Line Trend and Plunge

1. STRIKE AND DIP

- This system is used to describe the orientation of inclined bedding which is named after the two
important principle components in describing 3D spatial orientation.
- The azimuth direction line formed by the intersection of horizontal plane and the plane intersect
- The bedding or geological layers and planes that are not horizontal
- Measured in map view
- Utilize azimuth convention (90-360)
- Dip values are always in the range of 0-90. A dip angle of 0 defines horizontal plane with 90 describes
a vertically oriented plane
✓ 0-20 – shallow
✓ 20-50 – moderate
✓ 50-90 – steep
- Measured in cross-sectional view
- Utilizes quadrant convention

• TRUE DIP – is the inclination of a plane measured in a vertical plane trending perpendicular to the strike.
• APPARENT DIP – inclination of a plane measured in vertical plane that is not perpendicular to the strike.
Brunton Compass
- Properly known as Brunton Pocket Transit
- Essential tool for field geologist, archeologist, environmental engineers and surveyors
- Made by Brunton, Inc. 0f Riverton, Wyoming
- Patented in 1894 by David W. Brunton
Features of Brunton Compass
- Contains a magnetic needle that always seeks true magnetic north
- Has bull’s eye and clinometer level which levels body of the compass within the horizontal plane and
measure angles within a vertical plane, respectively
- The perimeter of the compass is divided into degrees based on one of two formats: quadrant and
azimuth
- Has more precise gradations that are easy to read, bubble level, dip indicator, a damper to reduce the
swaying motion of the needle and a hold button to freeze the needle
- Ther measuring instruments: silva ranger, clinometer, alidade and plane table or table solution and etc.

2. THE RIGHT HAND RULE

- This rule is followed by most geologist in the world for consistency. The azimuth direction of the strike
is recorded such that true dip is inclined to the right of the observer. In this case, the strike azimuth
could be to any quadrant.
- Right hand rule is when your are facing the strike direction and your right side is dipping downward.

3. DIP-LINE TREND AND PLUNGE

- As the name suggests, this method is similar to the method trend and plunge of in determining linear
attitude. This method relies on the implicit 90 degrees angle between true dup azimuth and the strike.
- In this method, the observer measures the dip azimuth and then the true dup angle. Because strike of
a plane always has a trend of 90 degrees form the dip trend, one may simply record the dip trend and
the angle of a plane.

LINEAR
- Two important principle components: trend and plunge
- Geologic structures: folds, hinges, elongated minerals, cleavage, bedding intersection, etc.
Methods in determining the attitude:
1. Trend and Plunge
2. Pitch/Rake

1. TREND AND PLUNGE

- Is the projecting line onto the horizontal plane. It is the azimuth direction of a line in map view (top
view). Since trend is measured in top view, vertical line has no definable trend.
- Meanwhile, polunge is the angle of inclination of a line measured in a vertical plane. It is the angle from
the horizontal line to the line itself. It shows how the particular line dips with respect to the horizontal
line. And plunge ranges from 0-90 degrees.

2. PITCH RAKE
- This method is used when it is difficult to measure the trend due to the steepness of the plunge. Pitch,
synonymous to rake, is the angle between the line and the strike of the plain that contains the line
 GEOLOGICAL MAPS
- provide a visual representation of the geology of a region, including rock types, faults, folds and other
geological features.
- The purpose of these maps is to help geologists understand the geological history and structure of a
given area, which can be used for a variety of purposes, such as mineral exploration, natural resource
management, and hazard assessment.

✓ Cartographers are mapmakers who design user-friendly maps.

✓ Photogrammetrists are specialized mapmakers who use various technologies to build models of
the Earth's surface and its features for the purpose of creating maps.

HISTORY
GEOLOGICAL MAPS IN THE PAST
• The history of geological maps can be traced back to the late 18th century, when geologists began
to map out the geology of various regions.
• One of the earliest geological maps was created by William Smith in 1815, which depicted the rock
layers and coal seams in England and Wales.
GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF THE PRESENT
• In the early 20th century, advancements in technology, such as aerial photography and seismic
surveys, allowed geologists to create more accurate and detailed geological maps.
• The development of computers in the latter half of the 20th century further revolutionized the field,
allowing for the creation of digital geological maps and 3D models of the subsurface.
TYPES
1. BEDROCK MAPS
These maps show the location and distribution of different types of rock formations at or near the
Earth’s surface. Bedrock maps can be used to identify the age, composition, and structure of rocks in an
area, as well as their potential for use as natural resources.
2. SURFICIAL MAPS
These maps show the distribution of different types of surficial materials, such as soils, sediments, and
glacial deposits. Surficial maps can be used to study the history of climate change, the location of natural
resources like water and minerals, and the potential for soil erosion and landslides.
3. STRUCTURAL MAPS
These maps show the orientation and location of different types of geologic structures, such as faults
and folds. Structural maps can be used to study the history of tectonic activity in an area, as well as the
potential for earthquakes and other natural hazards.
4. MINERAL MAPS
These maps show the location and distribution of different types of minerals and mineral resources in
an area. Mineral maps can be used to study the geology of an area, as well as the potential for economic
development through mining and other resource extraction.
5. GEOLOGIC HAZARD MAPS
These maps show the potential for natural hazards, such as earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic
eruptions, in an area. Geologic hazard maps can be used to identify areas that are at risk for these types
of events, as well as to develop strategies for mitigating their effects.
COMPONENTS
1. LEGEND/KEY
A list or diagram that explains the symbols and colors used on the map, including rock formations,
geological structures, and other features.
2. SCALE
A ratio or bar scale that indicates the relationship between distances on the map and actual distances
on the ground.
3. NORTH ARROW
A symbol that shows the orientation of the map, usually pointing to true north.
4. CONTOUR LINES
Lines that connect points of equal elevation, used to depict the topography of the area.
5. GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS
Different rock units that are shown using distinctive colors or patterns, with each formation labeled
according to its age and type.
6. STRUCTURAL FEATURES
Faults, folds, and other features that show how the rock layers have been deformed over time.
7. CULTURAL FEATURES
Roads, buildings, and other man-made features that are included on the map.
8. GRID LINES
Lines that divide the map into sections to help with navigation and measurement.
9. MARGINAL INFORMATION
Additional information about the map, such as the date it was created, the name of the geologist who
made it, and the source of the data used to create it.
10. EXPLANATORY NOTES
Additional information about the geology of the area, including the geological history, mineral
resources, and other relevant details.

ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION

Geological maps are used to assess the geologic hazards associated with an area, such as landslides,
sinkholes, and seismic activity. This information is essential for designing safe and effective infrastructure.
 ROCK MECHANICS
is a discipline that uses the principles of mechanics to describe the behaviour of rocks.

HISTORY OF ROCK MECHANICS

In 1963, the Rock Mechanics Committee of the American National Academy of Science was founded
and the term adopted the following definition:
Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behavior of rock. It is that
branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock to the force fields of its physical environment.

TWO BRANCHES OF ROCK MECHANICS:

1. STRUCTURAL ROCK MECHANICS
is concerned with the stability of engineering structures in which the material is predominantly rock.
2. COMMINUTION
which is concerned with the reduction of rock to small fragments by the application of external forces as in
drilling, blasting, cutting and grinding.

WHAT IS SO SPECIAL OF ROCK MECHANICS?

FOR NORMAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Continuous, Homogeneous, Isotropic, Linearly Elastic (CHILE)
Properties of the manmade materials are known and can often be controlled.
FOR ROCKS
Discontinuous, Inhomogeneous, Anisotropic, and Non-linearly elastic (DIANE)
Properties of the natural geomaterials are unknown and often can not be controlled.

DISCONTINUITIES OF ROCKS
- Any significant mechanical break or fracture of negligible strength in a rock

2 Classification Of Discontinuities
1. Normal Discontinuities -Relatively large, smooth,
weathered and infilled
1) Fault
2) Joint
3) Bedding
4) Cleavage
5) Fracture

2.Artificial Discontinuities
- Relatively small, rough, and fresh
- No definite pattern for orientation

INHOMOGENEITY OF ROCKS
1. Inhomogeneity of Rock Materials
Inhomogeneity represents property varying with locations.

2. Inhomogeneity of Rock Masses

Inhomogeneity of a rock mass is primarily due to the existence of discontinuities.
ANISOTROPY OF ROCKS
Anisotropy is defined as variations of properties with respect to the directions concerned in design and
analysis of rock structures.

STRESS
-is the force per unit area that is placed on a rock.

1. NORMAL STRESS
- When a force acts perpendicular (or "normal") to the surface of an object.
2. SHEAR STRESS
- When a force acts parallel to the surface of an object.

IMPORTANCE OF ROCK MECHANICS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Rocks are the most common material which is used in the construction of foundation. The local geology of
an area is important when planning a major construction. The full knowledge of geology increases the
strength, stability, and durability of civil engineering projects.
 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
A Rock material is an aggregate of mineral particles. The physical and mechanical properties of rock
materials determine the rock's performance under specific conditions.

Physical Properties
- may be known as Index Properties
- it describes the rock material and helps in classifying them
Mechanical Properties
- may be known as Strength Properties
- they give information about the performance of rock materials when subjected to a particular loading
system

Physical Properties
Mineralogic Composition, Structure, and Texture
− the intrinsic property controlling the strength of the rock
− although there exist more than 2000 kinds of known minerals, only about nine of them partake
decisively in forming the composition of rocks.

Specific Gravity and Unit Weight

✓ Specific Gravity (G)
− is the ratios of the density of solids to the density of solids to the densiity of water.
− can tell us, based on its value, if the object will sink or float in our reference substance
✓ Unit Weight (Y)
− also known as specific weight
− is one of the terms that, loosely speaking, describe and relate size (volume), amount (mass),
− concentration (density), and force (weight), as well as specific gravity.

Density, Void Ratio and Porosity

✓ Density
− the density of an object in a given volume is a measure of how compact or heavy it is.
− the density of rock varies and is often related to the rock's porosity
− most of the major rock-forming minerals in the Earth's crust, like quartz, feldspar, and calcite have very
similar densities, which is around 2.6 to 3.0 grams per cubic centimeters
✓ Void Ratio
− voids or ratio are open spaces in the ground that are commonly encountered as unforeseen ground
conditions in engineering geology.
− void ratio is the ratio of the volume of vids to the volume of solids and is closely related with porosity
✓ Porosity
− the porosity of a material tells how densely it is packed
− it is the proportion of non-solid material volume to total material volume
− it is decreases with increasing age of the rock and the depth of the rock

Moisture Content and Degree of Saturation

✓ Moisture Content
− how much water is in product
− influences physical properties of a substance, including weight, density, viscosity, conductivity, etc.
− The weight of water in the voids divided by the weight of dry solids in the rock sample is the ratio of
moisture content.
✓ Degree of Saturation
− The degree of saturation denotes the actual relationship between the weight of moisture existing in a
space and the weight that would exist if the space were saturated.
− calculated by dividing the total volume of voids in the rock sample by the volume of water in the void.
− The rock mass having higher porosity has higher degree of saturation.

Permeability and Electrical and Thermal Properties

✓ Permeability
− This refers to a porous material's ability to let liquid pass through its pores.
− Porosity and permeability are related properties of any rock or loose sediment, both related to the
number, size, and connections of openings in the rock.
✓ Electrical Properties
− majority of rocks are dielectric, and measurements of dielectric constants are used to interpret data.
✓ Thermal Properties
− The increase in temperature also makes rock weaker due to the formation of cracks in the rock mass.

Swelling, Anisotropy and Durability

✓ Swelling
− The volume of a mass increases as a result of water suction or prolonged contact with water.
− Swelling is more common in weaker rocks.
✓ Anisotropy
− the properties of the elements of the rock mass are not identical in all directions.
− Anisotropic material has a weakness in one direction only. Sedimentary rocks, for example, have a high
degree of anisotropy.
✓ Durability
− Durability is the resistance to destruction.
− If rock is more durable, it means it will last for a longer period when put into use.
− It depends upon the nature of environment against which the rock is going to be used.
− Swelling index or slake durability test is used to describe nature of weathering.

Mechanical Properties
- The tests are carried out on intact rock specimens in the laboratory or on rock mass in the field to
determine the strength values.
There are two methods used in testing the strength:
1. Direct Methods for calculating the above strength values in the laboratory
2. Indirect Methods for determining the above strength value approximately in the laboratory or at the
field site such as Compressive, Tensile and Shear Strength.

Compressive Strength
- The compressive strength of a material is a measure of its ability to resist uniaxial compressive loads
without yielding or fracture.
Uniaxial Compressive Strength - is given by the ratio of load at failure or rupture to cross-
sectional area of the specimen.
DIRECT METHODS
Uniaxial Compression Test
- Applying compressive load until failure occurs in the core by a fracture in the middle using high-capacity
Compressive testing machinery verifies the Uniaxial Compressive Strength of rock material and
deformation behavior under loading.

