Soil Mechanics Laboratory Manual

LABORATORY TEST NO.1

VISUAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this experiment, students will be able to:
1. Visually identify the type of soil;
2. Enumerate materials and apparatuses needed in performing this test; and
3. Demonstrate the procedures in performing the test.

Significance
The first step in any geotechnical engineering project is to identify and describe the subsoil
condition. For example, as soon as a ground is identified as gravel, engineer can immediately
form some ideas on the nature of problems that might be encountered in a tunneling project.
In contrast, a soft clay ground is expected to lead to other types of design and construction
considerations. Therefore, it is useful to have a systematic procedure for identification of soils
even in the planning stages of a project.

Soils can be classified into two general categories: (1) coarse grained soils and (2) fine
grained soils. Examples of coarse-grained soils are gravels and sands. Examples of fine-
grained soils are silts and clays. Procedures for visually identifying these two general types
of soils are described in the following sections.

Materials and Apparatus

1. Magnifying glass (optional)
2. Soil

Procedure
a. Identify the color (e.g. brown, gray, brownish gray), odor (if any) and texture (coarse or
fine- grained) of soil.

b. Identify the major soil constituent (>50% by weight) using Table 1 as coarse gravel, fine
gravel, coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand, or fines.

c. Estimate percentages of all other soil constituents using Table 1 and the following terms:
Trace - 0 to 10%
Little - 10 to 20%
Some - 20 to 30%
And - 30 to 50% by weight
(Examples: trace fine gravel, little silt, some clay)

d. If the major soil constituent is sand or gravel: Identify particle distribution. Describe as well
graded or poorly graded. Well-graded soil consists of particle sizes over a wide range. Poorly
graded soil consists of particles which are all about the same size. Identify particle shape
(angular, subangular, rounded, subrounded) using Figure 1 and Table 2.

e. If the major soil constituents are fines, perform the following tests:

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Dry strength test: Mold a sample into 1/8" size ball and let it dry. Test the strength of the dry
sample by crushing it between the fingers. Describe the strength as none, low, medium, high
or very high depending on the results of the test as shown in Table3(a).

Dilatancy Test: Make a sample of soft putty consistency in your palm. Then observe the
reaction during shaking, squeezing (by closing hand) and vigorous tapping. The reaction is
rapid, slow or none according to the test results given in Table 3(b). During dilatancy test,
vibration densifies the silt and water appears on the surface. Now on squeezing, shear
stresses are applied on the densified silt. The dense silt has a tendency for volume increase
or dilatancy due to shear stresses. The water disappears from the surface. Moreover, silty
soil has a high permeability, so the water moves quickly. In clay, we see no change, no shiny
surface, in other words, no reaction.

Plasticity (or Toughness) Test: Roll the samples into a thread about 1/8" in diameter. Fold
the thread and reroll it repeatedly until the thread crumbles at a diameter of 1/8". Note (a) the
pressure required to roll the thread when it is near crumbling, (b) whether it can support its
own weight, (c) whether it can be molded back into a coherent mass, and (d) whether it is
tough during kneading. Describe the plasticity and toughness according to the criteria in
Tables 3(c) and 3(d). A low to medium toughness and non-plastic to low plasticity is the
indication that the soil is silty; otherwise, the soil is clayey. Based on dry strength, dilatancy
and toughness, determine soil symbol based on Table 4.

f. Identify moisture condition (dry, moist, wet or saturated) using Table 5.

g. Record visual classification of the soil in the following order: color, major constituent, minor
constituents, particle distribution and particle shape (if major constituent is coarse-grain,
plasticity (if major constituent is fine-grained), moisture content, soil symbol (if major
constituent is fine- grained).

Examples of coarse-grained soils:

Soil 1: Brown fine gravel, some coarse to fine sand, trace silt, trace clay, well graded, angular,
dry.
Soil 2: Gray coarse sand, trace medium to fine sand, some silt, trace clay, poorly graded,
rounded, saturated.