Triaxial Compression Test

- Triaxial Compressive Strength is the strength exhibited by a rock specimen when it is subjected to
confining pressure in addition to vertical pressure. Typically, at least 5 specimens are tested, each at a
different confining pressure, to determine the peak strength. The Mohr's envelope can also be used to
determine shear strength parameters of rock materials using this test.

Effects of Confining Pressure

- Peak strength increases.
- a transition from typically brittle to fully ductile behavior with the introduction of plastic
- mechanism of deformation
Effects of Porewater Pressure
- Transition from ductile to brittle behavior.

INDIRECT METHODS
Schmidt or Rebound Hammer Test
- used to determine the hardness of a rock sample's surface because it is simple to use and handle. The
sample should be in the form of a core or a block and the test is nondestructive. The best part of the
test is that you can reuse the sample from the previous one.

Point Load Test

- is an index test that classifies rocks based on their weight. Other intact rock properties for which the
test corresponds, such as uniaxial compressive and tensile power, can be estimated using the test. The
strength ratio at point load in the directions with the lowest and highest strength index values is defined
by the anisotropy index. The sample load and force gauges are part of the test instrument, and the
sample measurements (length scale) are also determined.

Tensile Strength
- is defined as the maximum tensile which a material is capable of developing. In nature, rock mass is
rarely subjected to direct tension, but it is subjected to tensile stresses. Rocks are weak in tension.

Direct Methods
- In this, Rock specimen is subjected to uniaxial tensile loading along its axis. The principal difficulties
associated with tensile tests on rock is the prevention of failure within the grips and the elimination of
bending in the specimen.

Indirect Methods
- For the indirect method, the Brazilian Test of Mellor and Hawkes can be utilized. The Brazilian
- disc test is a useful technique to determine the tensile strength of rock material. The Brazilian
- disc test has attracted the attention of a large number of scholars due to its extensive practical
- importance in engineering application.
Shear Strength
- The maximum resistance to deformation caused by shear stress is known as shear strength. Surface
frictional resistance along the sliding plane, interlocking between individual rock grains, and cohesion
in the sliding surface of the rock all contribute to the shear strength of a rock mass.

Shear Strength Tests

- It primarily concerns the shear strength and shear behavior of the rock's shearing and weakness planes,
which hold a rock specimen together.
- This is the most expensive laboratory strength test because it necessitates a unique approach for
collecting samples from the site as fracture planes to be tested, as well as the most complex testing
procedures
 DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
1. STRESS WAVES
- occur when the body is not in static equilibrium, and are essentially sound waves in solid materials
- Manifestation of dynamic stress changes.
- Stress is the internal resistance of the rock specimen offered against loading or deformation.
- Ratio of the applied load and the unit area.
TYPES OF STRESS WAVES
• LITHOSTATIC STRESS
- Rock beneath the Earth's surface experiences equal pressure exerted on it from all directions because
of the weight of the overlaying rock. It is the hydrostatic stress (water pressure) that a person feels
pressing all around the body when diving down deep in water.
• DIFFERENTIAL STRESS
- Also knows as deviatoric stress. In many cases, rock may experience an additional, unequal stress due
to tectonic forces. The five basic kinds of differential stress are tensional stress, compressional stress,
shearing stress, torsional stress and bending stress.

2. STRAIN
- Strain or deformation is the response to stress. Rock responds to stress differently depending on the
pressure, temperature and mineralogy of rock.
TYPES OF STRAIN
• ELASTIC DEFORMATION
- Elastic deformation is when objects that can change due to stretching, twisting, compression and
bending, but once released, they return to their original shape.
• DUCTILE DEFORMATION
- Deeper at 10-20 km, the enormous lithostatic stress makes it nearly
- impossible to produce fracture but high temperature makes rock softer, less brittle, and more
malleable. Rock undergoes plastic deformation when differential stress is applied that is stronger than
its yield strength, it flows.
• BRITTLE DEFORMATION
- Near the Earth's surface, rock behave in its familiar brittle fashion. If a differential stress is applied that
is greater than the rock's yield strength, the rock fractures and breaks. The part of the rock that didn't
break springs back to its original shape which then may cause earthquake.
• ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY
- Developed by Harry Fielding Reid, a professor of Geology at Johns Hopkins University
- The rocks along the fault are held together by friction and cannot slip relatively to each other. Over the
time, background geologic forces (plate motions) apply stress to the rocks in either side of the fault.
The block of rocks want to slide down past one another, but cannot because of the friction holding
them together. Instead, they deform around the fault, forming strain energy. Eventually, there comes a
point when the strain energy is greater than the strength of the friction holding the rocks together, and
they slide past one another abruptly.

3. ELASTIC CONSTANT
- They are used to characterize the elasticity of materials, which is the ability of a material to return to its
original shape after being deformed by an external force.
KINDS OF ELASTIC CONSTANT
• MODULUS OF ELASTICITY - pertains to young's modulus. Measures resistance of a solid to transmit
load. Ratio of stress to strain.
 • MODULUS OF RIGIDITY - pertains to the shear modulus. Denoted as g, sometimes s. Ratio of shear
stress to shear strain.
• BULK MODULUS (K) - The resistance of a solid to change in volume when subjected to compressional
load. Ratio of the direct stress to the volumetric stress.
• POISSON'S RATIO (V) - Defines the amount of expansion that can occur under dynamic loading.
Determines the maximum amount of stress that can be tolerated before cracks are generated. Ratio of
lateral strain and longitudinal strain.

WAVE THEORY
SEISMOLOGY
- Study of earthquakes and seismic waves.
- Seismologist scientist who studies earthquakes & seismic waves.

SEISMIC WAVES
- Sudden movement within during an earthquake.
- travel through and around the Earth and can be recorded with seismometers.

Body waves (Faster, Higher Frequency)

• P waves
- Richard Oldham (1897)
- Fastest wave 6-10.4km/sec.
- Can move through solid rock and fluids
• S waves
- Richard Oldham (1897)
- Speed 3.4-7.2km/sec.
- Can't move through fluids

Surface waves (Slower, Lower Frequency)

Love waves
- Augustus Edward Hough Love (1911)
- speed 4.5km/sec.
- entirely horizontal motion
Rayleigh waves
- John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh (1885)
- Speed 3km/sec.

SEISMIC HAZARD - potential earthquakes in a particular area.

SEISMIC SURVEY - Determine the dynamic characteristics of ground layers from different seismic methods
SEISMIC TOMOGRAPHY - seismic waves produced by earthquakes or explosions.
REFLECTIVE SEISMOLOGY - approximation the properties of the Earth's interior from reflected
seismic waves
 FACTORS AFFECTING WAVE VELOCITY
Wave velocity
- the distance travelled by a periodic or cyclic motion per unit of time (in any direction)
- the product of the wave's wavelength (λ) and frequency (ƒ) and is independent of its intensity

Wavelength (λ) - distance between identical points on consecutive waves

Frequency (ƒ) - number of waves that pass a point per unit of time

1. Wave Type
❖ According to Wave Theory, the wave type may influence the velocity of waves
❖ P-waves and S-waves are both moving fast through the more rigid material and move slow through the
more dense material
❖ Only the P-waves are directly proportional to the compressibility of the material.

2. Rock Material
❖ According to Condie (2016), there's an average compressional wave
velocities (at 600 MPa and 300 °C) in variety of rocks
❖ Note that the order of increasing velocity is not a simple function of
increasing metamorphic grade

3. Elasticity, Density, and Temperature

❖ Wave velocity is directly proportional to elasticity and temperature, but
inversely proportional to density
❖ Elasticity and density are the two basic physical properties that govern the velocity of sound waves
through the medium. Sound wave is an example of compressional wave
❖ Elasticity- the ratio of stress to strain
❖ Density- the mass per unit volume of the medium or substance
❖ Temperature- degree or intensity of heat present in a substance or object
❖ Raising the temperature of the medium decreases its density and has the effect of increasing the velocity

4. Depth
❖ Seismic wave velocities increase with depth in the continental crust from 6.0-6.2 km/s at depths of less
than 10-6.6 km/s at 25 km depth
❖ Lower crustal velocities range from 6.8-7.2 km/s
❖ In some continental crust, there is evidence of a small discontinuity at mid-crustal depths, known as
Conrad discontinuity, in which wave velocity increases in intervals.

5. Poisson’s Ratio
❖ Poisson's ratio- the ratio of P- to S- wave velocity
❖ Poisson's ratio rises with density as rock composition shifts from felsic to mafic, as well as with
temperature, since S-wave velocity falls faster than P-wave velocity as temperature rises

Relevance to Civil Engineering

❖ Understanding the factors that affect wave velocity is essential for ensuring the safety, efficiency, and
durability of civil engineering projects.
❖ By studying the factors affecting wave velocity, civil engineers can assess the response of structures to
seismic waves and design buildings that can withstand such forces
 SITE INVESTIGATION
What is a site investigation?
In order to properly plan and execute a project, an engineer must be well-informed about the
surroundings of the job site. Understanding the physical characteristics and existing layout of soil materials is
critical to successfully break ground on a new development. Often referred to as soil exploration, site
investigation relies on a variety of field and lab tests to determine the best course of action for any given build.
Before the engineer can design a foundation intelligently, he must have a reasonably accurate
conception of the physical properties and arrangement of the underlying materials. The field and laboratory
investigations required to obtain this essential information are called soil exploration or site investigation.

According to British Archaeoligical Jobs and Resources.

- A site investigation simply is the process of the collection of information, the appraisal of data,
assessment, and reporting without which the hazards in the ground beneath the site cannot be known.

According to RSA GEOTECHNICS LTD

- Site investigation is carried out in order to enable a geotechnical and geoenvironmental assessment of
the ground conditions and analysis of the engineering and environmental considerations related to the
proposed development.

Purpose and Objectives of Site Investigation

- In A Client's Guide to Site Investigation, the AGS states that adequate site investigation is of importance
to the civil engineer for the successful completion of any building project,
- The design of a structure which is economical and safe to construct, is durable and has low maintenance
costs, depends upon an adequate understanding of the nature of the ground. This understanding comes
from an appreciation of the distribution of the materials in the ground, and their properties and
behaviour under various influences and constraints during the construction and lifetime of the structure.
An adequate and properly structured site investigation is therefore an essential part of any civil
engineering or building project.

The reason for a site investigation is to understand the following:

✓ The composition of soil layers and bedrock
✓ Groundwater conditions
✓ Durability, compressibility, and strength of soil, rocks, soil strata
✓ Chemical composition of groundwater on site
✓ Composition of foundations on nearby site

Background Information before Subsurface Investigation

Before actual field investigation is started, the information should, whenever possible, be collected on:
1. The type of structure to be built, its intended use;
2. Characteristics of the structure;
3. Starting date;
4. Intended construction method;
5. The estimated period of construction;
6. The probable soil condition at the site, by geological, geotechnical or aerial analysis;
7. The behavior of existing structures adjacent to the site, as well as other facts available through local
experience.
The Extent of Soil Investigation
Subsurface condition at a site may be relatively uniform or extremely variable and will largely determine the
complexity of the problems to be faced in both design and construction of the foundations. The subsurface
investigation must, therefore, be of sufficient extent to provide enough information for a thorough
understanding of the interaction of proposed foundations and supporting soil or rock on which to base a safe
and economical design.

Depth of Site Investigation

The site investigation should be carried to such a depth that the entire zone of soil or rock affected by the
changes caused by the building or the construction will be adequately explored. This may be taken as depth at
which vertical stress induced by the new construction is smaller than 10% of the existing overburden stress at
that level. Where the depth of investigation cannot be related to background information, the following
guidelines are suggested.
• It is good to have at least one boring carried to bedrock, or to well below the anticipated level of
influence of the building.
• For light structures, insensitive to the settlement, the boring should be to a depth equal to four times
the probable footing width or to a depth of 6m below the lowest part of the foundation, whichever is
deeper.
• For more heavily loaded structures, such as multistory structures and for framed structures, at least 50%
of the borings should be extended to a depth equal to 1.5 times the width of the building below the
lowest part of the foundation, and
• Bedrock should be proved by coring into it to a minimum depth of 3m.

Stages of Site Investigation

The approach adopted for a particular site investigation, its extent and the techniques used will all depend upon
the site-specific circumstances, and the experience and judgment of those involved. There is no single way to
carry out an investigation, and inevitably different advisors will adopt different approaches for any particular
project. However, it is usual for the site investigation to be a phased exercise.

Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists

For any project soil investigation is usually performed in several stages, i.e., during feasibility and planning stage,
before construction and during construction (if required). These are termed as:
1. Preliminary investigation;
2. Detailed investigation;
3. Supplementary investigation and construction control.

Preliminary Site Investigation

What are the stages of site investigation? The place to start is with heavy fact-finding during the
preliminary investigation. You will want to gain a firm grasp of the type of structure being planned, the future
use of the structure, and local building codes. At this point, the geotechnical engineer on the project can take
certain actions to save time and resources. A thorough review of existing data can help cut down on the need
for extensive original research. Geological data can be found through a number of sources including the
engineer should visually inspect the site and the surrounding area. In many cases, the information gathered
from such a trip is invaluable for future planning. The type of vegetation at a site may in some instances the
type of subsoil that will be encountered. Open cuts near the site provide an indication about the subsoil
stratification. Cracks in the existing wall of nearby structures may indicate settlement from the possible existence
of soft clay layers or the presence of expansive clay soils.
Detailed Site Investigation
This phase consists of making several test borings at the site and collecting disturbed and undisturbed
soil samples from various depths for visual observation and for laboratory tests. No hard and first rule exists for
determining the number of borings or the depth to which the test boring is to be advanced. For most buildings,
at least one boring at each corner and one at the center should provide a start. Depending on the uniformity of
the subsoil, additional test borings may be made. The test borings should extend through unsuitable foundation
materials to firm soil layers.

Supplementary Investigation and Construction Control

The final phase involves analysis and planning based on the results of the previous phases. The results
of the rock, soil, and water samples will be used to determine the potential for risks. If the chemical composition
of the groundwater is found to have any deteriorating effects, this phase allows for planning to combat the
issue. Additionally, planning for potential earthquakes, groundswells, floods, shrinkage, permafrost, or erosion
will be conducted at this step.
A site investigation is part of the planning stage of any urban development project. It involves a
geotechnical engineer looking at the soil composition of the area and the strength of the soil and rock there, as
well as some other characteristics that could affect construction or building safety.
• Minimizes Damage
If you construct your home on a problematic ground, you'll likely experience damage in the
future. That may be due to a weak foundation that may not sustain the weight of your home or the
pressure of the ground around the foundation. A suitable foundation designed to withstand the
environment will work to protect your home.
That makes it essential to have a geotechnical engineer check your site before the foundation
is designed. They'll help identify any risks of constructing at the site, which can help find the best
solution. This may be using a specific design, materials or treatments, or it may mean finding a more
suitable location.
• Saves on Costs
One of the best ways to make a site suitable for construction is treating the soil. Therefore, a
site investigation helps to determine whether there's a need to treat the ground. If there is, then several
landowners within that may come together to put resources into the treatment. By doing it as a group,
this will reduce the costs that a single developer would have spent treating the soil.
Also, treating the ground helps save the money that would have gotten lost should the
construction have continued and complications realized later on. That includes keeping the
maintenance costs that result from weak foundations low.
• Helps Determine the Construction Materials
A site investigation helps to determine the most suitable materials to use in construction. Some
materials may not hold onto certain soils for long, which means cracks on the walls or even floors may
appear not long after construction is finished.
Therefore, there's a need to check the soil and decide what material will be best for construction.
An engineer will help to determine this when the results for the soil test are out. Also, they'll determine
how suitable it is to continue with the project generally.
• Increases the Safety of the Project
One of the most important reasons why a site investigation is essential is to help determine
how safe it is to move forward with your project. Constructing on certain soils may pose a threat to the
workers and the existing buildings nearby. To avoid any legal implications, conduct a site investigation
with a qualified professional.
 EXPLORATION
- It is the process of searching for evidence of any mineralization hosted in the surrounding rocks.
- It is the process of finding commercially viable mineral resource and the objective is to locate it in the
shortest possible time and at the lowest possible cost.
- usually begins with low impact operations, including desktop testing and field inspections, to assess if
signs of minerals or petroleum are present. It is achieved before more intensive and expensive
technologies such as geochemical sampling, exploration and geophysical surveys are carried out.

EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES:
1. GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS- Geophysical surveys include the implementation of geophysical methods to
indirectly determine the geological and structural as well as the physical and mechanical characteristics of
the foundation soil. These methods are used to determine the layout, thickness and properties of individual
layers below the terrain surface, on which the construction of a specific structure is planned.

a. Airborne Geophysical Survey- Magnetic, radiometric, gravitational and electromagnetic surveys are
examples of airborne geophysical surveys. Low-flying helicopters or light airplanes fly in a grid pattern,
with measuring instruments mounted on the aircraft or towed underneath or behind.
b. Gravity Surveys- To quantify changes in rock density in the Earth’s crust, a gravimeter measures the
gravity field. These surveys are sensitive enough to detect minute changes in the field, and they can
understand and map the locations of various rocks or geological formations with varying densities.
c. Seismic Surveys- Seismic surveys track vibration as it travels across the Earth’s crust. Seismology
fundamentals are used in ground-based seismic surveys to make a picture of the geology underneath
the surface. They are most commonly used on the exploration of petroleum and coal.
d. Magnetic Geophysical Survey- Magnetic surveys are used to track changes in the Earth’s magnetic
field caused by magnetic minerals. They’re used to analyze rock types and geological formation, and
they can also help with resource identification. They are most commonly used in metallic mineral
exploration
e. Radiometric Geophysical Surveys- Radiometric surveys measure gamma rays, which are constantly
emitted from the Earth as a result of the decomposition of some commonly found radiogenic minerals.
Most gamma rays originate in the top 30 centimeters of rock or soil, which can be detected using
airborne surveys or a hand-held spectrometer on surface rocks (a device that measures gamma rays).
f. Electromagnetic (EM) Surveys- Electromagnetic (EM) surveys generate anelectromagnetic field and
measure changes in conductivity in the near-surface soil and rock in three dimensions. Variations in
conductivity can be used to detect metallic minerals as well as to learn more about groundwater and
salinity.
g. Induced Polarization (IP) Survey- IP surveys establish an electric field in the ground and measure the
chargeability and resistivity of the region beneath the surface of the Earth. The method can be used to
detect differences in resistivity caused by aquifers, metallic minerals, and other rock types. A small field
crew uses transmitting and receiver wires to take readings.
h. Drillhole Surveys- Drillhole surveys entail the use of a thin wire rope to lower a variety of scientific
instruments down exploration drillholes or boreholes. This type of survey iscommonly used in the
exploration of petroleum and coal