Examples of fine-grained soils:

Soil A: Brown lean clay, trace coarse to fine sand, medium plasticity, moist, CL. Soil B: Gray
clayey silt, trace fine sand, non-plastic, saturated, ML.

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Table 1: Grain Size Distribution
Soil Size Limits Familiar Example
Constituent
Boulder 12 in. (305 mm) or more Larger than basketball

Cobbles 3 in. (76 mm) – 12 in (305 mm) Grapefruit

Coarse Gravel ¾ in. (19 mm) – 3 in. (76 mm) Orange or Lemon
Fine Gravel 4.75 mm (No.4 Sieve) – ¾ in. (19 mm) Grape or Pea
Coarse Sand 2mm (No.10 Sieve) – 4.75 mm (No.4 Sieve) Rocksalt

Medium Sand 0.42 mm (No.40 Sieve) – 2 mm (No.10 Sieve) Sugar, table salt

0.075 mm (No.200 Sieve) – 0.42 mm (No.40 Powdered Sugar

Fine Sand*
Sieve)
Fines Less than 0.0075 mm (No.200 Sieve) -
*Particles finer than fine sand cannot be discerned with the naked eye at a distance of 8 in.
(20 cm).

Table 2: Criteria for Describing Shape of Coarse-Grained Soil Particles

Description Criteria
Particles have sharp edges and relatively plane sides with unpolished
Angular surfaces.

Particles are similar to angular description, but have rounded edges.

Subangular
Particles have nearly plane sides, but have well-rounded corners and
Subrounded edges.
Rounded Particles have smoothly curved sides and no edges.

Table 3a: Criteria for Describing Dry Strength

Description Criteria
The dry specimen ball crumbles into powder with the slightest handling
None pressure.
The dry specimen crumbles into powder with some pressure from fingers.
Low
The dry specimen breaks into pieces or crumbles with moderate finger
Medium pressure.
The dry specimen cannot be broken with finger pressure. Specimen will
High break into pieces between thumb and a hard surface.

The dry specimen cannot be broken between the thumb and a hard
Very High surface.

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Table 3b: Criteria for Describing Dilatancy of a Soil Sample
Description Criteria
None There is no visible change in the soil samples.
Water slowly appears and remains on the surface during shaking or
Slow water
slowly disappears upon squeezing.
Water quickly appears on the surface during shaking and quickly
Rapid disappears upon squeezing.

Table 3c: Criteria for Describing Soil Plasticity

Description Criteria
Non-plastic A 1/8” (3 mm) thread cannot be rolled at any water content.
The thread is difficult to roll and a cohesive mass cannot be formed
Low
when drier than the plastic limit.
The thread is easy to roll and little time is needed to reach the plastic
limit. The thread cannot be re-rolled after the plastic limit is reached.
Medium The mass crumbles when it is drier than the plastic limit.

Considerable time is needed, rolling and kneading the sample, to reach

the
High plastic limit. The thread can be rerolled and reworked several times
before reaching the plastic limit. A mass can be formed when the
sample is drier than the plastic limit.
Note: The plastic limit is the water content at which the soil begins to break apart and
crumbles when rolled into threads 1/8” in diameter.

Table 3d: Criteria for Describing Soil Toughness

Description Criteria
Only slight pressure is needed to roll the thread to the plastic limit.
Low The
thread and mass are weak and soft.
Moderate pressure is needed to roll the thread to near the plastic
Medium limit. The
thread and mass have moderate stiffness.
Substantial pressure is needed to roll the thread to near the plastic
High
limit. The thread and mass are very stiff.

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Table 4: Identification of Inorganic Fine-Grained Soils
Soil Symbol Dry Strength Dilatancy Toughness
ML None or Low Slow to Rapid Low or thread cannot be
formed
CL Medium to High None to Slow Medium
MH Low to Medium None to Slow Low to Medium
CH High to Very High None High

Note: ML = Silt; CL = Lean Clay (low plasticity clay); MH = Elastic Soil; CH = Fat Clay
(high plasticity clay). The terms ‘lean’ and ‘fat’ may not be used in certain geographic
regions (Midwest).