2. GEOLOGICAL MAPPING- Geological mapping is the process of locating and identifying rock types and
geological structures in relation to landforms and topography, it is sometimes the first method of
exploration used on the ground, and it may take place at a local comprehensive scale or a regional scale.
Geological mapping creates a geological map of the exploration region, which will show the distribution of
rock types and structures.
3. GEOCHEMICAL SURVEY- geochemical surveys are used to identify areas for further investigation. Soil, rock
and/or sediment samples are typically collected as part of the surveys. These samples are sent to a laboratory
for analysis in order to determine prospective mineralization zones.

a. Soil Sampling- To retrieve soil and subsoil samples, hand tools such as shovels, picks, and hand augers
are used. Samples are frequently collected on a regular grid pattern and consist of small soul samples.
Hand-operated or vehicle-mounted power augers may also be used. Following sampling, holes
excavated during the program are routinely backfilledand vegetation replaced.
b. Rock Chip Sampling- Hand-held tools are used to haul up to a few tons of rock material from outcrops.
During geological mapping programs, rock chips are typically gathered.
c. Costeaning (Trench Sampling)- Costeaning (also known as trench sampling) is a type of geochemical
sampling that involves digging a shallow trench and mapping, analyzing, and sampling the exposed
rock, it entails digging a ‘costean’ or trench with a backhoe or other comparable equipment. The trench
should be 20cm wide to more than a meter wide and a few centimeters to meters deep (where hard
rock is near the surface).
d. Stream Sediment Sampling- within drainage pipes, two-kilogram samples of sediment are gathered.
Three samples are typically collected where two creeks meet: on downstream and two upstream of the
meeting point (in each of the merging drainage lines). Hand tools are commonly used to gather samples,
which may be sieved during collection.
e. Channel Sampling- A series of soil or rock samples are gathered along the excavation’s face. This may
be a road cut, the face of an existing open pit or underground mine, a trench, or something else.
f. Bulk Sampling- Extraction of a bulk sample traditionally entails the construction of a small open cut
mine or the excavation of a small underground operation. The level of disturbance caused by a bulk
sample is determined by the nature and location of the mineral deposit being sampled.
 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
- non-invasive techniques used to investigate subsurface properties and structures.
- rely on measuring and analyzing physical properties such as electrical, magnetic, gravitational, and seismic
characteristics to provide information about the subsurface.

1. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR):

- GPR uses electromagnetic waves to image subsurface features. It emits high-frequency radio waves into
the ground and detects the reflections caused by variations in subsurface materials. GPR is effective in
locating buried utilities, detecting voids, mapping bedrock, and determining changes in soil stratigraphy.

2. Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT):

- ERT measures the electrical resistivity of subsurface materials. By injecting electrical current into the
ground and measuring the resulting voltage, engineers can determine variations in resistivity. Different
materials, such as rock, soil, water, or voids, have distinct resistivity values. ERT is useful in mapping
subsurface structures, detecting groundwater levels, and identifying contamination plumes.

3. Magnetometry:
- Magnetometry measures variations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by subsurface materials with
different magnetic properties. By using magnetometers, engineers can identify buried ferrous objects,
archaeological features, and subsurface structures. Magnetometry is particularly valuable in archaeological
surveys and identifying buried metallic utilities.

4. Gravity Surveys:
- Gravity surveys measure variations in the Earth's gravitational field caused by differences in subsurface
density. By recording the gravitational acceleration at various points on the surface, engineers can infer the
presence of subsurface features such as faults, basements, and density variations. Gravity surveys are
commonly used in geotechnical investigations and mineral exploration.
-
5. Seismic Methods:
- Seismic methods involve generating and recording seismic waves to study subsurface structures. The two
primary seismic techniques used in civil engineering are:

a. Seismic Reflection: This method utilizes controlled sources of energy, such as hammer strikes or
explosives, to generate seismic waves. The waves reflect off subsurface interfaces and are recorded by
receivers (geophones). Seismic reflection is effective in mapping stratigraphy, identifying faults, and
determining the depth to bedrock.

b. Seismic Refraction: Seismic refraction involves measuring the travel time and direction of seismic
waves that refract at subsurface interfaces due to differences in wave velocity. By analyzing these data,
engineers can estimate the depth and velocity of subsurface layers, which helps in determining the soil-
bearing capacity and identifying potential geological hazards.

CONCLUSION:
These geophysical methods are often used in combination, complementing each other's strengths to provide a
more comprehensive understanding of subsurface conditions. The data obtained from these investigations
assist engineers in making informed decisions regarding site characterization, foundation design, infrastructure
construction, environmental assessments, and hazard mitigation.
 SEISMIC AND ELECTRICAL METHODS
SEISMIC METHODS
• are the most commonly conducted geophysical surveys for engineering investigations. Seismic methods
depend upon velocities of acoustical energy in earth materials. Accordingly, they involve the generation
of a short pulse of seismic energy and the permanent recording of the arrival of seismic pulse at distant
locations, with time intervals after the pulse instant determined to millisecond accuracy.
• Some types of explosive or the impact of a mass furnishes the energy which is detected by sensitive
seismometers operating with electronic amplifiers and a suitable recorder.
SEISMIC WAVES
• Any mechanical vibration is initiated by a source and travels to the location where the vibration is noted.
• The vibration is merely a change in the stress state due to a disturbance.
• The vibration emanates in all directions that support displacement. It readily passes from one medium
to another and from solids to liquids or gasses and in reverse.
• The direction of travel is called the ray, ray vector, or ray path. Since a source produces motion in all
directions the locus of first disturbances will form a spherical shell or wave front in a uniform material.
TWO MAJOR CLASSES OF SEISMIC WAVES
1. BODY WAVES
- which pass through the volume of a material. These are the fastest traveling of all seismic waves and are called
compressional or pressure or primary wave (P-wave).
• P-waves - travel through all media that support seismic waves; air waves or noise in gasses, including
the atmosphere. Compressional waves in fluids, e.g., water and air, are commonly referred to acoustic
waves.
• S-waves - secondary or transverse or shear wave (S-wave). S-waves travel slightly slower than P-waves
in solids. S-waves have particle motion perpendicular to the propagating direction, like the obvious
movement of a rope as a displacement speeds along its length. These transverse waves can only transit
material that has shear strength. S-waves therefore do not exist in liquids and gasses, as these media
have no shear strength
2. SURFACE WAVES
- are produced by surface impacts, explosions, and waveform changes at boundaries. Surface waves travel slower
than body waves.
• LOVE WAVES - A type of seismic surface wave in which particles move with a side-to-side motion
perpendicular to the main propagation of the earthquake. The amplitude of this motion decreases with
depth. Love waves cause the rocks they pass through to change in shape. Love waves have particle
displacement similar to SH-waves.
• RAYLEIGH WAVE - an undulating wave that travels over the surface of a solid, especially of the ground
in an earthquake, with a speed independent of wavelength, the motion of the particles being in ellipses.
A point in the path of a Rayleigh wave moves back, down, forward, and up repetitively in an ellipse like
ocean waves.

DATA ACQUISITION
• Digital electronics have continued to allow the production of better seismic equipment. Newer equipment is
hardier, more productive, and able to store greater amounts of data. The choice of seismograph,
sensors(geophones), storage medium, and source of the seismic wave depend on the survey being undertaken.

SOURCES
• . The seismic source may be a hammer striking the ground or an aluminum plate or weighted plank, drop
weights of varying sizes, rifle shot, a harmonic oscillator, waterborne mechanisms, or explosives.The energy
disturbance for seismic work is most often called the "shot,"an archaic term from petroleum seismic exploration.
GEOPHONES
• The sensor receiving seismic energy is the geophone (hydrophone in waterborne surveys) or phone. These
sensors are either accelerometers or velocity transducers, and convert ground movement into a voltage.
Typically, the amplification of the ground is many orders of magnitude, but accomplished on a relative basis.
The absolute value of particle acceleration cannot be determined, unless the geophones are calibrated.

SEISMOGRAPHS
• The equipment that records input geophone voltages in a timed sequence is the seismograph. Current practice
uses seismographs that store the channels' signals as digital data at discrete time. Earlier seismographs would
record directly to paper or photographic film Stacking, inputting, and processing the vast volumes of data and
archiving the information for the client virtually require digital seismographs

A portion of the seismic energy striking an interface between two differing materials will be reflected from the
interface.
The ratio of the reflected energy to incident energy is called the reflection coefficient.
The reflection coefficient is defined in terms of the densities and seismic velocities of the two materials as:

ELECTRICAL METHODS
Electrical geophysical prospecting methods detect the surface effects produced by electric current flow in the
ground. Using electrical methods, one may measure potentials, currents, and electromagnetic fields that occur
naturally or are introduced artificially in the ground. In addition, the measurements can be made in a variety of
ways to determine a variety of results. There is a much greater variety of electrical and electromagnetic
techniques available than in the other prospecting methods, where only a single field of force or anomalous
property is used.

All materials, including soil and rock, have an intrinsic property, resistivity, that governs the relation between the
current density and the gradient of the electrical potential. Variations in the resistivity of earth materials, either
vertically or laterally, produce variations in the relations. Between the applied current and the potential
distribution as measured on the surface, and thereby reveal something about the composition, extent, and
physical properties of the subsurface materials.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL METHODS

• The number of electrical methods used since the first application around 1830 (Parasnis 1962) is truly large;
they include self-potential (SP), telluric currents and magnetotellurics, resistivity, equipotential and mise-à-la-
masse, electromagnetic (EM), and induced polarization (IP)
The self-potential (SP) technique is a passive electrical geophysical method based upon the measurement of
spontaneous or natural electrical potential developed in the earth due to: 1) electrochemical interactions
between minerals and subsurface fluids; 2) electrokinetic processes resulting from the flow of ionic fluids;
or 3) thermoelectric mechanisms from temperature gradients in the subsurface

TELLURIC CURRENT also called Earth Current, natural electric current flowing on and beneath the surface of
the Earth and generally following a direction parallel to the Earth’s surface.
RESISTIVITY - is a measure of the resistance of a given size of a specific material to electrical conduction.
Resistivity may also be referred to as the specific electrical resistance, or volume resistivity.

EQUIPOTENTIAL METHOD - was one of the first electrical methods and was used as far back as1912 by
Schlumberger. As explained elsewhere in this volume, when electric energy is applied to two points at the
ground surface, an electric current will flow between them because of their difference in electrical potential.

Mise-a-la-masse - is still used in mining exploration and occasionally in geotechnical applications. The name,
which may be translated as “excitation of the mass,” describes an electrode array, which uses the conductive
mass under investigation as one of the current electrodes. In mining, the conductive mass is a mineral body
exposed in a pit or drill hole

Electromagnetic (EM) methods - use transmitters to create strong time-varying primary magnetic fields that
induce electrical currents to flow in conductive rocks. These currents, in turn, create secondary electromagnetic
fields that are detected by receiver antennae.

Induced polarization (IP) - and resistivity are two electrical properties measured in near-surface sediments as
indirect hydrocarbon indicators. They are usually measured at the same time by inserting two electrodes into
the earth surface and passing a current through them.
 DIRECT PENETRATION
• is a method that provides a more detailed description of underground conditions at specific locations to obtain
information by physically sampling or testing rocks, soils, and groundwater.
• includes taking soil samples at the strata of rocks and soils where it will be tested either field test or laboratory test,
or both to determine its strength and other relevant geotechnical properties

INCLUSION
• Trenching is a pit that is elongated over some distance in order to establish how the surface conditions change
over various parts of the work.
• Pitting test pits are dug either manually or with an excavator in order to reveal the subsurface conditions to the
depth desired.

2 TYPES OF DIRECT PENETRATION TEST

1. Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is a simple and low-cost testing procedure widely used in geotechnical investigation
to determine the relative density and angle of shearing resistance of cohesion less soils and also the strength of stiff
cohesive soils.
✓ A dynamic method in which a 51mm external diameter split tube sampler connected to drilling rods, is driven into
the ground by a series of hammer blows delivered at the surface.
✓ A hammer of 63.5 kg (140 lbs) is dropped repeatedly from a height of 76cm (30 in) driving the sampler into the
ground until reaching a depth of 15cm (6 in)
✓ This procedure is repeated two more times until a total penetration of 45cm (18 in) is achieved.
✓ The number of blows required to penetrate the first 15cm is called "seating drive" and the total number of blows
required to penetrate the remaining 30cm depth is called "standard penetration resistance."
✓ Used to indicate relative in-place density of cohesion less and relative in-place consistency of cohesive foundation
materials for logging.
✓ it is most applicable to fine-grained soils that are at or near saturation and to fairly clean, coarse-grained sands and
gravels at variable moisture contents.
✓ Although the SPT provides only a very approximate guide to the properties of sands, clays and weathered rocks, it
is widely used since it is simple and cheap to carry out.
✓ It provides a measure of the resistance of soil to the penetration of the sampler It also furnishes distributed samples
of the material penetrated for identification classification, and other test purposes.