Table 5: Criteria for Describing Soil Moisture Conditions

Description Criteria
Dry Soil is dry to the touch, dusty, a clear absence of moisture.
Moist Soil is damp, slight moisture; soil may begin to retain molded form.

Wet Soil is clearly wet; water is visible when sample is squeezed.

Saturated Water is easily visible and drains freely from the sample.

Standard Reference
ASTM D 2488 - Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual - Manual
Procedure)

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VISUAL CLASSIFICATION DATA SHEET

Soil Sample Number:

Classified by:
Date:

1. Color:
2. Odor:
3. Texture:
4. Major soil constituent:
5. Minor soil constituent:

We only get 20% to represent the entire sample.

Type Approx. % Particle Shape

6. For Coarse-grained Soils:

Gradation:
Particle Shape:

7. For Fine-grained Soils:

Dry Strength :
Dilatancy :
Plasticity :
Toughness :
Soil Symbol :

8. Moisture Content :

Classification:
Based on the laboratory we performed, the soil sample is mostly fine-grained with a
brownish gray color and a sunburn odor. The sample consists mainly of fine sand as the
major constituent, and coarse sand as the minor constituent. In terms of particle distribution,
the sample contains 25% coarse sand with a sub-angular shape, 30% medium sand with an
angular shape, and 45% fine sand with a sub-rounded shape. The moisture content of our
sample is dry. As for the dry strength of the soil, it differs depending on the type of sand:
coarse sand has high dry strength, medium sand has medium dry strength, and fine sand
has no dry strength. As for the other data, we weren't able to test for dilatancy, plasticity,
toughness, or the soil symbol in this laboratory.

Overall, the sample is primarily made up of fine sand, with various particle shapes and
a range of dry strength levels.

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Procedures (photos with captions):

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Observations and Findings:

We noticed that the soil sample has a brownish-gray color with a slight sunburn smell,
which could mean it’s been exposed to heat. The texture feels mostly fine and grainy, and
the fine sand particles easily separate when we touch them, making the soil feel a little bit
soft and powdery. On the other hand, the coarse sand seems to be dried clay that’s really
hard to break apart, somewhat similar to rocksalt in both size and texture. This is very different
from the fine sand, which is soft and easy to separate.

When we looked at the particle sizes, we observed different types. The coarse sand
feels hard with rough and angled edges, while the medium sand also has sharp edges but
breaks apart a little easier compared to the other. The fine sand is smooth and loose, making
us feel that it has no strength when dry. Since the soil was dry when we examined it, the
coarse sand felt harder, and the fine sand was even looser. Overall, most of the soil is made
up of fine sand, but the coarse or the clay-like particles give it a different texture.

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Conclusion:

In conclusion, the soil sample we examined shows clear differences between the types
of sand. Fine sand makes up most of the sample, giving it a soft feel, while coarse sand adds
a unique texture. Our observations show how the sand behaves differently, especially in
terms of strength and texture. The lack of dilatancy shows that the soil is stable, and the
medium plasticity and toughness mean that the soil can be shaped but requires some effort.
Classifying the soil as CL (low-plasticity clay) suggests that it could somewhat be useful for
construction. Overall, the results indicate that this soil has a mix of features that could be
important for various uses.

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LABORATORY TEST NO.2

STANDARD PRACTICE FOR REDUCING SAMPLES OF AGGREGATE TO TESTING

SIZE AND STANDARD PRACTICE FOR SAMPLING SOIL

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this experiment, students will be able to:
1. Employ techniques to determine appropriate amount of aggregates for testing;
2. Enumerate materials and apparatuses needed in performing these techniques; and
3. Demonstrate the procedures in performing the test.

Significance
These methods cover the reduction of field samples to the appropriate size for testing
employing techniques that are intended to minimize variations in measured characteristics
between the test samples so selected and the field sample.