2. Cone Penetration Test (CPT) is a common in situ testing method used to determine the geotechnical engineering
properties of soils and assessing subsurface stratigraphy. The test is also called, Dutch Cone test. Due to its simplicity
and efficiency, the cone penetration test is one of the most commonly accepted and used in-situ testing methods in
geotechnical investigation worldwide.
✓ CPT is an in-situ test that is used to identify the soil type. In this test, a conical point is driven into the ground by
means of a steady pressure on the top of the rods.
✓ A 60 cone-shaped point, with a base area of 1000mm, is driven into the ground at a constant rate of 20 mm/s while
the resistance to penetration is measured.
✓ The test is particularly suited to the investigation of soft clays, sits, and sands in which undistributed sampling is
very difficult. which undistributed sampling is very difficult.
✓ Since no borehole is required, the test is fast, effective, and relatively inexpensive to perform.
✓ CPTs are a quick, and convenient method of investigating soils, particularly when used in conjunction with boreholes
from which the samples or core are obtained.
✓ They can be used to log the distribution and thicknesses of the various soil layers over an area while also providing
information about their geotechnical properties.
Cone penetration testing with modern equipment provides continuous readings of point load or tip resistance, sleeve
friction, and porewater pressure.
a. Tip resistance is theoretically related to undrained shear strength of a saturated cohesive material, and measured
with an embedded load cell.
b. Sleeve friction is theoretically related to the friction of horizon being penetrated and is measured using tension
load cells embedded in the sleeve.
 CORE BORING
Core Drill - A hollow, cylindrical drill that is used to make holes through a surface. It is made of metal, and the
drill tips are usually coated with either diamond or carbide.

DRILLING & CORE DRILLING

1. Drilling - cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut/enlarge a hole of circular cross-section in solid material
2. Core Drilling - Scaling, leaching, or pattern cracking can be signs of the need for core drilling

Four Methods of Drilling

1. Percussion Drilling - It consists basically of a hammer unit which is driven by compressed air. This hammer
unit imparts a series of short, rapid, blows to the drill steel or rods and at the same time slowly rotates them.
Mainly used for water well drilling and not commonly used in mineral expo.

2. Churn Drilling - It is a drilling technique in which a sharpened steel bit attached to rope or cable is repeatedly
raised and lowered at the rate of 30-60 strokes/min and crushing the rock and making the hole deeper. Useful
in exploration work for sampling soft formations up to a depth of 100-150 m.

3. Diamond Core - Designed specifically for mineral exploration and is the most important type of drilling. -
Recovery of the core drill enables details of the geology, ground conditions and mineralogy to be obtained that
is not possible with any other method.
Two Types of Diamond Drilling:
✓ Conventional drilling - the rods have to be removed from the hole each time. It is necessary to recover
core from the Core barrel.
✓ Wire line drilling - the core can be removed from the hole without withdrawing the rods

4. Jet Drilling - It is a placer sampling method where a casing and chisel-pointed bit are advanced by percussion
while water is forced ahead to loosen the material and to flush out and bring the sample to the surface. It is
replacing churn drilling in many placer mining districts where minerals other than gold are involved.

Auger drills - They are important in soil sampling, beach placer sampling, and in evaluating clay deposits. In
any event, auger drilling stops at the first boulder.

Rotary Drills - It is mostly used to drill big holes in large quarries, open pit mines, petroleum extraction, and
other fields.

PD. 1096 National Building Code of the Philippines Section 08.01 Article 2 Paragraph B.
• Excavation or fills for any building structure and excavations or fills accessory thereto shall be so
constructed or protected that they do not endanger life and property.
• Whenever or wherever the depth of any excavation for a new construction is such that the lateral and
subjacent support of the adjoining property or existing structure thereon would be affected in a manner
that the stability of safety of the same is in endanger, the person undertaking or causing the excavation
to be undertaking or causing the excavation to be undertaken shall be responsible for the expense of
underpinning or extending the foundation or footings of the aforementioned property or structure only
when such underpinning is necessary for the safety of the same during excavation.
 LOGGING OF CORES
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of circular cross section in solid material.

4 Main Methods For Drilling Rocks

1. Percussion Drilling - it consists basically of a hammer drill which is driven by compressed air. This summer
unit in parts of series of short, rapid, blows to the drill still or roads and at the same time slowly rotates
them.
2 Main Types of Percussion Drilling
a. Down-the-Hammer Drill
b. Top Hammer Drill

2. Churn Drilling - it is a drilling technique in which a sharpened steel bit attached to rope and cable is
repeatedly raised and lowered at the rate of 30-60 The strokes per minute and crushing the rock and making
the hole deeper.

3. Diamond Core Drilling - Designed specifically for mineral exploration and is the most important type of
drilling. Invented by Rodolphe Leschot, a French engineer.

2 Main Types of Diamond Drilling

a. Conventional Drilling - the rods have to be removed from the hole each time. It is necessary to recover
core from the core barrel.
b. Wire Line Drilling - the core can be removed from the hole without withdrawing the rods.

4. Rotary Drilling - A mechanical device on a drilling rig that provides clockwise rotational force to the drill
string to facilitate the process of drilling a borehole. It can obtain sample fragments by chopping its way
through almost any kind of ground-unconsolidated, heterogeneous, hard, or completely fractured. Casing
can be driven into the hole at short distance behind the bit so the walls in loose rock will not cave in.
Other Methods
✓ Jet Drilling is a placer sampling method where a casing and a chisel-pointed bit are advanced by
percussion while water is forced ahead to loosen the material and to flush out and bring the sample to
the surface.
✓ Auger Drills important in soil sampling, beach placer sampling, and in evaluating clay deposits. In any
event, auger drilling stops at the first boulder.

CORE LOGGING
A Core is a cylindrical section of rock, or fragment thereof, taken as a sample of the interval penetrated by a
core barrel and brought to the surface for examination and for analysis.
All drill hole data gathering is called logging.

Importance of Core Logging in Engineering

Geotechnical core logging provides data and parameters necessary for mass classification and should be
conducted so that the data can be easily applied to all industry standard classification systems.