Materials and Apparatus

1. Soil
2. Shovel
3. Scoop
4. Hand gloves
5. Mechanical splitter

METHOD A: QUARTERING ON A HARD, CLEAN, LEVEL SURFACE

Procedure:
1. Obtain a sample of aggregate from three places in the stockpile: from the top third, at the
midpoint, and from the bottom third of the volume of the pile.
2. Place the field sample on a hard clean, level surface where there will be neither loss of
material nor the accidental addition of foreign material.
3. Mix the material thoroughly by turning the entire sample three times.
4. Shovel the entire sample into a conical pile.
5. Carefully flatten the conical to a uniform thickness and diameter by pressing down the apex
with a shovel. (The diameter should be approximately four to eight times the thickness).
6. Divide the flattened mass into four equal quarters with a shovel.
7. Remove two diagonally opposite quarters. Brush the cleared spaces clean.
8. Mix and quarter the remaining materials until the sample is reduced to the desired size.

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METHOD B: QUARTERING ON A CANVAS BLANKET

Procedure:
1. The field sample shall be placed on a canvas blanket laid on a clean, hard, level surface.
2. Mix the material thoroughly by turning the entire sample over three times.
3. With the last turning, shovel the entire sample into a conical pile by depositing each full
shovel on top of the preceding one.
4. Alternatively lift each corner of the canvas and pull it over the sample toward the diagonally
opposite corner causing the material to be rolled.
5. Carefully flatten the conical pile to a uniform thickness and diameter by pressing down the
apex with a shovel so that each quarter sector of the resulting pile will contain the material
originally in it.
6. The diameter should be approximately four to eight times the thickness.
7. Divide the flattened mass into four equal quarters with a shovel or trowel.
8. Remove two diagonally opposite quarters, being careful to clean the fines from the blanket.
9. Brush the cleared spaces clean and include the material in the sample.
10. Successively mix and quarter the remaining material until the sample is reduced to the
desired size

Standard References:
ASTM C702 / C702M: Standard Practice for Reducing Samples of Aggregate to Testing Size
ASTM D75 / D75M: Standard Practice for Sampling Aggregates

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Standard Practice for Reducing Samples of Aggregate to Testing Size

and Standard Practice for Sampling Soil
Laboratory Data Sheet

Soil Sample Number:

Classified by:
Date:

METHOD A: QUARTERING

1. Provide photo/s in every step:

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2. Observations and Findings:
The process for this method is straightforward: mixing the aggregates and soil on a clean,
flat surface and then dividing them into four quarters. However, I noticed that handling and
transferring the aggregates was more challenging compared to using a canvas blanket. With
the blanket, it is easier to transfer the aggregates by lifting the blanket and pouring them into
the metal pan. On the other hand, when using a clean surface, you can only use a brush to
sweep the aggregates onto a scoop before transferring them to the metal pan.

3. Conclusion:
Therefore we conclude that the use of a canvas blanket in aggregate handling is a more
efficient and convenient process compared to a clean flat surface. For easy material transfer,
this blanket can easily be lifted and material poured right into the metal pan without as much
effort and time spent. However, using a clean surface calls for more effort such as sweeping
aggregates onto the scoop that would be tedious and less efficient.

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METHOD B: QUARTERING ON A CANVAS BLANKET

1. Provide photo/s in every step:

2. Observations and Findings:

The soil sample is quartered on a canvas blanket using Method B. In the aforementioned
activity, we found that a canvas blanket can effectively mix the soil sample; nevertheless,
during the mixing process, we saw that some soil particles were dropping to the ground,
appearing to be filtered by the blanket. The soil sample is decreased by quartering to the
desired size of sample successfuly, and we saw that this also reduces the larger soil particles,
or the graped shape, and the gravel, leaving only the smaller particles, such as pea-size,
sugar-size, and pulverized sugar size particles.

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3. Conclusion:
We finally conclude the bigger the number of times you do quartering the more you get the
desired size of the soil sample. Also by doing quartering on a canvas blanket, tiny particles
of the soil sample can be filtered and may not be included in the soil sample.

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LABORATORY TEST NO.3

THE MANIPULATIVE TEST

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this experiment, students will be able to:
1. Identify the type of soil;
2. Enumerate materials and apparatuses needed in performing this test; and
3. Demonstrate the procedures in performing the test.

Significance
The manipulative test gives you a better idea of the soil texture. This test must be performed
exactly in the sequence described below to be successful. Each step requires progressively
more silt and more clay.

Materials and Apparatus

1. Bottle
2. Ruler
3. Soil

Procedure
1. Take a handful of soil and wet it so that it begins to stick together, but without sticking
to your hand (Figure 1).
2. Roll the soil sample into a ball of about 3cm in diameter (Figure 2).
3. Put the ball down (Figure 3).
4. If it falls apart, it is SAND. If its sticks together, go on to the next step. Roll the ball into
a sausage shape, 6-7cm long (Figure 4).
5. If it does not remain in this form, it is LOAMY SAND. If it remains in this shape, go on
to the next step. Continue to roll the sausage until it reaches 15-16cm long (Figure 5).
6. If it does not remain in this shape, it is SANDY LOAM. If it remains in this shape, go
on to the next step. Try to bend the sausage into a half circle (Figure 6).
7. If you cannot, it is LOAM. If you can, go on to the next step. Continue to bend the
sausage to form a full circle. If you cannot, it is HEAVY LOAM. If you can, with slight
cracks in the sausage, it is LIGHT CLAY. If you can, with no cracks in the sausage, it
is CLAY

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Manipulative Data Sheet

Soil Sample Number:

Classified by:
Date:

1. Provide photo/s in every step:

2. Observations and Findings:

The soil is so dry it is hard to form a ball and you must add more water to it after adding
a handful amount of water it is easy to form a ball and after creating the ball, immediately
proceed to the next step which is the drop test and it passed so then proceed to next step
then it pass until it failed to bend the sausage into half a circle and until this part, it failed. So,
the finding is the soil is loam and it only reaches the half circle and the cracks are visible.

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3. Conclusion:

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LABORATORY TEST NO.4

DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this experiment, students will be able to:
1. Distinguish the moisture content of the soil;
2. Enumerate materials and apparatuses needed in performing this test; and
3. Demonstrate the procedures in performing the test.

Significance
The behavior of a soil is markedly influenced by the amount of moisture it contains. Moisture
content therefore, is an important characteristic. By definition, moisture content, MC, is the
ratio of the weight/mass of water in the soil to the weight/mass of the dry soil after it has been
dried to constant weight/mass at a temperature of 110±5°C.

Materials and Apparatus

1. Moisture can(s): Moisture cans are available in various sizes. Example: 2-in. (50.8
mm) diameter and 7/8 in. (22.2 mm) high 3.5-in. (88.9 mm) diameter and 2 in. (50.8
mm) high
2. Oven with temperature control: For drying, the temperature of the oven is generally
kept between 105°C. A higher temperature should be avoided to prevent the burning
of organic matter in the soil.
3. Balance: The balance should have a readability of 0.01 g for specimens having a mass
of 200g or less. If the specimen has a mass of over 200g, the readability should be
0.1g

Procedure
1. Determine the mass (g) of the empty moisture can plus its cap (W 1), and also record
the number.
2. Place a sample of representative moist soil in the can. Close the can with its cap to
avoid loss of moisture.
3. Determine the combined mass (g) of the closed can and moist soil (W 2).
4. Remove the cap from the top of the can and place it on the bottom (of the can).
5. Put the can (Step 4) in the oven to dry the soil to a constant weight. In most cases, 24
hours of drying is sufficient.
6. Record the final constant weight (W3) of the dry soil sample plus the can and its cap.

Standard Reference
ASTM D 4959-16: Standard Test Method for Determination of Water Content of Soil By Direct
Heating

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Moisture Content Data Sheet

Soil Sample Number:

Classified by:
Date:

Moisture Content Can Number 1 2 3

Weight of Moisture Can, W1 (g)
Weight of Moisture Can + Wet Soil, W2 (g)

Weight of Moisture Can + Dry Soil, W3 (g)

Moisture Content,
W% = [(W2 - W3)/(W3 - W1)] x100
Average

1. Photos of procedures with caption:

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2. Observations and Findings:

The experiments were done thoroughly while following the steps and procedures to identify the
moisture content of the soil. The moisture content of the soil is a little different. Despite being in the
oven for an hour it has little effect on it, if it takes more than an hour the moisture content will be
different. The soil that uses that time is over dry and that makes a difference despite making the ball
it needs much water.

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3.Conclusion:

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LABORATORY TEST NO.5

PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS OF SOILS

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this experiment, students will be able to:
1. Distinguish the particle sizes of the soil;
2. Enumerate materials and apparatuses needed in performing this test; and
3. Demonstrate the procedures in performing the test.

Significance
Particle size analysis is determination of size distribution in soils by sieve, hydrometer, or a
combined analysis. The method which should be used depends on the size of the soil grains.
Grain size distribution is widely used in the classification and identification of soils. It is
important criteria in the classification of highway materials. It is also related to permeability
and capillarity of cohesionless soils.

Materials and Apparatus

1. Balance, sensitive to 0.01 g.
2. Set of standard sieves
3. Timer
4. Soil

Procedure
A. Sieve analysis
1. Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the
analysis. Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
2. Sieving operation shall be conducted by means of lateral and vertical motion of the
sieve accompanied by jarring action to keep the sample moving continuously on the
surface of the sieve. Sieving shall be continued until not more than 1% by weight of
the residue passes any sieve within 1 minute.
3. Weigh and record the quantity retained on each sieve.
4. Compute for the % Passing for each sieve.

B. Data analysis
1. Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of the
empty sieve from the mass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this mass as the
weight retained on the data sheet. The sum of these retained masses should be
approximately equals the initial mass of the soil sample. A loss of more than two
percent is unsatisfactory.
2. Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight retained on
each sieve by the original sample mass.
3. Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with 100 percent and
subtracting the percent retained on each sieve as a cumulative procedure.

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For example: Total mass = 500 g

Mass retained on No. 4 sieve = 9.7 g

For the No.4 sieve:

Quantity passing = Total mass - Mass retained
= 500 - 9.7 = 490.3 g
The percent retained is calculated as;
% retained = Mass retained/Total mass
= (9.7/500) X 100 = 1.9 %
From this, the % passing = 100 - 1.9 = 98.1 %

For the No. 10 sieve:

Quantity passing = Mass arriving - Mass retained
= 490.3 - 39.5 = 450.8 g

% Retained = (39.5/500) X 100 = 7.9 %

% Passing = 100 - 1.9 - 7.9 = 90.2 %

(Alternatively, use % passing = % Arriving - % Retained

For No. 10 sieve = 98.1 - 7.9 = 90.2 %)

4. Make a semilogarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer.

5. Compute Cc and Cu for the soil.

Standard Reference
ASTM D 422-63: Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils

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Grain Size Analysis Data Sheet

Soil Sample Number:

Classified by:
Date:

1. Complete the given table:

Mass Mass of
Cumulative
of Sieve + Soil Percent Percent
Sieve Diameter Retained Percent
Empty Soil Retained Retained Passing
Number (mm) above each Finer (%)
Sieve Retained (g) (%) (%)
Sieve
(g) (g)

Total Weight

2. From Grain Size Curve:

% Gravel :_________
% Sand :_________
% Fines :_________
D10 :_________
D30 :_________
D60 :_________

3. Solve for Cu and Cc

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4. Photos of procedures with caption:

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5. Observations and Findings:

6.Conclusion:

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